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Oleksiy Zabolotnyi

A Glimpse Of

English LiteraturePart 1: From Irish Sagas to Renaissance

Coursebook

Kyiv 2010

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MODULE 1.CELTIC SAGAS

WHAT IS A SAGA? A saga is one of the earliest forms of literature of the North and North-West of Europe. Sagas are poetic legends about gods and heroes. They were passed from generation to generation and in the Middle Ages they got written down.

Mysterious Stonehenge During the period from the 6 th to the 3rd century B.C. a people called the Celts spread across Europe.

Unit 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

During the period from the 6th to the 3rd century B.C. a people called the Celts spread across Europe from the east to the west. More than one Celtic tribe invaded Britain. The Picts went into the mountains of the North. The Scots settled beside the Picts. This part of Great Britain later received the name Scotland. Some of both the Picts and Scots crossed the Irish Sea and found home in Ireland. The powerful group of Celtic tribes, the Britons, held most of the country, and the southern half of it was named Britain after them. The earliest writer from whom we can learn much about the Celts was Julius Caesar (see the statue on the right), the famous Roman military leader and statesman. In his book Commentaries on the Gallic War he describes the island and the Celts against whom he fought in the 1st

century B.C. He says that they were tall and blue-eyed. They had long flowing moustaches but no beards. Their way of life differed little from the Celtic tribes of the Gauls who lived in continental Europe, namely in what is now known as France. They didn’t have towns or cities, and lived in fortified villages.

Their largest tribes’ chieftains were often called kings, ruled over many thousands of people and particular territories. The Celts used copper, tin and iron. They raised large herds of cattle and sheep, which formed their chief wealth. In the famous Celtic Saga Raiding the Cattle of Cooley a great war starts just because people from the South of Ireland (Erin) decide to steal a bull (the Brown Bull of Cooley) and some cows from the Ultonians (the people of Ulster). They also cultivated crops in small square fields using plows and hoes. Their clothing was made of wool, woven in many colours, often in the checked pattern known as tartan even today. In cold weather they wore skins. In war-time the Celts painted their faces with blue paint to look as fierce as they could. Their warriors were armed with swords, spears, javelins and slings and used chariots on the battlefield. Their chariots were made of wicker and were drawn by two or more horses. Bronze swords were attached to their wooden wheels to cut through enemy lines.

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Tartan Blue war paint Battle chariot

VOCABULARY NOTES

generation – покоління fortified - укріпленийThe Middle Ages – середньовіччя herd – череда худобиtribe – плем’я plow - плугinvade – вдиратися hoe - мотигаstatesman – державний діяч

woven- тканий sling - праща chariot - колісниця wicker – плетений (з верболозу) sword - меч B. C. = before Christ - до Piздва Христового attach – прикріпляти

settle (v) – to find a place to live chieftain (n) – the leader of a tribe javelin (n) – a short spear for throwing

Unit 2 RELIGION - POLYTHEISM

WHAT DID THEY WORSHIP?The Celts worshipped Nature. They imagined the sky, the sun, the moon, the earth and the sea, to be ruled by beings like themselves, but much more powerful. They also believed in many spirits who lived in the rivers, lakes, mountains and forests.

“…So blood-curdling was Chuchullin’s cry that the demons of the air, the goblins, elves and other spirits of the glen answered it and filled the air with horrible sound.”From Chuchullin Parleys with Maeve

As you can see, all sorts of supernatural beings used to inhabit the Celtic world. According to the ancient sagas, most powerful weapons were given to the heroes by the Faery (in modern English – “fairy”), a supernatural being in the form of a human, having magic powers and using them among humans (see the picture on the right).

“…Fergus lifted his sword again, this time with both hands, and prepared to strike a mighty blow. And mighty indeed it would be, for the sword of Fergus was the one he had got from the Faery, and when raised to strike a blow it grew as long as a rainbow… And with one swift blow of his sword he sliced the heads of three hills…”

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From Ulster Awake

The Turenn brothers, who are heroic characters of The Quest of the Children of Turenn captured the magic sword which had to be always kept in water not to set fire to the whole neighbourhood. More than once the sagas mention “The Wee Folk” or “The Small Men” often associated with the Leprechauns (see the picture on the left). They are usually described as small men who will reveal the location of a pot full of gold to anyone who manages to catch them. The system of beliefs, which includes more than one god, is called polytheism. The religion, which worships idols of those gods and other supernatural beings, is called paganism. The Celts believed in another life after death. They were taught by the priests called druids that their souls passed after death from one body to another. Such process is called re-incarnation. In the saga entitled

Midir and Etain a beautiful girl is turned into a butterfly. The butterfly later finds herself in the stomach of the Queen, dies there, and in nine months the Queen delivers the birth of a beautiful girl who starts to recollect the facts of her life before becoming a butterfly.

THE DRUIDSThe druids of the sagas obviously had magic power and sometimes they even gave it to other people. A jealous stepmother changes her husband’s children into swans touching them with a druid’s wand in The Children of Lir (see the picture on the left). A warrior with the help of a similar wand transforms himself into a pig to avoid a fight with his opponents who outnumber him. His opponents can’t find him among the other pigs but they can use THEIR wands to become dogs. Those dogs easily identify the transformed warrior (this episode belongs to The Quest of the Children of Turenn).

Generally, we may conclude that the Celts were fascinated both by the ideas of body transformations and the magic power of the druids.

From history we know that the druids lived near groves of oak-trees, which were considered to be

sacred places. Nobody was allowed to approach those places without special permission. It is known that the druids were very important and powerful, sometimes even more powerful than the chiefs. Their job was to foretell the future like prophets, to provide medical help like doctors, to settle disputes like judges and to teach the young as teachers. For example, Chuchullin, the famous legendary hero, “sat listening to Caffa, the Druid, instructing his pupils of good omens and ill (bad) omens and he said that certain days were lucky for some deeds and unlucky for others”.

CELTIC GODS Every single Celtic tribe had gods of their own. ‘I swear by the gods of my people’, was an ordinary Celtic oath, judging by the texts of ancient sagas. Here is given some information about few Celtic gods.

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Angus of the Birds. The god of love. Four bright birds, who are his kisses, always fly around his head. When they sing, love is born in the hearts of the people who hear them. Takes care of the lovers in trouble.

Badb. The goddess of war. Often takes the form of a raven (see on the right).

Dana (also Danu ). The goddess associated with beauty. The mother of De Danaans (the People of Dana) – the people who inhabited Ireland.

Lugh of the Long Arm. The god of the sun. In ‘The Quest of the Children of Turenn’ appears as a human warrior. Later is mentioned as a god and a mystical father of Chuchullin, an epic hero.

Macha. The angry goddess. Casts a spell, which makes warriors as weak as babies. She does so to avenge having been mocked by King Conor Mac Nessa (see the picture on the left).

Manannan Mac Lir. The god of the sea. Has a magic boat called “Wave-Sweeper”, which knows his master’s mind, can go across any water and land “as fast as the March wind”. Sometimes lends his boat to other people.

VOCABULARY NOTES

worship – поклонятися deliver a birth - народжуватиbeing – істота jealous - ревнивийspirit – дух wand – чарівна паличкаcapture – захоплювати outnumber – переважати чисельно

reveal – розкривати (таємницю) sacred - священийpriest – священик, жрець foretell - віщуватиsoul – душа prophet - пророкjudge – суддя omen – знамення

inhabit (v) – to live inswift (adj) – very quickslice (v) – to cut all way throughrecollect (v) – to start to remember againidentify (v) – to find somebody or something hidden among othersgrove (n) – a group of trees smaller than a forestlend (v) – to let somebody to use something for some time

UNITS 1 – 2. READING COMPREHENSION

Answer the following questions:

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1. What do we know about the Celts’ social system?2. How did the Celts look like? Describe their appearance.3. How did they fight their battles?4. What was more important for them: crops or cattle?5. Who wrote the Celtic Sagas?6. What is “polytheism”?7. Do you know any other religion, which believes in reincarnation?8. Where did their heroes get their magic weapons? 9. How did the saga characters transform themselves into other animals?10. What did the druids do?11. What do the four birds symbolize?12. What supernatural beings inhabited the Celtic world?

DISCUSSION.

Why do you think the druids were sometimes more powerful and important than the chiefs?

READER

Unit 3 RAIDING THE CATTLE OF COOLEY

This is, probably, the most well-known Celtic saga, because it tells us the epic story of the heroic deeds, the antagonism between Ulster (the northern part of Ireland, see the map on the right) and the rest of the country, the ties of brotherhood between them and paints the historical background in detail. It shows the way the Celtic society was organized and how important were its different members. The saga consists of six chapters and a foretale (prologue).

HOW CONOR MAC NESSA BECAME KING OF ULSTER

The prologue introduces to us Fergus Mac Roy, a mighty warrior, a poet, an easy-going and kind-hearted man, who fell in love with Nessa, Conor’s mother, and the widow of the King of Ulster, and became her second husband. He could claim the throne, but refused to do so, being more interested in Nessa herself, than in becoming the King. For many years the Royal Family situation was peaceful: Conor was ruling, Nessa was helping him with a parental advice, Fergus was enjoying Nessa’s love as well as hunting and feasting. Everybody seemed to be happy. But this happiness did not last long.

Unlike Fergus, Conor was cruel and treacherous. He ordered to kill the three sons of Usnach, whose sad story is told in another saga. Fergus quarreled bitterly with Conor on this account, led a rebellion against Conor, was defeated and escaped to Connacht (Western Ireland) together with many of his men including some of the best warriors of the Red Branch. They offered their swords to Maeve, the Queen of Connacht, Conor’s most powerful enemy. King Conor Mac Nessa was a talented administrator and he took care of Ulster’s defenses. Firstly, he doubled the number of the Red Branch Knights. The Red Branch Knights were a troop of champion warriors, chosen for their strength and bravery and specially trained in the art of war. They were part of the Royal household troops and lived in the house built for them by the King. Secondly, Conor turned to the youth of Ulster and started a military training school for young boys, the sons of his nobles and chieftains. The school was known under the name The Boy Corps. There they were taught games and athletics to grow strong and brave and find their place among the warriors of the Red Branch.

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One of their favorite games was something like grass-hockey: the players had to drive the ball with a hurley (a curved stick) between the opposing team’s goal-posts. Thus, Conor made Ulster supreme over all the other parts of Erin (Ireland).

VOCABULARY NOTESties – зв’язки treacherous - підступнийeasy-going – веселої вдачі to quarrel - сваритисяto claim the throne – претендувати на трон rebellion - бунтto feast – влаштовувати бенкет

defences – оборонні заходи, укріпленняto last - тривати troop – військовий підрозділ (звич. кінний)cruel - жорстокий household troops – гвардійські військаthe nobles – знатні (шляхетного походження) люди

escape (v) – to run away hiding from dangerchampion (adj) – the bestsupreme (adj) – dominating, the strongest

Chapter 1 THE PILLOW TALK

Maeve, the beautiful and proud Queen of Connacht (the western part of Ireland, see the map and the blazon on the right), sat with her husband, Ailell, and each boasted of having riches and treasures greater than the other. They spoke about lands and herds of cattle, about their gold and silver, about their ships and chariots, about their servants and musicians, about their warriors and arms. They compared everything and in everything they were equal. They were equal in all things but one – Ailell had a famous white-horned white bull among his herds, and Maeve had none to put against it. The Queen of Connacht became jealous. She wanted a bull to match her husband’s white-horned one. Her herald told her that there was such a bull in Ulster, known as “The Brown Bull of Cooley”. Maeve sent her herald and messengers to Ulster with rich gifts. They had to ask the owner of the bull to lend it to her for one year. Off they went and soon they arrived at the castle of Daire, the Brown Bull’s owner. Daire received them with all hospitality and respect. He accepted the gifts and agreed to send his bull to Maeve for one year. And he invited his guests to a feast table to honor them as the representatives of the Queen of Connacht. They all enjoyed the rich dinner and drank a lot of strong wine. Then one of the Connachtmen was heard to say: ‘It’s good for Daire to agree, for had he refused, Queen Maeve and her army would have taken the Brown Bull out of Ulster by force.’ Daire grew angry and made the messengers leave Ulster right away.

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The Queen’s herald reported about their failure because of the boasting of one of the messengers drunk with wine. However, the proud queen waved aside his excuses. ‘That man told the truth’, she said, ‘and I am going to take the Brown bull by force’.

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Fergus Mac Roy, who used to live in Ulster, then told Maeve the legend about jealous gods who sent these two bulls from the Faery land to Erin to cause war and destruction. Despite the warning, the proud queen decided to invade Ulster and ordered the army to be assembled. They did not start, though, until the druids informed her of good omens. One of the bad foretellings was about a young man of Ulster who would kill plenty of Maeve’s bravest warriors. The good one, though, was that all Ulster’s warriors suffered from a magical sickness, which was a result of a spell put on them by the angry goddess, Macha, whom Conor had mocked. The mighty warriors were not stronger than babies. So, when the time came, Maeve’s army “raised a forest of steel over their heads” and began their march into Ulster.

VOCABULARY NOTESpillow - подушка to honor - вшановуватиto boast - вихвалятися spell - закляттяherd of cattle – череда худоби respect - повагаservant - слуга representative - представникherald - герольд

to cause - спричинятиmessenger - посланець destruction - руйнуванняcastle - замок to suffer - страждатиhospitality – гостинність drunk – п’янийwarning - попередження to invade - вторгатися

gift (n) – a present enjoy (v) – to have fun and pleasureassemble (v) – to gather togetherplenty – a lot of

Chapter 2 CHUCHULLIN KEEPS THE GAP OF THE NORTH

Queen Maeve appointed Fergus Mac Roy the chief scout of her army. But soon she noticed that Fergus led the army the wrong way, up and down the country. Fergus confessed that he would never lead her men against his native land. So Maeve appointed another guide. Meanwhile Chuchullin got a secret warning from Fergus. At that time he was hunting with his father near the border. Chuchullin asked his father to go and arouse the King and his warriors.

He himself stayed to defend the border in the place called The Gap of the North. Soon he saw the first enemy scouts watching him from behind the trees. In one leap he reached them and beheaded them. Their heads together with the heads of their charioteers he sent to Maeve with a warning message. And he continued to ambush Maeve’s troops, killing two or three soldiers at a time. Nobody could see him, but many

heard the “swoosh” of his sling. The army started to lose courage and their morals dropped. Maeve was astonished to learn that it was a single man who was killing her soldiers. She questioned Fergus and he told her Chuchullin’s story. He told that Chuchullin’s real name was Setanta. He got a new name which meant ‘The Hound of Culann’ at the age of seven, when he killed an enourmous watchdog which belonged to a man whose name was Culann. The dog was

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protecting King Conor, who had a dinner with Culann. Setanta happened to walk by and the dog attacked him. So, Setanta promised to protect the King even better than the dog and got his new name. Then Fergus told Maeve how Chuchullin got his arms from King Conor, and the best Royal weapons were they. He told her of Chuchullin’s training with the chosen boys on the Island of Skye, where he learned the art of combat from Sgatha, the woman warrior and great teacher. Then Fergus Mac Roy told the proud Queen about Chuchullin’s first victory over three mighty warriors whom he killed with iron balls thrown with a sling. Maeve decided to have a parley with Chuchullin and asked Fergus to arrange it.

VOCABULARY NOTESto appoint - призначати ambush - засідкаscout- розвідник

sling - пращаto confess - зізнаватися parley – переговори

leap (n) – a long jumpbehead (v) – to cut one’s head off

Chapter 3 CHUCHULLIN PARLEYS WITH MAEVE This chapter consists of three parts:

1. Negotiations between Chuchullin and the Queen of Connacht .2. Negotiations between Chuchullin and Fergus Mac Roy.3. The description of the battle resulting in stealing the Brown Bull of Cooley by the men of

Connacht. The first round in negotiations was a disaster. Maeve tried to bribe Chuchullin, promising him riches and lands in Connacht, but failed. The brave warrior continued his deadly night raids. Then Fergus Mac Roy was assigned to negotiate with Chuchullin. They came to an agreement that Chuchullin would fight with one Maeve’s champion (the best warrior) at a time, instead of attacking the whole army. Very soon, though, Maeve broke her word, because Chuchullin was too fast in slaying her champions. She ordered a massive attack and a large force of footmen confronted the hero. Two thirds of Maeve’s army engaged Chuchullin in a fierce fight and one third secretly rushed to get the Brown Bull of Cooley. Their attempt was quite successful and they started driving the Bull and his fifteen (in some sources – fifty) cows to Connacht. Chuchullin was badly wounded in the battle and at night Lugh of the Long Arm, the sun god, came to heal his wounds. He anointed them with magic balms and they disappeared in three days. Lugh kept his watch over Chuchullin during these days and nights, because the wounded hero was sleeping. In his absence the Ulster Boy Corps appeared on the battlefield, attacked the enemy, killed three times their own number and were destroyed. Chuchullin’s grief and sorrow are difficult to describe.

Chapter 4 THE FIGHT WITH FERDIA

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Ferdia was the only Maeve’s great warrior to match Chuchullin’s skills. But he also was Chuchullin’s dear friend, since they both had been pupils of Sgatha, the woman warrior. Ferdia refused to fight with his foster brother even though Maeve offered him great rewards and honours. He agreed only when the druids told him that the one who disobeyed his queen would die of shame and his name would be damned forever. Chuchullin and Ferdia met near the river and greeted each other cordially. Chuchullin begged his friend for the sake of their friendship not to raise his weapons but Ferdia said he couldn’t. So, they fought and they were equal in their fight. They were fighting all day long, and then, at sunset, they put their weapons down and kissed each other goodbye. They shared their food, their charioteers slept together by the same fire, their horses were in the same stable but they rested in different camps. It lasted so for three days, but the last night they neither hugged nor kissed each other. Their horses and charioteers also parted. They both understood, that the fight would end soon. And the next day they fought again. Ferdia managed to hit Chuchullin with his sword. In return, Chuchullin threw his spear and killed his friend. When he saw that Ferdia was dying, he took him in his arms, and wept over him, and said: ‘It was all a game and a sport until Ferdia came. Oh, Ferdia! Your death will hang over me like a cloud forever. Yesterday you were greater than a mountain; today you are less than a shadow.’

Chapter 5 ULSTER AWAKE

After the combat with Ferdia, Chuchullin lay in his shelter wounded and weak in body and spirit. It was his father who managed to wake up the warriors of Ulster sunk in the magical sleep. The period of their sickness came to its end and they rushed against their enemy in great numbers. Here follows a description of the greatest battle the land of Erin had ever seen. It was in this battle that Fergus Mac Roy sliced the heads of three hills with his magical sword sparing King Conor’s life complying the request of Conor’s son. In the end of the battle Chuchullin appeared on the battlefield but did not fight. When the men of Connacht saw him coming, they got frightened and fled. In his turn Chuchullin cut off the tops of three more hills with his magical sword, ‘The Hard-headed Steeling’, which was the last blow of the battle.

Chapter 6 THE BATTLE OF THE BULLS

When the Brown Bull of Cooley found himself in an unknown land he gave out a tremendous bellow. The White-Horned Bull of Ailell, hearing the bellow, stopped grazing and came out to see who dared to disturb him. When the two bulls saw each other they dashed forward to fight. They fought all day long and all night through. At dawn the men of

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Erin were able to see the Brown Bull of Cooley proudly carrying the White-Horned high on his sharp horns. Then the Brown Bull turned his back on Erin and faced towards the north, and rushing at a high mountain that was in front of him, he drove his forehead at its rocky side, and a stream of blood came out of his mouth, and his heart burst within him and he died.

VOCABULARY NOTES (Chapters 3 – 6)to bribe – давати хабаря foster brother- названий братto anoint - змащувати cordially - сердечноgrief - горе weep (wept, wept) – плакатиsorrow - скорбота to comply one’s request – виконувати прохання

slay (v) – to killattempt (n) – an act of trying to do somethingstable (n) – a place where horses are kepthug (v) – to embraceshelter (n) – a secure placeto flee (fled, fled) (v) – to run away

tremendous (adj) – outstanding, fabulous, powerfulbellow (n) – a roar, a very loud low crygraze (v) – to eat grass or/and other plantsdash (v) – move quickly from a stopdawn (n) – sunrise

UNIT 3. READING COMPREHENSION

Answer the following questions.

1. What was the cause of war between Ulster and Connacht?2. What facts characterize Chuchullin as a demigod?3. What character traits were valued by the Celts?4. Why didn’t Maeve execute Fergus Mac Roy after she had learnt about his treason in

Chapter 2?5. Why did Chuchullin have to defend his country alone? 6. Characterize the position of a Celtic woman in the society. Use the facts from the text.7. How important was education for the Celts?8. What was the reason of both bulls being dead by the end of the story?

What is the message of this fact?

VOCABULARY CHECKUP.

WEAPONS.

There are eleven weapons hidden in this grid. Find them.

A J A V E L I N H

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P Q S L I N G J B

E C H A R I O T O

W Z I Y A R R O W

S P E A R U S V L

C K L X S W O R D

Q M D E X A R Y J

T H E L M E T G M

U F A V K N I F E

Queen Maeve

MODULE 2

Old English Literature

Unit 4. Historical Background

INVASION AND CONQUEST

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In the beginning of the 5th century A.D. the Romans left Britain, but the Celts did not stay undisturbed for long. In the middle of the century three Germanic tribes invaded the British Isles. They were the Jutes, the Angles (both tribes came from the Jutland Peninsula) and the Saxons, who used to live on the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe rivers, which was later called Saxony. In 449 the Jutes landed in Kent and this was the beginning of the conquest. The Angles and the Saxons joined them later. The British natives fought bravely against the invaders. It took the Germans more than a hundred and fifty years to conquer the country (see the map on the right).

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The final refuge of the Celts was Cornwall and Wales – the mountainous regions of the West – and the northern part of the island of Great Britain called Scotland where later the Celts formed some independent states. The Celts of Ireland remained independent too. Some of the Celts crossed the sea to the North-West of France and settled in what was later called Brittany after the Celtic tribes of Britons.

By the beginning of the 7th century several Germanic kingdoms appeared on the conquered territory of Britain (see the map on the next page). The Jutes, the Saxons and the Angles were much alike in speech and customs. Soon they became one nation, which received the name ‘Anglo-Saxons’. The name ‘Jute’ gradually died out.

VOCABULARY NOTESсonquest – завоювання conquer - завойовуватиpeninsula – півострів refuge – притулок, місце втечі

The Rhine – річка Рейн The Elbe – річка Ельба independent - незалежний alike - подібнийSaxony - Саксонія

the natives (n) – people, who inhabit the landcustoms (n) – habits and traditions of a group of people

RELIGION The Angles, Saxons and Jutes who started the conquest in the middle of the 5th century were pagans. They worshiped the sun and the moon, the sea, springs and trees, and had quite a number of gods. Their pantheon included red-bearded Thor – the god of thunder, Tiw (Tyr) – the god of warriors’ glory and Freya – the goddess of peace and plenty. Their god of war was called Woden.

In the Anglo-Saxon calendar each god received a day of the week. Sunday was devoted to the sun and Monday – to the moon. Tuesday was given to Tiw, Wednesday – to Woden (on the left), Thursday – to Thor. Friday was devoted to Freya (on the right), and Saturday – to Saturn, the Roman god of time.

The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity began in 597 when the Pope of Rome sent about forty monks

to Britain as missionaries. They landed in Kent and it became the first Christian kingdom in Britain. The first church was built in Canterbury the same year by St Augustine. It explains why the Archbishop of Canterbury serves today as the highest priest of the Church of England. The conversion of the rest of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to Christianity took more than fifty years and was completed in the second half of the 7th century.

VOCABULARY NOTES

devote - присвячувати monk - ченець

church - церква explain - пояснювати

springs (n) – very small riversconversion to Christianity – making people (usually pagans) to accept Christianity quitting the old beliefspantheon (n) – the group of pagan gods

COMPREHENSION AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

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1. Where did the Angles, Saxons and Jutes live before their migration to Britain?2. Why did it take more than 150 years to conquer Britain?3. What happened to the Celts?4. What are the similarities and differences of the polytheistic beliefs of the Anglo-Saxons

and other nations?5. What did the English names of the days of the week mean in early times?6. Why a Roman god (Saturn) was present in the Germanic pagan pantheon?7. Why did it take nearly a century to convert all the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity?8. Why the Christian church in Canterbury is so important today?

Unit 5. Beowulf

ABOUT THE POEM Beowulf is the greatest Old English poem, which belongs to the 7th

century. It is a story of about 3,000 lines, and it is the first English epic. Its author is unknown. It was probably developed orally by a scop or gleeman (early words for ‘poet’). The scop who narrated the poem was probably striking a small harp to mark the rhythm. Later it was written down in the West Saxon dialect by an unknown scribe (from Latin ‘scribere’ – ‘to write’) in the 10th century in Mercia or Northumbria. The only copy of Beowulf is kept in the British Museum in London (see the picture on the right).

The poem consists of two main parts: Beowulf’s heroic deeds in Denmark and his being the King of Geatland (Southern Sweden).However, England is not even mentioned in the poem.

BEOWULF IN DENMARK The first lines of the poem describe the funeral ceremony. King Scyld was buried in the ship with his arms and armour and treasures.

‘ His beloved friends carried Scyld to the sea’s flood, as he himself had asked… There his ship was waiting, covered with ice and ready to start. They laid their beloved chieftain inside the ship… There were many treasures and ornaments from far-off lands, which were to travel far with him… They set… the golden flag above his head, and let the sea bear him, gave him to the ocean… Their souls were sad, their spirit sorrowful…’

In the historical context the poem tells about founding of the Scylding dynasty in Denmark. The next king of the Danes was,

probably, Hrothgar.

N.B. It is interesting that in 1939 in south-east Suffolk (England) a very important archaeological discovery was made. It is called ‘the Sutton Hoo burial’. Sutton Hoo is the name of the private estate on which the scientists dug out the burial of an Anglo-Saxon ruler. It resembles to the one described in Beowulf in every detail. The only difference was that instead of launching the burial ship into the sea, the Sutton Hoo ship was buried underground.

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On the right: The Sutton Hoo helmet (reconstruction).

Hrothgar built a castle with a great feasting hall called Heorot. He and his men gathered there every night for a rich meal. Their feasting was soon interrupted by an evil monster called Grendel, who lived in the marshes. He began attacking Heorot at night, killing the men while they were sleeping. Nothing could be done and

the king was forced to leave Heorot. Beowulf, a young warrior of Geatland, heard of Hrothgar’s grief and decided to help. He came across the sea with14 friends and got permission from Hrothgar to try his might. So, after the feast Beowulf and his companions stayed in the hall. Grendel came, opened the iron door at a touch, fell upon one of Beowulf’s sleeping friends, and killed him. But before the monster could carry the body to the marsh, Beowulf caught Grendel’s hairy arm and wrenched it out of the shoulder (illustrated on the right). Grendel fled, leaving his arm and a trail of blood behind.

The next morning the Danes and the Geats followed the trail to a lake in the marsh. It was boiling with the blood of the dead monster. They returned happy, feasted and stayed in Heorot to sleep. But Grendel’s mother, a monster even more horrible than her son (see the picture on the right), came to the hall for vengeance. She killed a Danish warrior.

Again Beowulf decided to help the Danes. He followed Grendel’s mother to the lake and dived in. He found the she-monster in her home, in an underwater cave. The fight was long and fierce. More than once Beowulf got nearly killed. Finally, he picked up a magical sword, made by some ancient giants and struck his deadly blow. Then he discovered Grendel’s body in the cave, cut his head off and brought it to Hrothgar.

BEOWULF IN GEATLAND After receiving his rewards from Hrothgar, Beowulf returned to his native Geatland (see the map on the left). There his king, Hygelac, gave him lands, which Beowulf ruled for 50 years.

A fire-breathing dragon, which had peacefully guarded its treasure for 300 years, got woken up by the theft of a precious goblet. The beast started to attack the Geats. Beowulf, who had become the Lord of the Geats by that

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time, went to fight the dragon. He managed to kill it and get its treasure with the help of Wiglaf, his companion.

Beowulf was fatally wounded in the fight. He asked Wiglaf (on the right) to be the new king

and died. Wiglaf blamed the earls, who had cowardly avoided the battle, for his lord’s death.

The poem ends with a description of Beowulf’s funeral fire:

‘ The sorrowing warriors then laid the glorious prince, their dead lord, in the middle. Then on top of the hill the war-men began to light the greatest of funeral fires. The wood-smoke rose black above the flames, the noisy fire, mixed with sorrowful cries…’

Beowulf’s memory was honoured by a memorial, a high mound, which sailors could see from far away.

VOCABULARY NOTESorally - усно spirit - духnarrate – декламувати private - приватнийmention - згадувати estate - маєток

funeral – похорон interrupt - перериватиburied – закопаний, похований marsh - болотоarmour – броня, панцир wrench out - викручувати

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treasure - скарб trail – помітний слідornament – прикраса vengeance - помстаflood (here) – приплив cave - печераsoul – душа

goblet – чаша, кубокfatally - смертельно blame - звинувачуватиcoward - боягуз avoid - уникатиmound – курган

evil (adj) – very bad at a touch – at once, easily fierce (adj) – violent, aggressive

ancient (adj) – very old precious (adj) – valuable, expensive

COMMENTARY

Beowulf gives us an interesting picture of life in those old days. It tells us of bravery on the battlefield, leader’s responsibilities, suffering and enjoying deserved feasts. It describes traveling across the sea, terrible creatures and funerals. It speaks about honor, dignity and loyalty.

Speaking about the style of the poem it must be mentioned that there is no rhyme. Instead, each half line has two main beats (stresses). Half-lines are joined together by alliteration (two or more words beginning with the same sound). Generally, the poem sounds like a marching troop of warriors. Things are described indirectly and in combinations of words. A ship is not just a ship: it’s a sea-goer, a sea-boat, a sea-wood, or a wave-floater. A sailor is a sea-traveler, a seaman, a sea-warrior. Even the sea itself (Old English: sae) may be called the waves, sea-streams, or the ocean-way. Calling the same object different names within the same sentence makes the narration colorful and slow. It is interesting that in Old English poetry descriptions of sad events and cruel situations are commoner and in better writing than those of happiness.

VOCABULARY NOTESresponsibility – відповідальність dignity - гідністьsuffer – страждати loyalty - відданість

deserve - заслуговувати rhyme - римаindirectly - непрямо cruel – жорстокий

CREATIVE WRITING

How can you call the words given below? Use the 10th century stylistic approach.

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sky-king sweet-singer cup-of-wisdom dragon-slayerjoy-bringer head-saver high-flyer war-lightningblue-warrior war-goblet night-friend book-lordsilver-torch sharp-eye poet’s weapon war-crownwar-bird proud-steel angel-voice sun-killer

1. HELMET _________________________________________________

2. SWORD __________________________________________________

3. EAGLE ___________________________________________________

4. MOON ____________________________________________________

5. TEACHER _________________________________________________

6. HARP _____________________________________________________

Score: ______

MODULE 3

The Middle

Unit 6 Historical Background

THE NORMAN CONQUEST AND THE LANGUAGE On the right: The map of the Norman Conquest

In 1066 William, the Duke of Normandy (Northern France) crossed the English Channel and defeated the Anglo-Saxons in the great battle at Hastings (Kent). Within the next five years William the Conqueror became the complete master of the whole of England. The lands of the Anglo-Saxon feudal lords were given to the Norman barons. The newcomers spoke Norman-French and introduced a lot of French words into the language of their new land. However, during the following 200 years, French could not suppress the English Language. People continued to communicate in three languages:

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1. Latin, in churches and monasteries;2. French, at the Royal Court, in the castles and courts of justice;3. English, in common people’s everyday situations.

On the right: William I Plantagenet (aka William-the-Conqueror)

Norman-French and Anglo-Saxon gradually developed into one national language by the beginning of the 14th century. The language of that time is called Middle English.

Above: The Norman cavalry is charging the position of the Anglo-Saxons at Hastings. The Anglo-Saxons are standing firm, side by side, shield to shield. They were gathered hastily and lightly armed, and had few chances against the heavily armed battle-tough Normans. (The Bayeux Tapestry.)

EDUCATION: THE FIRST UNIVERSITIES

Right: Meeting of doctors at the University of Paris

Until the 12th century the monasteries monopolized the education. Later the development of such sciences as medicine and law brought to life such higher educational establishments as universities. First they appeared in Italy and France. A typical university of that time had four faculties: three superior (higher) and one inferior (primary). The superior faculties were those of:

1. Theology (studied religious books);2. Canon Law (studied church laws);3. Medicine (educated doctors).

The inferior faculty was that of Art, where seven subjects were studied: Latin Grammar, Rhetoric (the art of impressive speaking), Logic, Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy and Music. The University of Paris (France) was popular among English

students. In the middle of the 12th century a group of professors from Paris went to England together with their students. They settled in the town of Oxford and started several schools there. That’s how the first English university was founded in 1168. The second university was formed in Cambridge in 1209, to which a number of students migrated from Oxford. The university graduates were given degrees of Bachelor of Science, Master of Arts and Doctor.

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On the left: The motto on the coat of arms of Oxford University says: DOMINUS ILLUMINATIO MEA (God Enlightens Me).

VOCABULARY NOTES

defeat sb - перемагати когось feudal lord – феодал suppress – приборкувати, гнобити communicate - спілкуватисяcourt of justice - суд

faculty - факультетTheology - теологія Rhetoric - риторикаCanon Law – канонічні закони degree – вчений ступінь

migrate (v) – to move to another country to livegraduate (n) – a person who has completed a course of education and got a diplomatapestry (n) – a wall carpet with embroidered pictures

LITERATURE: GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC

At that time each social group had its own literature. During the 12th and 13th centuries monks wrote historical chronicles in Latin. The scholars of the universities described their studies in Latin. The aristocracy received their fine poetry in French. And the country folk made their ballads and songs in English. In the beginning of the Middle Ages a lot of tales in verse and lyrical poems appeared praising the bravery and gallantry of noble knights. They described their heroic deeds and chivalrous attitude towards ladies. A knight’s worship of a fair lady became the plot of a story. At first they all were written in French and came from the earlier French sources. They received the general name ‘romances’. Later a number of romances appeared, which were based on Celtic legends, especially those about King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. In the 12th, 14th and 15th centuries there appeared a series of Arthurian legends in English: Arthur and Merlin, Lancelot of the Lake, Perceval of Wales and others. In the 15th century Sir Thomas Mallory collected the romances about King Arthur and arranged them in a single book. It was published in 1485 by Caxton, the first book printer, in Westminster. The development of medieval towns caused forming of the sub-culture different from that of the countryside. In the literature of townsfolk we can distinguish between the fable and the fabliau.

Fables (illustrated on the left) were short stories containing moral and with animals for characters. Fabliaux were funny stories about town crooks, unfaithful wives, stupid husbands and other ridiculous characters. They were properly collected and written down much later. Unlike the romance, the literature of the towns did not idealize the characters and, therefore, is a lot more realistic, showing a practical attitude to life.

Early English Drama developed from brief scenes acted out in churches to illustrate Bible stories. They can be divided into two types: mystery plays and miracle plays. Mystery plays (see the picture on the right) showed

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events from the Bible, and miracle plays told about the lives of saints. These two trends are considered to be the earliest kinds of English drama.

In the 15th century the market squares of the towns saw the first morality plays. They featured characters, which allegorically represented certain quality, such as Good or Evil, Generosity or Greed, Bravery or Cowardice (some characters can be seen in the picture on the left).

VOCABULARY NOTES

gallantry – шляхетна мужність ridiculous - кумеднийchivalrous attitude – шляхетне ставлення generosity - щедрість

crook – шахрай, злодій greed - жадібністьunfaithful - невірний cowardice - боягузтво

scholar (n) - scientist country folk (n) – people who live in the countryside, not in townstownsfolk (n) – people who live in townsbrief (adj) - short

Unit 7 Ballads Ballads were one of the oldest forms of narrative poetry. As a rule, ballads tell about serious conflicts and deep emotions. However, comical situations are also found in ballads. The first ballads were songs made up by bards and minstrels who traveled from town to town earning their living by singing their stories to the people. They could be heard both at the marketplaces and in the castles. Sometimes, their listeners might join in singing the refrain (repeated lines) or dance to the music. As those early minstrels were illiterate, the language of the ballads was quite simple. They could not write down the texts, and so many variants of the same ballads existed. Their songs got collected and written down only in the 1700s. Ballads are usually written in ballad stanzas (4-line verses). Each stanza has four lines, the second one rhymes with the fourth. The first and the third lines may not be rhymed at all.

With that came in a wealthy knight, Which was both grave and old , And after him a finkin* lass, Did shine like glistering gold.

(From Robin Hood and Alan a Dale)

*finkin – elegant, refined, pretty

As you can see, ballads are very rhythmical and easy to recite.

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THE ROBIN HOOD BALLADS

Robin Hood, probably the most popular hero of the ballads, is, though, only partly historical character. The contents of the ballads enable to attribute him to the second half of the 12th century. It was the time of King Henry II and his son Richard I the Lion Heart’s reign. King Henry II proclaimed all the forests king’s forests and all the deer in those forests king’s deer. Both hunting and cutting wood were prohibited.

Many castles were owned by greedy barons who cruelly suppressed the

country-folk. Those landlords ill-treated the villains, stole cattle and crops, kidnapped children. If the country-folk resisted, they were either killed or driven away, and their houses were destroyed. King’s foresters allowed barons to hunt as much as they pleased. But a hunting Saxon would be taken to prison and had one of his ears cut off! To enforce the law the king appointed sheriffs to every shire (county).

There was a gang of outlaws in Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. They robbed the rich and share the loot with the poor. The sheriff’s men could not stop them. Their leader’s name was Robin Hood.

For years a number of scholars have been trying to find out who Robin Hood actually was. There are two main theories about his background. The first claims that Robin Hood came from a family of Saxon landowners, whose land was seized by a Norman baron. Another supports the idea of him being a peasant accused of illegal hunting or not paying tax in due time. In both cases Robin had to escape from the sheriff’s men to the forest, where he soon led a group of outlaws. Anyway, the ballads tell us that he was

the best archer in England and a capable military leader. He was adventurous, humorous and kind-hearted. Some ballads speak about his passionate love to Fair Maid Marianne (see the illustration on the left). Robin was followed by his friends and supporters:

Little John, a gigantic fellow of enormous strength; Friar Tuck,whose fighting skills are equal to his hunger and thirst (and humor), and Alan A Dale (see the picture on the right), whose marriage was saved by Robin.

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Among Robin’s opponents we find the Sheriff of Nottingham and Sir Guy of Gisborne, who commands Sheriff’s men into battles with outlaws, peasants, their wives and children. Most of the clergy, including a rich Bishop and a wealthy Abbot, are also on the Sheriff’s side. As contrasted to Friar Tuck’s character, they illustrate the idea of an imperfect religious leader, whose moral qualities are lower than those of his parish.

Above left: Robin Hoods meets (and fights) Little JohnAbove center: Friar Tuck

Above right: Sheriff of Nottingham

In some ballads King Richard the Lion Heart appears (see the picture on the right), as an embodiment of common people’s beliefs in a Good King. Richard I was not the one, in fact, but his long absences from England (he was more interested in fighting wars abroad than in

peaceful administering his country) encouraged speculations about the best qualities of his character.

On the left: Sir Guy of Guisborne

VOCABULARY NOTES

illiterate - неписьменний claim - стверджуватиrecite - декламувати seize - захоплюватиcontents - зміст accuse - звинувачуватиattribute - відносити passionate - пристраснийproclaim - проголошувати

bishop - єпископdeer – олень, олені abbot - абатresist – чинити спротив parish - пастваforester - лісничий embodiment – уособлення loot – здобич, награбоване speculations – припущення, роздуми

outlaw (n) – a criminal, having no protection from the lawarcher (n) – the one who handles a bow and arrowsabroad (adv) – in foreign countries

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The Ballad About Robin HoodAnd the Widow’s Three Sons

The ballad consists of 16 stanzas. In the first 10 of them it tells how Robin Hood meets an old woman on his way to Nottingham. She shares some bread and wine with him and tells him that three young men have to be hanged by the Sheriff that very day. The young men are condemned to die for slaying a king’s deer. Robin promises to save them and continues his way. Then he meets an old man. Robin gives him forty shillings for his clothes and puts them on. Now, disguised as an old man, he enters the town of Nottingham and meets the Sheriff there (on the right). The ballad continues:

‘O save, O save, O Sheriff,’ he said,‘O save, and you may see!And what will you give to a silly old manToday will your hangman be?’

‘Some suits, some suits,’ the Sheriff saidI’ll give you some suits today,Some suits, some suits and pence thirteenToday’s a hangman’s pay.’

‘I have a bag for meal,’ said Robin Hood,‘And a bag for barley and corn;A bag for bread, and a bag for beef,And a bag for my little small horn.’

‘I have a horn in my pocket,I got it from Robin Hood,And still when I set it to my mouth,For you it blows little good.’

The first loud blast that he did blow,He blew both loud and shrill;A hundred and fifty of Robin Hood’s menCame riding over the hill.

They took the gallows from the slack;They set it in the glen,They hanged the proud Sheriff on thatAnd released their own three men.

VOCABULARY NOTES

share - ділитися hang - вішатиdisguised - замаскований shrill – пронизливий звукgallows – шибениця, шибеники

slack (here) – мотузка condemned to die – засуджений до страти glen - долина

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

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1. How many languages were spoken in England after the Norman Conquest?2. Who spoke French? Where was it spoken?3. What sort of education was given by the Medieval Universities? What were their superior

faculties? 4. What kind of literature is called romances? What made the plots of such stories?5. What is the difference between a fable and a fableau?6. What is the difference between a miracle and mystery

plays?7. Who were the characters of the morality plays?8. Who composed the first ballads?9. Why were the ballads not written down immediately?10. What made Saxon peasants’ lives in the 12th century

especially difficult?11. Why did King Richard the Lion Heart become a symbolic

figure of a Good King?12. What part of England are the Robin Hood ballads set?

On the right: Robin Hood statue in Nottingham

Unit 8 King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table

ARTHURIAN LITERATURE

King Arthur was first mentioned in the 9th century Historia Brittonum based on Welsh legends, and written by Nennius. Those pre-Norman legends depicted King Arthur as a defender of his country against the Saxons. He was accompanied by his principal warriors Cei (later - Sir Kay) and Bedwyr (later – Sir Bedivere). About 1135 Geoffrey of Monmounth wrote about King Arthur in his Historia Regum Britanniae. In this chronicle written in Latin, King Arthur appears as a leader of a group of mounted knights, a very Norman image. Wace, a Norman poet who lived on the Island of Jersey, translated Geoffrey’s Historia in French, adding a lot to the original version. In Wace’s book, which was entitled Roman de Brut (1155), the Round Table was mentioned. In the end of the 12th century Layamon, a priest from the valley of the river Severn, put the legend of Arthur into English in his Brut, an expanded adaptation of Wace’s book.

On the right: William Caxton’s printing press

In 1469 or 1470 Sir Thomas Mallory wrote Le Morte d’Arthur (Arthur’s Death), a collection of stories based on earlier sources. That was the last and the greatest attempt to consolidate all the Arthurian tales into a single cycle. The book was published in 1485 by Caxton in

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Westminster under the title of Sir Thomas Mallory’s Book of King Arthur and of His Noble Knights of the Round Table. The book remained our only source of Malory’s work until a handwritten copy was found in Westminster College in 1933.

VOCABULARY NOTES

principal (adj) – important, major, mainmounted (adj) – riding a horseattempt (n) – an act of trying to do somethingconsolidate (v) – to bring together as a unity

BRIEF ARTHURIAN ENCYCLOPAEDIA

Most of the tales of the Arthurian cycle mention the same people and objects. Below the list of some of them is given.

King Arthur – the illegitimate son of King Uther Pendragon; becomes the King of England after pulling out the sword from the stone in London, which nobody but the true king could do; builds the city (or the castle) of Camelot where he gathers the best knights at the Round Table; organizes a quest for the Holy Grail (a cup used by Jesus Christ for the Last Supper, or the one into which Jesus’ blood was collected by one of His followers); an ideal monarch; dies in battle, killed by Sir Mordred, his own illegitimate son.

Merlin (on the right) – a wizard; takes care of young Arthur and educates him; foretells the future and helps King Arthur a lot; provides him with the magic sword of Excalibur; falls in love with one of the Ladies of the Lake (a wizardess) who imprisons him in a stone where he dies.

Queen Guenever (on the left) – the daughter of King Leodegrance; marries King Arthur and becomes the Queen; falls in love with Sir Launcelot. Their love affair causes discord among the knights. Many of the nobles demand her to be prosecuted by the king.

King Uther Pendragon (below left) – the King of England; seduces Lady Igraine, the wife of the Duke of Cornwall and thus becomes Arthur’s father.

Sir Launcelot of the Lake (below center) – the first (the best) knight of the fellowship of the Round Table. Falls in love with Queen Guenever, demonstrating unfaithfulness to his sovereign, which makes him not a perfect knight.

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Sir Tristram of Liones (above right) – the second (to Sir Launcelot only) knight of the Round Table. Before joining the fellowship serves King Mark of Cornwall, his uncle. Falls in love with La Belle Isoud after accidentally drinking the Love Drink.

La Belle Isoud – the daughter of the King of Ireland. Marries King Mark of Cornwall but falls in love with Sir Tristram after accidentally drinking the Love Drink. The story of their love appears in many masterpieces of Western literature and is considered to be the classical one. In The Death of Arthur it takes about one third of the whole book.

On the right: Sir Tristram is drinking the Love Drink. Sir Galahad – the pure and morally perfect knight, who, therefore succeeds in recovering the Holy Grail together with Sir Bors and Sir Perceval.

Sir Gawain – another famous knight of the Round Table. The romance Sir Gawain and the Green Knight tells of his bravery, honor, purity and meekness. He rejects the temptation to be seduced by the Green Knight’s wife, keeps this affair secret from the husband and then wears a belt around his neck to remind himself of not being completely honest.

Sir Mordred (on the left) – the son of Arthur and Arthur’s sister (which fact was unknown to Arthur); kills King Arthur and is killed in the same battle. His villainous deeds destroy the fellowship of the Round Table, bring war and discord to the whole country. Embodies destruction.

The Sword of Excalibur – the magic weapon given to King Arthur by the Lady of the Lake.

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Camelot – the castle (or a fortified city) built by King Arthur for his royal residence; the stronghold of the Knights of the Round Table. Different medieval castles in Britain are considered as possible sites of this legendary Arthurian fortress.

The Round Table – is given to King Arthur by King Leodegrance, who received it from King Uther Pendragon. One source claims Merlin’s part in building it. Another source says it was built for King Arthur by a Welsh carpenter. Its circular shape helps to avoid quarrels over the best place. Brave men come to Camelot from all over the world hoping to become the Knights of the Round Table. Gold letters mysteriously show the names of the knights who are to sit there. The only empty seat is called the Siege Perilous. It is reserved for the knight so pure and perfect that he will find the Holy Grail one day. Any other knight daring to sit in the Siege

Perilous dies. Finally, Sir Galahad’s name appears there. Different sources mention different number of seats at the Table: 1 600, 150 or 50. Anyway, the large table can be fold to be transported on a horseback.

On the left: This round table made in the 13th or 14th century is displayed in the grand hall of Winchester castle.

VOCABULARY NOTES

illegitimate – незаконнийsucceed – досягати успіхуquest – похід, пошукrecover – діставати, здобуватиprovide – забезпечуватиmeekness – сумирністьseduce - спокушати

stronghold – оплот, твердиняfellowship – братерствоclaim – стверджувати, претендуватиsovereign – сюзеренcarpenter – теслярpure – чистийfold – згортати, складати

Siege Perilous – dangerous (risky) seat

JUMBLED WORDS

Which words from this unit are hidden here?

1. RIEBACLUX 2. MALETOC 3. DRODERM 4. NEMLIR 5. GERDAPONN 6. COTANX

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7. CANOMER 8. VIGEROSEN9. GNORTHDOLS10. SHEPWOLLIF11. TEQSU12. KNESEMES

Unit 9

Le Morte d’Arthur (The Death of Arthur)

by Sir Thomas Mallory SIR THOMAS MALLORY (1394 – 1471)

Not much is known about the life of the author of Arthur’s Death. He was born to a noble family and received an excellent education. He took part in The Hundred Years’ War and became a Member of Parliament in 1445. In 1451 he raided the monastery, which had seized some land that was claimed to be owned by Mallory’s ancestors. For that raid he was put into prison where he spent the last years of his life and wrote his famous book.

ABOUT THE BOOK

The Death of Arthur is one of the last romances ever written. Describing King Arthur’s life and career, Mallory praises a powerful monarchy as opposed to the discord among selfish feudal lords full of pride and greed. In sorrow for Arthur’s death and the destruction of the fellowship of the Round Table the author grievously addresses the people who do not value a good ruler and seem to be displeased with everything. ‘Oh, you all Englishmen, see what a mischief was here! For he who was the greatest king and knight of the world, most loved by the fellowship of good knights, was now disliked and deserted by these Englishmen. Alas, such was the custom of this land; and men say that we have not forgotten or given up that custom. Alas, this is a great fault of us Englishmen, that nothing pleases us. And so it used to be in old times: people were better pleased with Sir Mordred than with King Arthur; and many followed Sir Mordred.’

(The Death of Arthur, Book XXI, Chapter I)

The romance is set in England, in Ireland, partly in France, which seems to be submitted to Arthur’s reign. Scotland and the Orkney islands are mentioned. The exact location of Camelot is unknown; the knights travel across the country seeking adventures and heroic exploits, which makes England look fantastically immense. Though the book speaks of years far forgotten, its characters are dressed in distinctive 15th century

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clothes; warriors wear 15th century armor, and follow the rules of courtesy introduced not earlier than in the end of 1300s.Mallory focuses on the activities of the characters, practically ignoring the settings and landscapes. However, characters’ clothes, armor and horses are frequently mentioned.

The author narrates most of the story himself, not only reporting the events but also commenting those in short philosophical remarks. Some events though are retold by other characters (for example Sir Lancelot tells about Sir Tristram’s death). The narrative character of the book is emphasized by introducing the reported speech with the only verb said (without any other introductory verbs as asked, answered, replied, responded, begged, complained, promised, encouraged etc.). The endless chain of knightly exploits gives the story a distinctive rhythm. Instead of seeming monotony it unveils a flow of individual destinies, victories and defeats, passions and sorrows woven into a delicate lace of a wonderful virtual world of knighthood. The Death of Arthur still fascinates its readers and inspires

modern authors. The messages of the book sound quite reasonable today. Sir Thomas Mallory describes not only the end of an epic hero’s life; the very title of the book implies that the epoch of knighthood and gallant chivalry has come to its end.

VOCABULARY NOTES

grievously – з сумом mischief – зло, бідаalas – ой леле (горе) exploit – діяння, вчинокcourtesy – ввічливість

destiny – доля woven – плетений lace – мереживо inspire – надихати imply – означати, натякати

seize (v) – to capture, obtain by forceseek (v) – to look forunveil (v) – to make secret no more

TRUE OR FALSE?

Mark these statements ‘TRUE’ or ‘FALSE’.

1. Sir Thomas Mallory was accused of robbery.2. The author could not read or write French.3. The author supports the idea of a strong monarch.4. Sir Thomas Mallory used a lot of early sources to write his book.5. He wrote The Death of Arthur in his castle.6. The characters travel to Palestine.7. During the war the whole nation unites around King Arthur.8. The characters’ dress style does not belong to the described time.9. The romance pays much attention to the descriptions of castles and towns.10. The narration is monotonous because of few verbs used.11. The story presents an infinite sequence of knightly exploits, romantic encounters and

adventures.12. The title of the romance suggests that Arthur’s virtues will last forever.

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Score: _________

Unit 10 ReaderRead the following extracts and participate in discussion.

Extract 1

BOOK VIChapter X

How Sir Launcelot Delivered Sir Kay from Three KnightsWho Wanted to Slay Him

‘…Soon after that he heard somebody ride to the gate in great haste. He rose and looked out of the window, and in the moonlight he saw three knights who came riding after another man, all three rushed at him with their swords, and that one man defended himself knightly. ‘Truly,’ said Sir Launcelot, ‘that knight shall I help, for it is a shame for me to see three knights against one. And if he is slain, I shall be partner of his death.’ So he took his armour and went out of the window by a sheet, down to the four knights. Then he said: ‘Turn you knights on me, and leave your fighting with that knight.’ And they turned all three on Sir Launcelot, and a great battle began. With six blows he struck them all to the earth, and they asked for mercy. So Sir Launcelot told them to yield to Sir Kay (for that was the fourth knight) or to die. So they agreed to go to Queen Guenever and say that Sir Kay had sent them to her to be her prisoners. And they swore to do so on their swords. After they had departed, Sir Launcelot knocked at the gate, and when the gate was opened they entered. When they came near the light, Sir Kay recognized Sir Launcelot. He knelt down and thanked him for all his kindness. Sir Launcelot said he had done his duty and invited Sir Kay to spend the night in his room.’

VOCABULARY NOTES

mercy – милість, помилуванняyield - здаватисьswear (swore, sworn) – клястися

in great haste – in a hurry, at a great speed

Discussion

Express your opinion on the following issues.

1. What impressed you in this extract?

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2. Were there any events described which seem unrealistic? Why?3. What information about the knightly ways is given?4. Give the definition of a good knight. What sort of a person is he?

Extract 2

BOOK XVIIIChapter XIX

How True Love Is Compared To Summer

‘…The month of May came, when every strong heart begins to blossom, and to bring fruit; for as herbs and trees bring fruit and flourish in May, so every mighty heart that is in any lover, springs up and flourishes in mighty deeds. For it gives all lovers greater courage, that mighty month of May… For then all herbs and trees renew man and woman, and lovers recollect old gentleness and old service and many kind deeds that were forgotten. For just as winter destroys green summer, so does it destroy unstable love in man and woman. For in many persons there is no stability, and we can often see that a little blast of winter makes us neglect and reject true love; this is neither wisdom nor stability, but weakness and a great lack of honor. Therefore, just as May month blooms and flourishes in many gardens, so let the heart of every man of honor flourish in this world, first in his love to God and then in his love to those to whom he has promised to be true and faithful; and such love I call virtuous love. But nowadays men cannot love seven nights but they must have all their desires: such love cannot last long; for hasty heat soon cools. Just so is love nowadays, soon hot, soon cold: this is no stability. But the old love was not so: no mean lusts were between them [true lovers], and that was love, truth, and faithfulness. And so people loved in King Arthur’s days…’

VOCABULARY NOTESсourage – відвага wisdom – мудрість lust – хтивість

recollect (v) – think about the past and remembering itblast (n) – a strong sudden move of wind

Discussion

Express your opinion on the following issues.

1. What do you think is ‘winter’?2. Who does this philosophical remark consider to be responsible for the sort of

relationship – a man or a woman? Why do you think so?

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3. The author speaks about the 15th century. What do you think about the 21st one? Can you say the same about our time? Can people love truly?

Extract 3

BOOK XXIChapter IV

How It Happened That The Battle Began,In Which Sir Mordred Was Slain And King Arthur Wounded

Book XXI tells how Sir Mordred declared himself King of England in Arthur’s absence and wanted even to marry Queen Guenever. When Arthur returned to England with a great army of knights the war began. After some bloody battles the adversaries managed to establish an armistice for one month (it was King Arthur’s initiative) but none of them trusted another…

‘… King Arthur warned all his men that if they saw any sword drawn they should come on and slay that traitor, Sir Mordred… Likewise, Sir Mordred warned his men… They met and confirmed their agreement and wine was brought and they drank. Suddenly an adder came out of a little bush and it stung a knight on the foot. And when the knight felt himself stung and saw the adder he drew his sword to slay it, and thought of no other harm. But when the others saw the sword drawn, they blew trumpets and horns and shouted and prepared for battle… And then a fierce fighting began…’

VOCABULARY NOTEStraitor – зрадникadder – гадюкаtrumpet – сурма

adversary (n) – enemy, foe, opponentarmistice (n) – temporary peace, a pause in fighting a war

Discussion

Analyze the situation with the adder.

a. Generalize about the tension between confronting adversaries. Can you give any examples?

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b. How important is the factor of ill luck in tense situations? Can you give any examples?

‘…AND OF SIR PALAMIDES’

The titles of several chapters of the book have this ending. This character obviously deserves some special attention. Sir Palamides is mentioned for the first time in Chapter VIII of Book VIII and departs in the end of Book XII ‘… and Sir Palamides went his way.’ Although he does not belong to the fellowship of the Knights of the Round Table, we see him once again in Chapter III of Book XVIII listed among those invited to the dinner held by Queen Guenever. So, who is Sir Palamides? He is the son of King Astlabor, and Sir Safere and Sir Segwarides are his brothers. Sir Palamides is a Saracen. His Islamic background does not seem to matter. He is one of the best warriors of the romance – he fights with Sir Tristram, brings Sir Gawain to the ground, wins the prize of a day at a tournament. Judging by his skill he can be rated as the third or the fourth best knight. And,

probably, he is the most controversial of Mallory’s characters. He commits most chivalrous acts rescuing damosels and protecting them from unwanted intruders (he even strikes King Arthur down with a spear to teach him some manners). He seems to be a good friend and an honest man; he knows how to keep his word. At the same time he can disguise himself as another knight not to be recognized by his rival. He can leave a wounded knight without assistance. He envies. He envies Sir Tristram. He does not envy his glory, but he is jealous of him being loved by La Belle Isoud! ‘I love the fairest queen and lady that ever lived. Her name is La belle Isoud, wife of king Mark of Cornwall,’ complains he to Sir Epinogris who says in return: ‘It is a great folly to love Queen Isoud, for she is loved by one of the best knights of the world, Sir Tristram of Liones.’ Sir Tristram is often angry with him, so is his beloved Isoud. That makes him miserable and most unhappy, for Sir Tristram is his friend (and Sir Palamides is very proud of this friendship), and how suffers he when he displeases his love! But is Sir Tristram his friend? No doubt he is. They may be rivals, they may joust at the tournaments, but it has nothing to do with friendship. Sir Tristram rushes to save Sir Palamides’s life ready to fight twelve knights. And in the end it is Sir Tristram who brings willing Sir Palamides to the nearest church to be baptized.

VOCABULARY NOTES

controversial – суперечливий folly – божевілля intruder – небажаний гість

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baptize – хрестити

damosel (damsel) (n) – a young lady of gentle or noble birthjoust (v) – to fight on a horseback with a lance trying to bring the adversary to the ground

The fellowship of the Knights of the Round Table does not exist anymore. King Arthur died protecting his vision of the world. Queen Guenever died in a monastery. Sir Launcelot could not live without his love any longer.

‘Yet many men say that there is written upon his tomb this verse: HIC JACET ARTHURUS REX, QUONDAM REXQUE FUTURUS. (HERE RESTS KING ARTHUR, WHO WILL BE KING AGAIN ONE DAY.)’

Sir Thomas Mallory, The Death of Arthur, Book XXI

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Unit 11 Middle English Poetry. Geoffrey Chaucer. MIDDLE ENGLISH POETRY The protest against the Catholic Church accompanied the growth of national feeling in the times of the Great War (The Hundred Years’ War). It was immediately reflected in literature. Some poor priests who wandered from one village to another talked to the people criticizing the rich bishops reluctant to teach their flock the Holy Bible. John Wycliffe (1320? – 1384) (see the portrait on the right) was one of those who attacked religious ideas of that time. One of his beliefs was that anyone who wanted to read the Bible ought to be allowed to do so; but how could this be done by uneducated people when the Bible was in Latin? Wycliffe was the one who arranged the production of the whole Bible in English. He himself translated part of it. It is surprising that Wycliffe was not burnt alive for the attacks on religious practices. After he was dead and buried, his bones were dug up again and thrown into the River Avon.

The Avon to the Severn runs, The Severn to the sea, And Wycliffe’s dust shall spread around Wide as the waters be.

William Langland (1332 – 1400?) is remembered for The Vision Of Piers (Peter) the Plowman, an allegorical poem. Vice and Virtue are spoken of as if they were human beings. Truth appears as a young maiden, and Greed – as an old witch. Langland sadly tells how most people prefer the false treasures of this world to the true treasures of Heaven.

On the right: An illustration from the opening of William Langland’s Piers Plowman showing Piers Plowman dreaming.

The greatest poet of the 14th century was Geoffrey Chaucer. Whereas Langland expressed the thoughts of poor peasants and Wycliffe protested against the practices of the Catholic Church, Chaucer just described the world and the people he saw. He was the first who broke medieval tradition of writing and cleared the way to realism. Chaucer is sometimes called the Father of English poetry, although there were many English poets before him.

VOCABULARY NOTES

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priest – священик flock – паства vision – видіння

vice – зло greed - жадібність witch – відьма

reluctant (adj) – not willing to do somethingallegory (n) – a piece of art or literature in which the message is represented symbolically. GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1340 – 1400). BIOGRAPHY Geoffrey Chaucer (see the portrait on the right) was born in London to a family of a wine merchant. Geoffrey did not inherit any property after his father’s death. Instead he received the best education possible. Many people thought he must have been educated at Oxford or Cambridge, but nothing is known about it. Most probably he was not. Somehow his father managed to make his fifteen year-old son a page to a lady at the court of King Edward III. At the age of 20 Chaucer was in France, serving as a squire (an arms-bearer) to a knight. He was taken prisoner by the French, and all his friends helped to ransom him free. It was registered that Edward III contributed 16 pounds towards the total sum.

On the right: Warrior and His Shield Bearer by Giorgione, circa 1500.

About 1366 Chaucer married Philippa Roet, the young lady whom he met at the Royal Court. As her sister was married to Prince John of Gaunt, Chaucer got related to the Royal Family. They seemed to have at least three children: Elizabeth, Thomas and Lewis. They had lived together for about twenty years, until Philippa’s death in 1387. In 1366 – 1387 Chaucer traveled extensively abroad in the service of the king. Not much is known about the purpose of his missions, probably concerning delicate matters of diplomacy. He visited Spain (1366), France (1368), ‘part beyond the sea’ (1370), Italy (1372-73), some unspecified places ‘in secret negotiations for the king’ (1376-81), Italy again (1378), and France again (1387). His travels brought him into contact with some outstanding personalities of his time whose ideas influenced his works. Anybody would be proud of a public career like the one Chaucer had made. He became a Customs Controller in the port of London in 1374. In 1385 – 1389 he served in the office of

Justice of the Peace in Kent. At about the same time, in 1386 he became one of the two ‘Knights of the shire of Kent’, which meant that he represented Kent in the Parliament. In 1389 Chaucer was appointed ‘Clerk of the King’s Works’, the official in charge of royal buildings. It is amazing how fruitful his creative writing was taking into consideration the scope of his official duties.

On the left: ‘Poets’ Corner’ in Westminster Abbey, London. The arrow points at Chaucer’s tomb.

Chaucer died on October 25, 1400 in the house near Westminster Abbey. He was buried in the Abbey’s graveyard in the place, which since then has become known as ‘Poets’ Corner’.

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VOCABULARY NOTES

merchant - купець inherit – успадковувати page – паж negotiations – переговори proud – гордий

scope – діапазон, обсягto take prisoner – брати в полон graveyard – цвинтар ransom - викуп

purpose (n) – aim, goalunspecified (adj) – not known, not namedshire (n) – a county, an administrative territorial unit to be in charge of – to command, control and be responsible for something / doing something

COMPREHENSION & DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What does the fact that the king contributed 16 pounds to get Chaucer free tell you about Chaucer?

2. What are the advantages / disadvantages of inheriting money? What are those of getting an excellent education instead?

3. How had Chaucer’s extensive traveling abroad influenced his creative capabilities?

CHAUCER’S LITERARY ACTIVITIES Geoffrey Chaucer’s works are usually divided into three periods.The first one can be called the French Period. His early poems were written in imitation of the French romances, of which he was fond. He translated into English the famous 13th century allegorical Romance of the Rose. Although the poem is rather long, its plot is quite simple: a young man falls asleep and dreams of a garden, which contains a beautiful rose (a symbol of a fair lady), he desires to own. He is helped by such virtues as Beauty, Chastity, Wealth and Hospitality. On the other hand such vices as Pride, Idleness, Poverty and Evil Report hamper him. In the end he gets the desired Rose.

On the right: Illustration to Chaucer’s Romance of the Rose. The Italian Period is the second one. It is called so because of the distinctive Italian influence of Chaucer’s writing. In another dream poem The House of Fame Chaucer imagines himself carried by an enormous eagle to a palace dedicated to outstanding personalities of the past. The Parliament of Fowls (Birds) is yet another dream poem. In it Chaucer imagines himself to walk in a beautiful garden where birds gather to choose their partners for the coming year. This poem satirizes the Parliament. One of the most important poems of this period is Troylus and Cryseyde (1372 – 7?) – a tragic love story set in ancient Troy. Shakespeare later wrote a play on the same subject, but his Cressida is less attractive than Chaucer’s. These poems were written under the influence of such Great Italians as Boccacio, Dante and Petrarch, as well as by the famous Latin manuscript Consolation of Philosophy by Boesthius, which was translated by Chaucer around 1380. The English Period of Chaucer’s writing began around 1384. It was at this time that he wrote his famous masterpiece The Canterbury Tales.

VOCABULARY NOTESchastity - цнота idleness – неробство pride - пиха

evil report - неправдиве свідчення hamper – утруднювати, перешкоджати consolation – утіха, розрада

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COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

1. How many periods are Chaucer’s works usually divided into?

2. Whose influence can be traced in Chaucer’s works?

3. What languages did Chaucer speak?

On the right: A scene at a medieval inn. The Tabbard Inn in Sothwark probably looked like the one in the picture.

Unit 12 The Canterbury Tales

COMPOSITION The Canterbury Tales are a series of stories written in verse. Though the masterpiece is not finished, its design is vivid enough. As in other medieval collections of stories, such as A Thousand and One Nights from the Middle East, or Italian Decameron by Boccacio, the main story forms a framework for a variety of others. This primary story, however, has a life of its own. The plot of the story is the following: a party of 30 pilgrims (including Chaucer himself) agree to tell stories to pass the time on their way from London to Canterbury, where they are going to visit the great cathedral and the grave of St. Thomas a Becket*. The best story is supposed to win a free meal as a prize.The pilgrims belong to different social groups, but during the journey they share the same food, stay in the same inns and ride side by side – a rather realistic picture of pilgrimage as a kind of ‘democratic institution’ of the Middle Ages.

Above right: Canterbury cathedralBelow right: Pilgrims at the dining table.

The Canterbury Tales starts with a General Prologue and contains 24 tales told by different people, including two told by the author himself. The General Prologue sets the place – The Tabard Inn, in Southwark, and the time – April.

Whan that Aprille with his shouers swote The droughte of Marche hath perced to the rote…

(When April with his sweet showers has struck to the roots the dryness of March…) Then it gives an account of the pilgrims as they meet and begin their journey. There we meet all the storytellers. Chaucer collected all types of stories typical for his time: the Knight tells a romance, the Nun – a story of a saint, the Miller – a fabliau, the Priest – a fable.

*Thomas a Becket (1118? – 1170), an Archbishop of Canterbury was made a saint after

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he was murdered by soldiers of King Henry II right in the cathedral (see the picture on the left) because of his opposition to King’s policies toward the church. His grave has been visited by pilgrims for hundreds of years and has become one of the principal objects of religious devotion in Europe.

VOCABULARY NOTESframework - рамка pilgrimage – проща estate – верства населення laity – миряни

Manciple – управитель, економ Reeve - старостаGuildsman – член гільдії майстрів Friar – член ченецького ордену

Prioress (n) – a female officer in a monastic order, sometimes next below an abbotYeoman (n) – a peasant who cultivated his own land, sometimes a volunteer soldier

THE PILIGRIMS’ PORTRAITS AND THEIR TALES All the pilgrims, as the King’s subjects, may be divided into three Estates:The Warriors: Knight, Squire and Yeoman;The Clergy: Prioress, Monk, Friar, Parson, Summoner and Pardoner;The Laity: Merchant, Clerk, Man of Law, Franklin, Guildsman, Cook, Shipman, Doctor, Wife of Bath, Ploughman, Miller, Manciple, and Reeve.

The Knight (on the left) is described as an ideal representative of his estate, which had dominated the society since the time of the Norman Conquest. Chaucer describes him more by his virtues and exploits than by appearance. The knight fought for the faith and thus is distinguished from his son, The Squire (on the right), who fought in France against fellow-Christians.

A Knight there was and that a worthy man,That from the time that he first began

To riden out, he loved chivalry,Truth and honour, freedom and courtesy.

He tells a romance based on Boccaccio’s Teseida. It tells how brothers become rivals for the love of Emelye, the niece of Theseus. They have to fight at a tournament to decide their quarrel. The one who has prayed to Mars for Victory gets it, but falls from his horse and dies. His defeated rival, who has prayed to Venus for Emelye, marries the girl.

The Miller’s (on the right) tale is a bawdy story told by a drunken and quarrelsome character. It describes the cuckolding of an Oxford carpenter by a clerk. The clerk tricks him into believing that the Great Flood is about to begin, and the carpenter sleeps in a tub suspended under the rafters, leaving his wife free to have a love affair with the clerk.

The Reeve, who used to be a carpenter himself, answers with even a bawdier story about a miller, who got cheated by two clerks. One seduces the miller’s daughter, another gets attention from the miller’s wife. It may be regarded as a comedy of mistakes, as the two clerks’ cheating is revealed in the end due to their own mistakes.

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This is not the only quarrel between the pilgrims as The Friar tells an animated fabliau, attacking corrupt summoners. The Summoner’s Tale immediately answers the Friar’s with yet another fabliau against corrupt and greedy friars.

Below, from left to right: The Reeve, The Friar, The Summoner

The Wife of Bath (on the right) is one of the most enjoyable characters. By the time she tells her story we know her as a woman of very strong opinions and firm belief in marriage (she has had five husbands, one after another).

A good wife was there of beside BathBut she was somewhat death, and that was scath.

Of cloth-making she had such a hauntShe passed them of Ypres and of Gaunt…

…She was a worthy woman all her life,Husbands at church’s door she had five…

Her tale is a version of the romance Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnell. The knight has to give the correct answer to the question ‘What do women love most?’ in order to save his life. An ugly old witch knows the answer (‘To rule’) and agrees to tell him if he marries her. He does so, and at the marriage she becomes young and beautiful.

The Poor Parson (on the left) is presented, alongside with The Knight and The Ploughman (on the right), as an ideal of his estate.

A good man was there of religion,And was a poor Parson of a town;

But rich he was of holy thought and work;He was also a learned man, a clerk,

That Christe’s Gospel trewely would preach:His parishens devoutly would he teach.

He is also described in terms of his virtues rather than physical appearance. His tale is a sermon on Seven Deadly Sins.

VOCABULARY NOTES

pray - молитися bawdy – сороміцький cuckolding – подружня зрада tub – діжка quarrelsome – сварливий, чварний rafters – крокви

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scath – збиток, ушкодження sermon – проповідь cheat - oбманювати, зраджувати чоловіка (жінку) Pardoner – продавець індульгенцій

CHAUCER’S CONTRIBUTION TO LITERATURE The most important thing about Chaucer is that he managed to show all ranks of society, all types of human characters, and painted a true picture of England of the 14th century. Chaucer’s use of the many jokes popular among the common people makes his poetry very lively. Chaucer was the creator of a new literary language. He used the London (Midland) dialect, which could be understood throughout the country. This very dialect laid the foundation of further development of the national language. Chaucer created new words to name the colours, such as ‘coal-black’ and ‘snow-white’. The word ‘daisy’ at his time meant ‘the eye of a day’; he was the first to use it as the name of the flower. Chaucer was the earliest English poet whose poems are still read for pleasure today.

COMPREHENSION AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why Chaucer is sometimes called ‘the father of English poetry’?

2. Do you know any other poets who did the same for their national literatures?

3. Whom of Chaucer’s characters would you like to meet? Why?

4. In his dream poem The House of Fame Chaucer describes a palace where a number of outstanding historical personalities lived. Make your own list of famous personalities of the past. Why have you put this or that name there?

On the left: Chaucer as a pilgrim.

MEDIAEVAL ESTATES

CHECK-UP

WHO IS WHO? List the following occupations according to their social groups.

Knight Prioress Yeoman Pardoner Sailor Baron Bishop PrinceReeve King Friar Squire Parson Merchant Duke ArcherQueen Carpenter Miller Footman Earl Lancer Guildsman Nun

NOBLES MILITARY CLERGY LAITY

1. ________2. ________3. ________4. ________5. ________

6. ________7. ________8. ________9. ________10. ________

11. ________12. ________13. ________14. ________15. ________

16. ________17. ________18. ________19. ________20. ________

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21. ________ 22. ________ 23. ________ 24. ________

Score: _________