The Age of Enlightenment

Intellectual Sources of Intellectual Sources of Reform and RevolutionReform and Revolution

Two PhasesTwo Phases

Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution Philosophical RevolutionPhilosophical Revolution

Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution

New way of thinking—induction.New way of thinking—induction. New way of viewing the world—New way of viewing the world—

governed by natural law.governed by natural law. Weakened traditional Weakened traditional

views/institutionsviews/institutions

Heavy Hitters of the Sci. Heavy Hitters of the Sci. Rev.Rev.

Galileo—through investigation established Galileo—through investigation established the heliocentric theory of the solar system.the heliocentric theory of the solar system.

William Harvey—circulation of blood—the William Harvey—circulation of blood—the heart is just a pump.heart is just a pump.

Isaac Newton—mathematical model of the Isaac Newton—mathematical model of the universe.universe.

Robert Boyle—Boyle’s law.Robert Boyle—Boyle’s law. Antoine Laviosier—Conservation of MatterAntoine Laviosier—Conservation of Matter Natural laws govern the physical universeNatural laws govern the physical universe

The Scientific Revolution spawned The Scientific Revolution spawned the Philosophical Revolutionthe Philosophical Revolution

The PR: European-wide, decades-long philosophical and literary movement that sought to improve the human condition through the application of reason.

Attempt to discover and then align human activity—especially government—with inductively identified natural laws.

Questioned traditional beliefs and practices--Immanuel Kant in “What is Enlightenment?” (1781): “Have the courage to use your own understanding.”

Religious toleration & secularization: Voltaire Observation and criticism essential: Diderot,

Smith Championed the new science Belief in Progress

Anicet Charles Lemonnier, Madame Geoffrin‘s Salon in 1755 (1812)

Franz Anton Mesmer magnetizing a distraught patient, ca. 1760

Enlightenment Enlightenment InstitutionsInstitutions

SalonsSalonsAAcademiescademiesMasonic lodgesMasonic lodgesNewspapersNewspapersCCoffee housesoffee houses““Public opinion”Public opinion”Forbidden Forbidden literatureliterature

An 18th Century English Coffee

House

Economy and ScienceEconomy and Science

•Scottish Enlightenment (Edinburgh)

•Political Economy•Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (1776) opposed mercantilism, advocated laissez-faire economic system (supply and demand)•The Physiocrats: overregulation bad, remove artificial barriers to production (esp. agriculture)

•Philosophy•David Hume (d. 1776) and The Natural Religion of Philosophy, led to deism and atheism.

How was “Progress” Defined? First Sense: Improving conditions in

the present§ General Optimism about Human Potential§ Drew upon Locke’s “Essay Concerning

Human Understanding” (1690)

Second SenseSecond Sense: Civilization was : Civilization was developing throughout history and had developing throughout history and had reached its peak in Europereached its peak in Europe§ ““Modern” era was superior to previous erasModern” era was superior to previous eras§ Stages of Human DevelopmentStages of Human Development

Claude-Nicolas Ledoux: Model Town (1775)

An 18th Century Print ShopLiteracy rates in 18th century France, England, the Netherlands and the German states was one-third to one-half of men and somewhat less for women. Censorship ineffective.

Philosophes--Philosophes--

Francois-Marie Arouet de Voltaire (1694-1778)— Arouet de Voltaire (1694-1778)—advocated empiricism and religious toleration—advocated empiricism and religious toleration—A A Treatise on Tolerance Treatise on Tolerance (1763)(1763)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)—advocated equality rather than privilege—The Social Contract (1762)

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)—advocated separation of governmental activities through structure—Spirit of the Laws (1748)

Picture Credit: The Bettmann ArchiveVoltaire

Rousseau

Montesquieu

Diderot’s Encyclopedia—Diderot’s Encyclopedia—spread ideas of the spread ideas of the

EnlightenmentEnlightenment Denis Diderot (1713–1784) A Classified Dictionary of the A Classified Dictionary of the

Sciences, Arts and Trades, Sciences, Arts and Trades, 17 vols. (1751(1751–1772)1772)§ Intended as a compilation of all knowledgeIntended as a compilation of all knowledge§ Over 150 contributors, including all of the Over 150 contributors, including all of the

prominent prominent philosophesphilosophes§ Epitomized the skeptical, rational, scientific Epitomized the skeptical, rational, scientific

spirit of the age.spirit of the age.

Spread of the Enlightenment

Effects of the Enlightenment

Implications are revolutionary. Why?§ Proposed the belief that men ought to be ruled

by laws, not rulers.§ The philosophes argued that social progress

and political freedom were restrained by the state and the church and did not reflect man’s natural goodness.

§ Belief in progress and man’s ability to solve problems.

§ Intellectual justification for U. S., French, and Mexican Revolutions