1.) Differentiate sound from noise. Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate — the energy is transferred through the substance in a wave. Typically, the energy in sound is far less than other forms of energy.

Noise means any unwanted sound. Noise is not necessarily random. Sounds, particularly loud ones, that disturb people or make it difficult to hear wanted sounds, are noise. For example, conversations of other people may be called noise by people not involved in any of them; any unwanted sound such as domesticated dogs barking, neighbours playing loud music, portable mechanical saws, road traffic sounds, or a distant aircraft in quiet countryside, is called noise.

How can we apply noise strategy to a specific situation?

Noise control or noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution or to reduce the impact of that noise, whether outdoors or indoors. The main areas of noise mitigation or abatement are: transportation noise control, architectural design, urban planning through zoning codes, and occupational noise control. Roadway noise and aircraft noise are the most pervasive sources of environmental noise worldwide, and little change has been effected in source control in these areas since the start of the problem, a possible exception being the development of hybrid and electric vehicles. Social activities may generate noise levels that consistently affect the health of populations residing in or occupying areas, both indoor and outdoor, near entertainment venues that feature amplified sounds and music that present significant challenges for effective noise mitigation strategies.

How do we solve problems about noise?

Noise pollution is annoying, disruptive to your emotional state, and sometimes even bad for your health. Noise pollution can also affect animals and the environment. The effects can be auditory and non- auditory. The auditory effect may be fatigue and deafness, while the non-auditory effect may be physiological and psychological changes in human beings. Preventing these can do a lot to help your mental and physical condition.

Understand what causes noise pollution. As the world becomes more advanced, noise increases. The most common form of noise pollution now is from transportation, mainly cars, motorbikes, and aircraft.

You can avoid noise pollution yourself. Do these tips:

Do not use car horns unnecessarily. Areas like hospitals and campuses are silence zones and

honking is prohibited there.

Avoid loud music, which hurts your ears and others' ears.

Firecrackers are extremely loud, so don't try and burn them unnecessarily.

Motors, machines and vehicles also produce loud noises when not maintained properly. Proper

maintenance should be carried out for better performance.

If you are working in an area where there are loud noises, you must wear earplugs to prevent

loss of hearing.

When going to theme parks and such, avoid riding on the rides which produce a lot of noise.

One example is the ATV, which is like a huge motorbike.

Turn off the engine of your car or motorbike when you are not using it. It stops the annoying

hum, and reduces air pollution!

Better off, walk or cycle to school! It does wonders to the environment, reduces the amount of

air pollution and noise, and makes you fit!

2.) What is the content of Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Ecological Solid Waste Management Act and Plastic Pollution Control Act?

Philippine Clean Air ActRepublic Act No. 8749

It is a comprehensive air quality management policy and program, which aims to achieve and maintain healthy air for Filipinos. Its guiding principles are the following:

1.Protect and advance the right of the people to a balance and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature;2.Promote and protect the global environment while recognizing the primary responsibility of LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS to deal with environmental problems;3.Recognize that the responsibility of cleaning the habitat and environment is primarily are-based;4.Recognize that a clean and healthy environment is for the good of all and should therefore be the concern of all.

THIS ACT PROVIDES MANAGEMENT OF QUALITY AIR THROUGH:

Designation of air sheds based on climate,weather,meteorology and topology which affect the mixture and the diffusion of pollutants in the air,share common interests or face similar development problems.These air sheds are to be managed by the MULTI-SECTORALGOVERNING BOARDS Chaired by the Secretary of the DENR with representatives from the LOCAL GOVERNMENTS concerned, the private sector,peoples organization,NGOs and concerned government agencies.

CLEAN AIR ACT COVERS THE FOLLOWING:1.All potential sources of air pollution ( mobile,point & are sources) must comply with the provision of the law. All emissions must be within the air quality standards.2. Mobile sources refer to vehicles Like CARS, TRUCKS, BUSES, JEEPNEYS, MOTORCYCLES, TRICYCLES and VANS.3.Point sources refer to stationary sources such as industrial firms and the smokestacks of power pants,hotels and other establishments.4.Area sources refer to sources of emissions other than above. This include SMOKING, burning of garbage and dust from construction,unpaved grounds , etc.

NOTE: ALSO THAT SMOKING IS BANNED BEGINNING MAY 25,2001 , IN ANY OF THESE FOLLOWING LOCATIONS:

1. Inside a public building2.Enclosed public places including public vehicles and other means of transport.3.In any enclosed area outside of one's private residence , private place of work or any duly designated area which will be enclosed.

THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS ARE MANDATED TO IMPLEMENT THIS PROVISION OF THE LAW. PENALTY TO VIOLATION OF THIS PROVISION OS SIX (6) MONTHS AND ONE (1) DAY TO ONE (1) YEAR OF IMPRISONMENT OR A FINE OF Php 10,000.00

Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004(Republic Act No. 9275)

The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (Republic Act No. 9275) aims to protect the country’s water bodies from pollution from land-based sources (industries and commercial establishments, agriculture and community/household activities). It provides for a comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory approach involving all the stakeholders.

How will water quality be managed?

Management of water quality will either be based on watershed, river basin or water resources region. Water quality management areas with similar hydrological, hydrogeological, meteorological or geographic conditions which affect the reaction and diffusion of pollutants in water bodies are to be designated by the DENR in coordination with the National Water Resources Board (NWRB).

How will discharges of wastewater be controlled?

All owners or operators of facilities that discharge wastewater are required to get a permit to discharge from the DENR or the Laguna Lake Development Authority. Existing industries without any permit are given 12 months from the effectivity of the implementing rules and regulations (IRR) promulgated pursuant to this Act to secure a permit to discharge.

How will domestic wastewater be addressed?

The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), in coordination with local government units will prepare a national program on sewage and septage management not later than 12 months from effectivity of this Act. A priority list will likewise be prepared which will be the basis for the allotment of funds on an annual basis by the national government for the construction and rehabilitation of required facilities.

On the other hand, LGUs are to provide the land including road right of the way for the construction of sewage and/or septage treatment facilities and raise funds for the operations and maintenance of said facilities.

The Department of Health (DOH) will formulate guidelines and standards for the collection, treatment and disposal of sewage as well as the guidelines for the establishment and operation of centralized sewage treatment system. The MWSS and other agencies mandated to provide water supply and sewerage facilities are required to connect existing sewage lines, subject to the payment of sewerage service charges/fees within five years following effectivity of this Act.

All sources of sewage and septage are required to comply with the law.

How will the discharge of wastewater be discouraged?

Anyone discharging wastewater into a water body will have to pay a wastewater charge. This economic instrument which will be developed in consultation with all concerned stakeholders is expected to

encourage investments in cleaner production and pollution control technologies to reduce the amount of pollutants generated and discharged.

Effluent trading per management area will also be allowed.

Rewards will also be given to those whose wastewater discharge is better than the water quality criteria of the receiving body of water. Fiscal and non-fiscal incentives will also be given to LGUs, water districts, enterprise, private entities and individuals who develop and undertake outstanding and innovative projects in water quality management.

What safeguards are provided for?

All possible dischargers are required to put up an environmental guarantee fund (EGF) as part of their environmental management plan. The EGF will finance the conservation of watersheds and aquifers, and the needs of emergency response, clean up or rehabilitation.

What are the prohibited acts under R.A. 9275?

Among others, the Act prohibits the following:• Discharging or depositing any water pollutant to the water body, or such which will impede natural flow in the water body• Discharging, injecting or allowing to enter into the soil, anything that would pollute groundwater• Operating facilities that discharge regulated water pollutants without the valid required permits• Disposal of potentially infectious medical waste into sea by vessels• Unauthorized transport or dumping into waters of sewage sludge or solid waste.• Transport, dumping or discharge of prohibited chemicals, substances or pollutants listed under Toxic Chemicals, Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act (Republic.Act No. 6969)• Discharging regulated water pollutants without the valid required discharge permit pursuant to this Act• Noncompliance of the LGU with the Water Quality Framework and Management Area Action Plan• Refusal to allow entry, inspection and monitoring as well as access to reports and records by the DENR in accordance with this Act• Refusal or failure to submit reports and/or designate pollution control officers whenever required by the DENR in accordance with this Act• Directly using booster pumps in the distribution system or tampering with the water supply in such a way to alter or impair the water quality• Operate facilities that discharge or allow to seep, willfully or through grave negligence, prohibited chemicals, substances, or pollutantslisted under R.A. No. 6969, into water bodies.• Undertake activities or development and expansion of projects, or operating wastewater treatment/sewerage facilities in violation of P.D.1586 and its IRR.

What are the fines and penalties imposed on polluters?

The following are among the fines and penalties for violators of this Act and its IRR:

Upon the recommendation of the Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB), anyone who commits prohibited acts such as discharging untreated wastewater into any water body will be fined for every day of violation, the amount of not less than Php 10,000 but not more than Php 200,000.

Failure to undertake clean-up operations willfully shall be punished by imprisonment of not less than two years and not more than four years. This also includes a fine of not less than Php 50,000 and not more than Php 100,000 per day of violation. Failure or refusal to clean up which results in serious injury or loss of life or lead to irreversible water contamination of surface, ground, coastal and marine water shall be punished with imprisonment of not less than 6 years and 1 day and not more than 12 years and a fine of Php 500,000/day for each day the contamination or omission continues.

In cases of gross violation, a fine of not less than Php 500,000 but not more than Php 3,000,000 will be imposed for each day of violation. Criminal charges may also be filed.

Who should implement the Clean Water Act?

The DENR is the primary government agency responsible for the implementation and enforcement of this Act, with the support of other government organizations, local government units, non -government organizations and the private sector.

Towards this end, the DENR will review and set affluent standards, review and enforce water quality guidelines, classify groundwater sources and prepare a national groundwater vulnerability map, classify or reclassify water bodies, establish internationally accepted procedures for sampling and analysis, prepare an integrated water quality management framework and subsequently prepare 10-year management plans for each water management area.

Philippine Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003 or the Philippine Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 provides the legal framework for the country’s systematic, comprehensive, and ecological solid waste management program that shall ensure protection of public health and the environment. It emphasizes the need to create the necessary mechanisms and incentives to pursue an effective solid waste management at the local government levels.

What are the important features of the Solid Waste Management Act?

a. Creation of the National Solid Waste Management Commission (NSWMC), the National Ecology Center (NEC), and the Solid Waste Management Board in every province, city and municipality in the country.The NSWMC shall be responsible in the formulation of the National Solid Waste Management Framework (NSWMF) and other policies on solid waste, in overseeing the implementation of solid waste management plans and the management of the solid waste management fund.The NEC, on the other hand, shall be responsible for consulting, information, training and networking services relative to the implementation of R.A.No. 9003.The Solid Waste Management Board of provinces, cities, and municipalities shall be responsible for the development of their respective solid waste management plans.b. Formulation of the NSWMF: 10-year solid management plans by local government units;

c. Mandatory segregation of solid waste to be conducted primarily at the source such as household, institutional, industrial, commercial and agricultural sources;

d. Setting of minimum requirements to ensure systematic collection and transport of wastes and the proper protection of garbage collectors' health;

e. Establishment of reclamation programs and buy-back centers for recyclable and toxic materials;

f. Promotion of eco-labeling in local products and services;

g. Prohibition on non-environmentally acceptable products and packaging;

h. Establishment of Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) in every barangay or cluster of barangays;

i. Prohibition against the use of open dumps;

j. Setting of guidelines/criteria for the establishment of controlled dumps and sanitary landfills;

k. Provision of rewards, incentives both monetary and non-monetary, financial assistance, grants and the like to encourage LGUs and the general public to undertake effective solid waste management; and

l. Promotion of research on solid waste management and environmental education in the formal and non-formal sectors.

Plastic Pollution Act

What would this law do?This bill requires compostable and marine degradable plastic bags to be the only type of plastic bags used at stores of a certain size and/or number of locations.

Why change this law?Plastic bags can cause much harm to wildlife. According to the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), there are several major negative impacts of plastic bags and other marine debris:

Ingestion—whales and other marine mammals, sea turtles, birds, fish, crabs, and other animals ingest debris, which can contain toxic substances, and consequently suffer injury, infection, reproductive failure, starvation, and even death. Entanglement – animals can get entangled in debris, restricting them and causing exhaustion, infection, suffocation, starvation, drowning, increased vulnerability to predators, and death. Ecosystem Alteration – sensitive ecosystems, and the plants and animals in them, can be harmed by debris and also by clean-up efforts, such as beach-raking. Introduction of Invasive Species – floating debris can carry invasive species from one body of water to another.

Prevention of problems related to pollution is critical; reduction of waste and biodegradability of products are important. Requiring biodegradable bags would address both sides of this equation – limiting the use of plastic bags and making those that are used more environmentally friendly.

Other Philippine laws and regulations regarding the environment

Philippine Constitution (202K)The Philippine Constitution specifically protects the environment.

Philippine Constitution (Excerpts) (10K)Summarizes areas specific to environmental protection.Presidential Decree 704. (55K)Covers fishery lawsPresidential Decree 705. (48K)Covers forestry lawsExecutive Order 240. (37)KCovers Integrated Fishery ManagementLocal Goverment Code (Excerpts) (40K)Presidental Decree 1151 (5K)Covers Philippine Environmental Policy

Presidential Decree No. 1152 (50K)The Philippine Environment CodeJOA Number 3. (4K)Covers Implementing guidelines on the granting of preferential treatment to small fisherfolk relative to the 15K Muncipal Water.Republic Act No. 7586 (NIPAS Act) (29K)Establishment and Management of National Integrated Protected Areas System, Defining its scope and coverageDENR Administrative Order No. 25 (83K)Implementing Rules and Regulations for Republic Act No. 7586

Presidential Decree No. 1586 (7K)Establishing an Environmental Impact Statement System, including other environmental management related measures.Republic Act No. 7942 (Philippine Mining Act of 1995) (99K)

An Act instituting a new system of Mineral Resources Exploration, Development, utilization and conservationDENR Administrative Order No. 96-40 Series of 1996 (429K)Revised Implementing Rules and Regulations of Republic Act No. 7942Republic Act No. 7907 (33K)An Act Amending Republic Act No. 3844, as amended, otherwise known as the "Code of Agrarian Reform in the Philippines".Republic Act No. 6657 (99K)The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1998.Presidential Decree No. 984 (33K)Providing for the Revision of Republic Act No. 3931, commonly known as the Pollution Control Law.Executive Order No. 542 (17K)Covers the creation of the Task Force PawikanExecutive Order No. 263(17K)Adopts Community-Based Forest Management as the National Strategy to ensure the sustainable development of the country's forst lands.City of Manila Ordinance 7695 (2K)Covers proper garbage disposal.City of Manila Ordinance 7849 (3K)Amends Ordinace 7695 to provide stiffer penalties for improper garbage disposal.City of Manila Ordinance 7853 (4K)An Ordinace requiring that all Public Utility Vehicles provide trash receptacles in their vehicles.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 76Regulations regarding the collecting and gathering of marine turtlesFisheries Administrative Order No. 88Regulations for the Conservation of Turtle, Turtle Eggs and Turtle Shells in the PhilippinesBureau of Forest Development Circular No. 8Regulations for the Conservation of Marine Turtles in the PhilippinesDANR General Administrative Order No. 2Transferring the Administration and Control of Turtles to the Parks and Wildlife Office and for Other Purposes.

DENR Administrative Order No. 3, Series of 1995Procedural and/or Documentary Requirements, Guidelines and/or Criteria to be observed and/or followed in the Selection of Local Government Units (LGUs). Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and People's Organizations (POs) to the Protected Area Management Board (PAMB)DENR Administrative Order No. 5, Series of 1995Guidelines in the selection, awards, monitoring and evaluationof host Non-Government Organization in the Conservation of Protected Areas ProjectDENR Administrative Order No. 7, February 17, 1994Revised Guidelines Governing the Issuance of Certificate of Origin for Logs, Timber, Lumber and Non- timber Forest Products.DENR Administrative Order No. 13, Series of 1992Regulation governing the establishment of buffer zone within forest lands.DENR Administrative Order No. 142, Series of 1989Guidelines on the Disposition of Confiscated Wildlife Species.DENR Administrative Order No. 30, September 30, 1994Implementing Guidelines for Non-Government Organization Assisted Community-Based Mangrove Forest Management (NGO- Assisted CBMFM) for the DENR.DENR Memorandum Order No. 95-08Clarification on the Provisions of the NIPAS Law regarding the modification of boundary of the Protected Area and its Buffer Zone.DENR Administrative Order No. 08, February 17, 1994Additional Requirements in the Issuance of New Sawmill Permits and Certificates of Registration as Lumber Dealers, Including Renewals Thereof.DENR Administrative Order No. 32, September 07, 1994Creation of an Office to Coordinate DENR Commitments to Inter-Agency Committees, Commission, Task Force and Special Projects.

DENR Administrative Order No.34, September 16, 1994Amending Section 13 of DAO 58, Series of 1983, Providing for the Rules and Regulations Governing Narra Resources.DENR Administrative Order No. 35, September 19, 1994Guidelines Governing the Implementation and Monitoring of the DENR National Crime Reporting System.DENR Administrative Order No.36, Series of 1991Guidelines governing the confiscation, seizure, and disposition of wilf flora and fauna illegally collected, gathered, acquired, transported, and imported including paraphernalia.DENR Administrative Order No. 37, Series of 1996Revising DENR Administrative Order No. 21, Series of 1992, to further strengthen the implementation of the Environmental Impact Statement SystemDENR Administrative Order No.55, Series of 1991Declaring Dugong or sea cow (Dugong dugon) as Protected Marine Mammal of the PhilippinesDENR Memorandum Circular No. 16, Series of 1993Guidelines on the Establishment and Management of Buffer Zones for Protected AreasDENR Memorandum Circular No.04, January 26, 1994Implementing Guidelines for the Selection, Contracting, Monitoring and Evaluation of NGOs Under the ENR-SECAL Program.DENR Memorandum Circular No. 01, January 18, 1994Guidelines for the Prosecution of Illegal Logging and Related CasesDENR Memorandum Circular No. 20, Series of 1990Guidelines on the Restoration of Open and Denuded Areas within National Parks and Other Protected Areas within National Parks and Other Protected Areas for the Enhancement of Biological Diversity.

DENR Memorandum Circular No. 20, Series of 1995Implementing Guidelines of DENR Administrative Order No. 95-9, Series of 1995, Regulation on Forest Tree Seed Production, Collection and Disposition.DENR Memorandum Circular No. 21, June 22, 1994Supplementary Guidelines and Instructions on the Implementation of DAO No. 07, S. 1994. Anent Issuance of Certificates of Origin for Forest Products.DENR Memorandum Circular No. 22, October 7, 1994Delegation of Authority Regarding the Implementation of Foreign Assisted Integrated Protected Area Projects (IPAS), etc.DENR Memorandum Circular No. 25, July 13, 1994Guidelines on the Partial Turn-over of Contract Reforestation (CREF) Projects Qualified for Forestland Management Agreement (FLMA) IssuanceDENR Memorandum Circular No. 26, July 08, 1994Flagship Program for the Indigenous Cultural Communities under the Social Reform Agenda.DENR Memorandum Circular No. 32, September 06, 1994DENR Divers Who Could Assist in the Conduct of Coral and Fish Survey and Assessment.DENR Memorandum Circular No. 34, September 22, 1994General Outline for the Formulation of Initial Protected Area Plan.DENR Memorandum Circular No. 38, October 18, 1994Amending DENR Memorandum Circular No. 29, Series of 1993. Otherwise Known as"Guidelines and Procedures in the Cancellation of Reforestation Contracts and Recovery Proceedings."DENR Memorandum Circular No. 45, December 22, 1994Clarifications on Some Provisions of R.A. 7586, DAO No. 25, Series of 1992 and Other Related Guidelines.

DENR Memorandum Order No. 01, February 17, 1994Adoption of Revised Procedures on the Issuance of Certificate of Origin FormsDENR Memorandum Order No. 04, February 02, 1995Creation and Constitution of the National Federation of Multisectoral Forest Protection Committees (NFMFPC)Executive Order No. 192, June 10, 1987Providing for the Reorganization of the Department of Environment, Energy and Natural Resources, Renaming it as the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and for other PurposesExecutive Order No. 192Authorizing the Establishment of the Clark International Airport Corporation to operate and manage the Clark Aviation ComplexExecutive Order No. 446Mandating the Phase-out of Leaded Gasoline as one of the means of solving air pollution.Executive Order No. 708Reorganizing the Office of the President and Creating the Office of the Prime Minister pursuant to the 1981 amendments to the Constitution.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 129Ban on the taking or catching, selling, possessing, transporting Sabalo (full -grown bangus or milkfish)Fisheries Administrative Order No. 125Rules and regulations governing conversion of ordinary fishpond permits and ten (10) year fishpond lease agreements into twenty-five (25) year fishpond lease agreements and other related matters.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 144Rules and regulations on commercial fishing.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 149Adopting all existing rules and regulations on fisheriesFisheries Administrative Order No. 155Regulating the use of fine meshed nets in fishingFisheries Administrative Order No. 156Guidelines and procedure in the effective implementation of LOI No. 1328

Fisheries Administrative Order No. 163Prohibiting the operation of "Muro-Ami" and "Kayakas" in all Philippine waters.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 164Rules and Regulations governing the operation of "Hulbot-Hulbot" in the Philippine waters.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 173Banning the exportation of bangus fingerlings (hatirin)Fisheries Administrative Order No. 18Covers the protection and conservation of turtles in the San Miguel Islands, comprising the Manuc-manucan, Bancauan, and Bancoran Islets in the Sulu SeaFisheries Administrative Order No. 184Guideline on the experimental collection of precious and semi-precious corals of the Philippine waters.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 185Ban on the taking or catching, selling, purchasing and possessing, transporting and exporting of Dolphins.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 188Regulations governing the operation of commercial fishing boats in Philippine waters using Tuna Purse Seine Nets.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 23Regulations establishing a closed season period for the conservation of turtles, turtle eggs, and turtle shells in the Turtle Islands.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 29Rules and regulations governing the gathering of aquatic turtle eggs.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 29-1Amending Sections 8 and 9 of Fisheries Administrative Order No. 29Fisheries Administrative Order No. 36To establish a closed season period for the gathering or killing of marine turtles, turtle eggs, or turtle shell.Forestry Sector Administrative Order No. 15, May 10, 1995Revised General Guidelines in the Implementation of the Sub-classification of Forestlands and Other Inalienable Lands of the Public Domain.Forestry Sector Administrative Order No. 17, May 20, 1995

Institutionalization of the Multi-Sectoral Forest Protection Communities Within The DENR System.DENR Administrative Order No. 97-39Covers chemical control order for cyanide and cyanide compounds.

DENR Administrative Order No. 97-38Covers chemical control order for mercury and mercury compounds.

DENR Administrative Order No. 97-05Procedures in the retention of areas within certain distances along the banks of rivers, streams, and shore of seas, lakes and oceans for environmental protection.Bureau of Forestry Administrative Order No. 1Regulations Governing the collecting, gathering and/or disposing marine turtles, turtle eggs and its by-productsMinistry of Natural Resources Special Order No. 357Created a council of deputy conservation officers in the province of Tawi-TawiMinistry of Natural Resources Special Order No. 201Covers the creation of an implementing organization of the Pawikan Task Force to implement the pawikan conservation program of the Philippines.Ministry of Natural Resources Memorandum Order No. 06Declares a total ban on exploitation activities related to marine turtles.Ministry of Natural Resources Memorandum, September 1, 1982Management Authority over Marine Turtles.Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 34Declare the municipality of Caluya as marine turtle sanctuary.Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 33Regulations governing the collection of marine turtle eggs in the province of Tawi-Tawi and reiterating the duties and responsibilities of

deputy conservation officers and deputy game wardens.Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 10Deputizing the Governor and Vice-Governor of Tawi-Tawi, Municipal Mayor and Barangay Captain of the Municipality of Taganak of the Province of Tawi-Tawi as Deputized Conservation Officers.Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 08Establishment of Certain Islands in the Province of Tawi-Tawi, Palawan and Antique Marine Turtle Sanctuaries.Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 01Deputizing the Provincial Governors, Vice-Governors and Municipal Mayors, areas critical for the protection of Marine Turtles in the Philippines, as Conservation OfficersFisheries Administrative Order No. 68Amends Section 2 of Fisheries Administrative Order No. 36.Revised Fisheries Administrative Order No. 60Regulations governing the issuance of fishpond permits and/or leases on public forest lands.Forestry Sector Administrative Order No. 03Bans use of Highlead Yarding Systems in the Dipterocarp ForestsDENR Administrative Order No. 20, June 1, 1992Created the Organizational and Management Structure for the implementation of the ENR Sector Adjustment Loan (SECAL) Program.DENR Administrative Order No.02, January 13, 1992Deals with the Annual Allowable Cut Determination to Second Growth Forest.DENR Administrative Order No.12, April 01, 1992Deals with the annual allowable cut computation and tree marking goal determination in the second growth dipterocarp forestsDENR Administrative Order No.34, July 14, 1992Covers the rules and regulations to implement Republic Act No. 7076.DENR Administrative Order No.16, April 20, 1992

Addendum to DAO 42 which provides the regulations and guidelines governing the establishment and development of IFPsPresidential Decree 1067The Water Code of the PhilippinesRepublic Act 8371The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997, provides for the recognition, protection and promotion of the rights of indigenous cultural communities / indigenous people.Republic Act 8435Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997DENR Administrative Order No. 04, Series of 1992Amending DENR Administrative Order No. 14, Series of 1991 "Establishing The El Nido Marine Reserves".Republic Act 8550The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998DENR Administrative Order No.96-12Prescribes organizational and Management Arrangement of the Pasig River Rehabilitation ProgramDENR Administrative Order No.92-23Institutionalizes the Master Plan for Forestry Development within DENR and Defines Functions of Offices for the purpose.DENR Administrative Order No.92-27Covers the Management of Mossy ForestsDENR Administrative Order No.92-30Guidelines for the Transfer and Implementation of DENR Functions Devolved to the Local Government UnitsDENR Administrative Order No.92-34Rules and Regulations to Implement Republic Act No. 7076 Otherwise Known as "Peoples Small Scale Mining Act of 1991".DENR Administrative Order No.92-35Prescribes the Guidelines for Community Reforestation Contract Under the Low Income Upland Communities Project (LIUCP)DENR Administrative Order No.92-36Covers the Assignment and Supervision of the DENR-Non-Governmental/Peoples' Organization (NG/PO) Desk.

DENR Administrative Order No.92-37Amending certain provisions of DENR Administrative Order No. 30, Series of 1992Department of Agriculture Administrative Order No.98-03Implementing Rules and Regulations Pursuant to Republic Act No. 8550DENR Administrative Order No.92-50Guidelines on the Disposition of Confiscated Logs, Lumber and Other Forest Products for Public Infrastructure Projects.DENR Administrative Order No.97-04Rules and Regulations Governing the Industrial Forest Management ProgramDENR Administrative Order No.96-24Rules and Regulations Governing the Socialized Industrial Forest Management ProgramDENR Administrative Order No.93-60Revised Regulations and Guidelines Governing the Establishment and Management of Industrial Forest Plantations (IFPs) and Management of Residual Natural Forests for Production PurposesDENR Administrative Order No.93-68Amendment to DAO No. 60, Series of 1993DENR Administrative Order No.93-22Revised Guidelines for Community Forestry ProgramDENR Administrative Order No.93-16Guidelines on the Implementation of the Forestry Sector ProjectDENR Administrative Order No.92-56Designation of Pagbilao Mangrove Swamp Experimental Forest as Genetic Resources Area and National Training Site for MangroveDENR & DILG Joint Memorandum Circular No. 98-01Designation of Pagbilao Mangrove Swamp Experimental Forest as Genetic Resources Area and National Training Site for MangroveRepublic Act No. 8041An Act to Address the National Water CrisisRepublic Act No. 7161Amends PD 705 by increasing the Forest Charges on Timber and other Forest Products.Republic Act No. 4190An Act Declaring Certain Places in the Province of Lanao Del Sur as National Parks

Republic Act No. 3571 An Act which prohibits destroying growing trees, flowering plants and other plants of scenic value in public areasQuezon Proclamation No. 02, series of 1913Sets apart a forest reserve in Atimonan, QuezonQuezon Proclamation No. 740, series of 1934Covers the establishment of the Quezon National ParkQuezon Proclamation No. 594, series of 1940 Modifies the boundaries of Quezon National ParkProclamation No. 2146 Proclaiming Certain Areas and Types of Projects as Environmentally Critical and Within the Scope of the Environmental Impact Statement System Established under Presidential Decree No. 1586.Presidential Decree No. 979 The Marine Pollution Decree of 1976Presidential Decree No. 856 Code on Sanitation in the PhilippinesPresidential Decree No. 825 Provides penalties for improper disposal of garbage and other forms of uncleanliness.Presidential Decree No. 601 The Revised Coast Guard Law of 1974Presidential Decree No. 2001 Established a program phasing-out tetraethyl lead (TEL) in gasoline.Presidential Decree No. 1899 Establishes small-scale mining as a new dimension in mineral developmentPresidential Decree No. 1775 Amends section eighty of the Revised Philippine Forestry Code (PD 705)Presidential Decree No. 1160 Gives authority to Barangay Captains to enforce Pollution and Environmental Control Laws

Presidential Decree No. 1121 Covers the creation of the National Environmental Protection Council

DENR Memorandum Circular No. 06, June 4, 1992 Covers the implementation of Project CARE

Activities After Species Adoption by Each Barangay, Municipality, City and ProvinceLetter of Instruction No. 549 Instructs the National Environment Protection Council to establish an administrative system for the evaluation of environmental impact of projects.Letter of Instructions No.1179 Instructions authorizing the National Environment Protection Council to issue Environmental Compliance Certificates.Executive Order No. 247 Sets guidelines for the prospecting of biological and genetic resourcesExecutive Order No. 15 Created the Philippine Council for Sustainable DevelopmentDENR Memorandum Order No. 10, series of 1991 Guidelines for the conduct of Resources Basic Inventory (RBI) within Protected Areas.DENR Memorandum Circular No. 35, November 17, 1993 Criteria and guidelines for the Categorization of the Protected Areas under the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS)DENR Memorandum Circular No. 17, May 13, 1993 Guidelines on the conduct of Protected Area Suitability Assessment (PASA).DENR Memorandum Circular No. 22, Series of 1992 Guidelines on the preparation and submission of maps of areas covered by the National Integrated Protected Areas System.DENR Memorandum Circular No. 17, October 15, 1992 Covers the delineation of functions and implementation of the Integrated Social Forestry Program after the Devolution of Functions to the Local Government Units (LGUs)DENR Memorandum Circular No. 09, August 03, 1992 Requires Timber License Agreement/Timber Production Sharing Agreement holders to prepare and submit a Medium Term Forest Management Plan.

Forestry Sector Administrative Order No. 09Covers the regulation of forest tree seed production, collection and disposition.DENR Administrative Order No. 68, December 16, 1993 Amendment to DAO No. 60, Series of 1993, to encourage more investors in the IFP program of the government and to accelerate the establishment of industrial forest plantations.DENR Administrative Order No. 62, October 15, 1993 Institutionalizes community organizing as an approach and atrategy in the planning and pImplementation of programs and projects in theDENR.DENR Administrative Order No. 38, August 11, 1992 Prescribes Conditions for the Operation of Sawmills and Mini-Sawmills.DENR Administrative Order No. 42, August 22, 1991 Revised Regulations and Guidelines Governing the Establishment and Development of Industrial Forest Plantations (IFPs)DENR Administrative Order No. 48, September 13, 1991 Establishment of a national list of rare, endangered, threatened, vulnerable, indeterminate, and iInsufficiently known species of Philippine Wild Birds, Mammals, and Reptiles.

Parks and Wildlife Office Administrative Order No. 1, Series of 1964Rules and Regulation for the Protection and Conservation of Flora in Public Grounds

DENR Memorandum Circular No. 24, July 13, 1994Implementing Guidelines for the Conversion of Timber License Agreements (TLAs) to Industrial Forest Management Agreements (IFMAs).

Republic Act No. 6239An Act to Regulate the Practice of Forestry Profession in the PhilippinesDENR Administrative Order 96-26, September 10, 1996Revised Guidelines Governing the Harvest and Transport of Planted Trees and Non-Timber Products within Social Forestry Areas

3. What is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)? What are the different methods and principles of EIA?

Definition of EIA

An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a “process that involves predicting and evaluating the likely impacts of a project (including cumulative impacts) on the environment during construction, commissioning, operation and abandonment. It also includes designing appropriate preventive, mitigating and enhancement measures addressing these consequences to protect the environment and the community’s welfare”.

Purpose of the EIA Process

As a basic principle, EIA is used to enhance planning and guide decision-making. EIA is primarily presented in the context of a requirement to integrate environmental concerns in the planning process

of projects at the feasibility stage. Through the EIA Process, adverse environmental impacts of proposed actions are considerably reduced through a reiterative review process of project setting, design and other alternatives, and the subsequent formulation of environmental management and monitoring plans. A positive determination by the DENR-EMB results to the issuance of an Environmental Compliance Commitment (ECC) document, to be conformed to by the Proponent and represents the project’s Environmental Compliance Certificate. The release of the ECC allows the project to proceed to the next stage of project planning, which is the acquisition of approvals from other government agencies and LGUs, after which the project can start implementation.

What are the different concepts in solving environmental problems in the Philippines?

General and industry specific assessment methods are available including: Industrial products - Product environmental life cycle analysis (LCA) is used for identifying and measuring the impact of industrial products on the environment. These EIAs consider activities related to extraction of raw materials, ancillary materials, equipment; production, use, disposal and ancillary equipment. Genetically modified plants - Specific methods available to perform EIAs of genetically modified organisms include GMP-RAM and INOVA. Fuzzy logic - EIA methods need measurement data to estimate values of impact indicators. However many of the environment impacts cannot be quantified, e.g. landscape quality, lifestyle quality and social acceptance. Instead information from similar EIAs, expert judgment and community sentiment are employed. Approximate reasoning methods known as fuzzy logic can be used.

What are the different principles of EIA?

Principle One: Proactive Planning and Decision Tool- the EIA process is a proactive planning tool to avoid and pre-empt adverse environmental impacts that might be caused or experienced by the proposed development. An EIA should be linked to the decision making process.

Principle Two: Avoidance, Pre-emption and Prevention of Adverse Environmental Consequences- the aim of the EIA process is to avoid and prevent adverse environmental consequences of the proposed project; if adverse environmental impacts cannot be fully avoided, measures should be considered to reduce and control the possible adverse environmental impacts to within established limits or criteria.

Principle Three: Making Positive Influence on Decision Making at the Earliest Possible Opportunity and Thinking Proactively about Options and Alternatives- it is important to facilitate any effort to enhance the environmental performance of the proposed development at the beginning of the project planning stage rather than at the later stage of the project development. It is often better to pre-empt adverse impacts at the early stage of the project implementation. Options and alternatives should be considered when adverse environmental impacts are expected, and in considering alternatives, the primary consideration is whether applying the precautionary principle, the project is shown to be environmentally acceptable.

Principle Four: Living Process Throughout the Project Cycle- the EIA process should involve a course of dynamic actions throughout the project cycle to identify and predict the possible adverse environmental impacts from the proposed development, to develop measures to avoid, pre-empt, prevent and reduce environmental problems, and to manage and control environmental impacts to within established limits or criteria.

Principle Five: Making EIA Recommendations Enforceable - the EIA recommendations should be sensible, practical and effective, with information about the 5 Ws (ie. what mitigation measures would be implemented, by whom, when, where and to what requirements) and with clear definition of the responsibility for implementing the recommended mitigation measures. The recommended measures should be easy to enforce and can prevent environmental problems from occurring, rather than relying on remedial measures after problems occur.

Principle Six: Flexibility Amidst Robustness and Transparency, with Public Participation and with the Ability to Adapt to Changes- the EIA process should be transparent and take into account public participation, but should be flexible to adapt to changing circumstances without compromising the environmental requirements.

Principle Seven: Seeking Practical Environmental Outcomes for the Environment and Community- one of the objectives of the EIA process is to deliver and communicate practical environmental outcomes for the environment and the community.

Principle Eight: Avoidance of any Late Focus- early focus on major adverse environmental consequences could save a large amount of efforts or costs that may otherwise arise from expensive or time-consuming remedial works at a later stage.

Principle Nine: Efficiency Amidst Effectiveness- an effective and efficient approach in carrying out EIA studies step by step would enhance the productivity of the EIA process.

Principle Ten: Transparent Agreement among Relevant Parties, Clear Expectations of what need to be done and what the Performance will be, and Explicit Resolution of any Conflicts - agreements, expectations, performance requirements and any conflict resolutions etc. should be fully communicated among relevant parties in an open and frank manner to avoid misunderstanding and to enhance better management of EIA follow up works.

PD 1586 (1978): Philippine EIA System• Establishing an Environmental Impact Statement System including Other Environmental Management related Measures and for Other Purposes• Centralized the EIS System under the (then) National Environmental Protection Council (NEPC), and authorized the President and the NEPC to proclaim projects and activities subject to the EIS system; placed the Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB) (created by PD 984) under NEPC

4. What are the major nutritional requirements?

Nutrition is the selection of foods and preparation of foods, and their ingestion to be assimilated by the body. By practicing a healthy diet, many of the known health issues can be avoided.[1] The diet of an organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the perceivedpalatability of foods.

There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, dietary fiber , minerals , proteins, vitamins, and water.These nutrient classes can be categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins, and water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built),energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram,[3] though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class of dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear.Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complexpolysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs naturally when atrophy takes place, or during periods of starvation.Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals which are said to influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other substances. Some nutrients can be stored internally (e.g., the fat soluble vitamins), while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too much of a required nutrient. For example, both salt and water (both absolutely required) will cause illness or even death in too large amounts.

CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products.Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complexcarbohydrates because they are typically long multiple branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular

diseases which have become more frequent in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than formerly, perhaps leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear, however.Simple carbohydrates are absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-sugar levels more rapidly than other nutrients. However, the most important plant carbohydrate nutrient, starch, varies in its absorption. Gelatinized starch (starch heated for a few minutes in the presence of water) is far more digestible than plain starch. And starch which has been divided into fine particles is also more absorbable during digestion. The increased effort and decreased availability reduces the available energy from starchy foods substantially and can be seen experimentally in rats and anecdotally in humans. Additionally, up to a third of dietary starch may be unavailable due to mechanical or chemical difficulty.

FAT

A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved.[citation needed] Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation.Many studies have shown that unsaturated fats, particularly monounsaturated fats, are best in the human diet. Saturated fats, typically from animal sources, are next, while trans fats are to be avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.[citation needed]

Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans at least two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids – omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids – seems also important for health, though definitive experimental demonstration has been elusive. Both of these "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins, which have roles throughout the human body. They are hormones, in some respects. The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which can be made in the human body from the omega-3 essential fatty acidalpha-linolenic acid (LNA), or taken in through marine food sources, serves as a building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g. weakly inflammatory PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as a building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as a building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g., pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken in directly through food. An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins: one reason a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 is believed important for cardiovascular health. In industrialized societies, people typically consume large amounts of processed

vegetable oils, which have reduced amounts of the essential fatty acids along with too much of omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.

FIBER

Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate (or a polysaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. But in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. There are two subcategories: insoluble and soluble fiber. Insoluble dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans who do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it nor do their digestive systems harbor sufficient quantities of the types of microbes that can do so either. Soluble dietary fiber comprises a variety of oligosaccharides, waxes, esters, resistant starches and other carbohydrates that dissolve or gelatinize in water. Many of these soluble fibers can be fermented or partially fermented by microbes in the human digestive system to produce short-chain fatty acids which are absorbed and therefore introduce some caloric content.Whole grains, beans and other legumes, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. Fiber is important to digestive health and is thought to reduce the risk of colon cancer.[citation needed] For mechanical reasons it can help in alleviating both constipation and diarrhea. Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move digesta along the digestive tract. Some soluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity; this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement of food through the intestines. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help lessen insulin spikes and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.

PROTEINProteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also form the enyzmes which catalyse chemical reactions throughout the body. Each molecule is composed of amino acids which are characterized by containing nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). Amino acids are soluble in the digestive juices within the small intestine, where they are absorbed into the blood. Once absorbed they cannot be stored in the body, so they are either metabolised as required or excreted in the urine.For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce them internally) and some are non-essential (the animal can produce them from other amino acids). Twenty two amino acids can be found in the human body, and about ten of these are essential, and therefore must be included in the diet. A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). A complete protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids.It is a common misconception that a vegetarian diet will be insufficient in essential proteins; both vegetarians and vegans of any age and gender, with a healthy diet, can flourish throughout all stages of life, although the latter group typically need to pay more attention to their nutrition than the former.

MINERALS

Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned – including several metals, which often occur as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster shells). Some are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in such sources. On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the most famous is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter.

Essential dietary minerals

Chlorine as chloride ions; very common electrolyte; see sodium, below Magnesium, required for processing ATP and related reactions (builds bone, causes strong peristalsis, increases flexibility, increases alkalinity). Approximately 50% is in bone, the remaining 50% is almost all inside body cells, with only about 1% located in extracellular fluid. Food sources include oats, buckwheat, tofu, nuts, caviar, green leafy vegetables, legumes, and chocolate. Phosphorus, required component of bones; essential for energy processing[6] Approximately 80% is found in inorganic portion of bones and teeth. Phosphorus is a component of every cell, as well as important metabolites, including DNA, RNA, ATP, and phospholipids. Also important in pH regulation. Food sources include cheese, egg yolk, milk, meat, fish, poultry, whole-grain cereals, and many others.[4]

Potassium, a very common electrolyte (heart and nerve health). With sodium, potassium is involved in maintaining normal water balance, osmotic equilibrium, and acid-base balance. In addition to calcium, it is important in the regulation of neuromuscular activity. Food sources include bananas, avocados, vegetables, potatoes, legumes, and mushrooms.[5]

Sodium, a very common electrolyte; not generally found in dietary supplements, despite being needed in large quantities, because the ion is very common in food: typically as sodium chloride, or common salt

5. What are the different sources of Land degradation?

Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. [1] also environmental degradation is the gradual destruction or reduction of the quality and quantity of human activities animals activities or natural means example water causes soil erosion, wind, etc. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.[2] Natural hazards are excluded as a cause, however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires.This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st century due to the implications land degradation has upon agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effects on food security. It is estimated that up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.

Sources of Land Degradation:

Land degradation is a global problem, largely related to agricultural use. The major causes include:

Land clearance, such as clearcutting and deforestation Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices Livestock including overgrazing and overdrafting Inappropriate irrigation[7] and overdrafting Urban sprawl and commercial development Soil contamination Vehicle off-roading Quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals Increase in field size due to economies of scale, reducing shelter for wildlife, as hedgerows and copses disappear Exposure of naked soil after harvesting by heavy equipment Monoculture, destabilizing the local ecosystem Dumping of non-biodegradable trash, such as plastics

Effects of Land Degradation:

Overcutting of vegetation occurs when people cut forests, woodlands and shrublands—to obtain timber, fuelwood and other products—at a pace exceeding the rate of natural regrowth. This is frequent in semi-arid environments, where fuelwood shortages are often severe.Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying capacity; the resulting decrease in the vegetation cover is a leading cause of wind and water erosion. It is a significant factor in Afghanistan. ext of land shortage the growing population pressure, during 1980-1990, has led to decreases in the already small areas of agricultural land per person in six out of eight countries (14% for India and 22% for Pakistan).Population pressure also operates through other mechanisms. Improper agricultural practices, for instance, occur only under constraints such as the saturation of good lands under population pressure which leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too steep soils, plough fallow land before it has recovered its fertility, or attempt to obtain multiple crops by irrigating unsuitable soils.High population density is not always related to land degradation. Rather, it is the practices of the human population that can cause a landscape to become degraded. Populations can be a benefit to the land and make it more productive than it is in its natural state. Land degradation is an important factor of internal displacement in many African and Asian countriesSevere land degradation affects a significant portion of the Earth's arable lands, decreasing the wealth and economic development of nations. As the land resource base becomes less productive, food security is compromised and competition for dwindling resources increases, the seeds of famine and potential conflict are sewn.

What is “biomagnification”?

An important process through which chemicals can affect living organisms is bioaccumulation. Bioaccumulation means an increase in the concentration of a chemical in a biological organism over time, compared to the chemical's concentration in the environment. Compounds accumulate in living things any time they are taken up and stored faster than they are broken down (metabolized) or excreted. Understanding the dynamic process of bioaccumulation is very important in protecting human beings and other organisms from the adverse effects of chemical exposure, and it has become a critical consideration in the regulation of chemicals.A number of terms are used in conjunction with bioaccumulation. Uptake describes the entrance of a chemical into an organism -- such as by breathing, swallowing, or absorbing it through the skin -- without regard to its subsequent storage, metabolism, and excretion by that organism.Storage, a term sometimes confused with bioaccumulation, means the temporary deposit of a chemical in body tissue or in an organ. Storage is just one facet of chemical bioaccumulation. (The term also applies to other natural processes, such as the storage of fat in hibernating animals or the storage of starch in seeds.)Bioconcentration is the specific bioaccumulation process by which the concentration of a chemical in an organism becomes higher than its concentration in the air or water around the organism. Although the process is the same for both natural and manmade chemicals, the term bio-concentration usually refers to chemicals foreign to the organism. For fish and other aquatic animals, bioconcentration after uptake through the gills (or sometimes the skin) is usually the most important bioaccumulation process.Biomagnification describes a process that results in the accumulation of a chemical in an organism at higher levels than are found in its food. It occurs when a chemical becomes more and more concentrated as it moves up through a food chain -- the dietary linkages between single-celled plants and increasingly larger animal species.A typical food chain includes algae eaten by the water flea eaten by a minnow eaten by a trout and finally consumed by an osprey (or human being). If each step results in increased bioaccumulation, that is, biomagnification, then an animal at the top of the food chain, through its regular diet, may accumulate a much greater concentration of chemical than was present in organisms lower in the food chain.Biomagnification is illustrated by a study of DDT which showed that where soil levels were 10 parts per million (ppm), DDT reached a concentration of 141 ppm in earthworms and 444 ppm in robins. Through biomagnification, the concentration of a chemical in the animal at the top of the food chain may be high enough to cause death or adverse effects on behavior, reproduction, or disease resistance and thus endanger that species, even when levels in the water, air, or soil are low. Fortunately, bioaccumulation does not always result in biomagnification.THE BIOACCUMULATION PROCESS - Bioaccumulation is a normal and essential process for the growth and nurturing of organisms. All animals, including humans, daily bioaccumulate many vital nutrients, such as vitamins A,D and K, trace minerals, and essential fats and amino acids. What concerns toxicologists is the bioaccumulation of substances to levels in the body that can cause harm. Because bioaccumulation is the net result of the interaction of uptake, storage and elimination of a chemical, these parts of the process will be examined further.

What is Organic Farming?

Organic farming is a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more than choosing not to use pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones.

Organic production is a holistic system designed to optimize the productivity and fitness of diverse communities within the agro-ecosystem, including soil organisms, plants, livestock and people. The principal goal of organic production is to develop enterprises that are sustainable and harmonious with the environment.The general principles of organic production, from the Canadian Organic Standards (2006), include the following:

protect the environment, minimize soil degradation and erosion, decrease pollution,

optimize biological productivity and promote a sound state of health

maintain long-term soil fertility by optimizing conditions for biological activity within the

soil

maintain biological diversity within the system

recycle materials and resources to the greatest extent possible within the enterprise

provide attentive care that promotes the health and meets the behavioural needs of

livestock

prepare organic products, emphasizing careful processing, and handling methods in

order to maintain the organic integrity and vital qualities of the products at all stages of

production

rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems

Organic farming promotes the use of crop rotations and cover crops, and encourages balanced

host/predator relationships. Organic residues and nutrients produced on the farm are recycled

back to the soil. Cover crops and composted manure are used to maintain soil organic matter

and fertility. Preventative insect and disease control methods are practiced, including crop

rotation, improved genetics and resistant varieties. Integrated pest and weed management,

and soil conservation systems are valuable tools on an organic farm. Organically approved

pesticides include “natural” or other pest management products included in the Permitted

Substances List (PSL) of the organic standards. The Permitted Substances List identifies

substances permitted for use as a pesticides in organic agriculture. All grains, forages and

protein supplements fed to livestock must be organically grown.

The organic standards generally prohibit products of genetic engineering and animal

cloning, synthetic pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, synthetic drugs, synthetic

food processing aids and ingredients, and ionizing radiation. Prohibited products and

practices must not be used on certified organic farms for at least three years prior to

harvest of the certified organic products. Livestock must be raised organically and fed 100

per cent organic feed ingredients.

Organic farming presents many challenges. Some crops are more challenging than others to

grow organically; however, nearly every commodity can be produced organically.

What are the major types of pesticides?

The word "pesticide" is a general term used to describe a substance (or mixture) that kills a pest, or it prevents or reduces the damage a pest may cause. Pests can be insects, mice or other animals, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, bacteria or viruses.Pesticides can also include any substance that is used to modify a plant's growth (regulator), drop a plant's leaves prematurely (defoliant), or act as a drying agent (desiccant). Pesticides are usually chemicals, but they can also be made from natural materials such as animals, plants, bacteria, etc.NOTE: The term "pesticide" describes a very large and diverse group of chemicals or products. It is very important to always get specific information about the exact product you are using.

Pesticides include a wide range of products - many of which you may use every day. The table below lists some common categories, their purpose, and what products they are normally found in. There are many, many more types of pesticides than what is listed here.

Common Types of Pesticides

Category Purpose Examples

Insecticides Kills or repel insects, ticks and mites bug sprays insect repellents ant and roach baits garden dusts or sprays commercial farm/orchard sprays flea shampoos, flea and tick collars moth balls

Herbicides Kills weeds or unwanted plants. weed killers weed and feed lawn care products tree cut/stump treatments

Fungicides Kills mould, mildew and other fungi. rose and flower sprays commercial farm/orchard sprays treated seeds paint additives

Rodenticides Kills rodents such as mice and rats. mouse and rat bait stations

Disinfectants Kills bacteria, mould and mildew. bleach ammonia kitchen and bathroom cleaners

pool and spa cleaners

Wood preservatives Protects wood from insects and fungi. pressure-treated wood

6. Explain different alternative methods of pest control.

Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest, usually because it is perceived to be detrimental to a person'shealth, the ecology or the economy.Practitioners of pest control are referred to as Exterminators.

Types of Pest Control:

Biological pest control

Biological pest control is the control of one through the control and management of natural predators and parasites. For example: mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, a bacterium that infects and kills mosquito larvae, in local water sources. The treatment has no known negative consequences on the remaining ecology and is safe for humans to drink. The point of biological pest control, or any natural pest control, is to eliminate a pest with minimal harm to the ecological balance of the environment in its present form.

Mechanical pest control

Mechanical pest control is the use of hands-on techniques as well as simple equipment, devices, and natural ingredients that provide a protective barrier between plants and insects. For example: weeds can be controlled by being physically removed from the ground. This is referred to as tillage and is one of the oldest methods of weed control.

Elimination of breeding grounds

Proper waste management and drainage of still water, eliminates the breeding ground of many pests.Garbage provides food and shelter for many unwanted organisms, as well as an area where still water might collect and be used as a breeding ground by mosquitoes. Communities that have proper garbage collection and disposal, have far less of a problem with rats, cockroaches, mosquitoes, flies and other pests than those that don't.Open air sewers are ample breeding ground for various pests as well. By building and maintaining a proper sewer system, this problem is eliminated.Certain spectrums of LED light can "disrupt insects’ breeding.

Poisoned bait

Poisoned bait is a common method for controlling rat populations, however is not as effective when there are other food sources around, such as garbage. Poisoned meats have been used for centuries for killing off wolves, birds that were seen to threaten crops, and against other creatures. This can be a problem, since a carcass which has been poisoned will kill not only the targeted animal, but also every other animal which feeds on the carcass. Humans have also been killed by coming in contact with

poisoned meat, or by eating an animal which had fed on a poisoned carcass. This tool is also used to manage several caterpillars e.g.Spodoptera litura,fruit flies,snails and slugs,crabs etc.

Field burning

Traditionally, after a sugar cane harvest, the fields are all burned, to kill off any insects or eggs that might be in the fields.

Hunting

Historically, in some European countries, when stray dogs and cats became too numerous, local populations gathered together to round up all animals that did not appear to have an owner and kill them. In some nations, teams of rat catchers work at chasing rats from the field, and killing them with dogs and simple hand tools. Some communities have in the past employed a bounty system, where a town clerk will pay a set fee for every rat head brought in as proof of a rat killing.

Traps

With the many traps available on the market today you can easily remove mice and rats from homes. You must first know what rodent needs to be removed, you can then decide what type of trap is the best suited to your needs. The snap trap is the most widely used, it utilizes a trigger (sometimes shaped like cheese) to hold bait, and kills the rodent by striking it behind the head with a wire rod or jaw. In some instances you may wish to use glue traps also called glue boards. This type of trap requires the mouse or rat to attempt to cross the trap so the glue can hold the rodent. After a catch is made you can euthanize the rodent and dispose of it trap and all, or some glue boards will release the catch when you pour vegetable oil on them, as the oil reacts with the glue to lose its grip. The last type of trap are live catch traps, this type of trap is typically a repeating style so more than one animal can be caught at a time, they can also be released from this trap in a new location if desired.

Pesticides

Spraying pesticides by planes, handheld units, or trucks that carry the spraying equipment, is a common method of pest control. Crop dusters commonly fly over farmland and spray pesticides to kill off pests that would threaten the crops. However, some pesticides may cause cancer and other health problems, as well as harming wildlife.

Space fumigation

A project that involves a structure be covered or sealed airtight followed by the introduction of a penetrating, deadly gas at a killing concentration a long period of time (24-72hrs.). Although expensive, space fumigation targets all life stages of pests

Space treatment

A long term project involving fogging or misting type applicators. Liquid insecticide is dispersed in the atmosphere within a structure. Treatments do not require the evacuation or airtight sealing of a building, allowing most work within the building to continue but at the cost of the penetrating effects. Contact insecticides are generally used, minimizing the long lasting residual effects.

Sterilization

Laboratory studies conducted with U-5897 (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) where attempted in the early 1970s although these proved unsuccessful. Research into sterilization bait is ongoing.Another effective method of soil sterilization is soil steaming. Pest is killed through hot steam which is induced into the soil.

Destruction of infected plants

Forest services sometimes destroy all the trees in an area where some are infected with insects, if seen as necessary to prevent the insect species from spreading. Farms infested with certain insects, have been burned entirely, to prevent the pest from spreading elsewhere.

Natural rodent control

Several wildlife rehabilitation organizations encourage natural form of rodent control through exclusion and predator support and preventing secondary poisoning altogether. The United States Environmental Protection Agency agrees, noting in its Proposed Risk Mitigation Decision for Nine Rodenticides that “without habitat modification to make areas less attractive to commensal rodents, even eradication will not prevent new populations from recolonizing the habitat.

Repellents

Balsam fir oil from the tree Abies balsamea is an EPA approved non-toxic rodent repellent. Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha root emits chemical compounds that repel animals

including crocodiles, snakes and rats.

What are the different problems that arise from the use of pesticides?

Problems associated with the use of pesticides have shown up. Major problems include: harmful side effects on non-target organisms (people, animals, soil, water, etc.)resurgence of pest populations (because natural control is disrupted)the development of resistancethe cost

Toxicity for non-target organismsThe use of pesticides (both synthetic and organic) always involves certain risks because of their poisonous character. Who is at risk?

The users of the pesticides.Farmers and their family members run the highest risks. They can easily come in contact with the pesticides, for example when mixing the chemicals or when applying them to the crop.

The consumers of farm products.The pesticides that were sprayed on the crop can leave behind residues that will be eaten by the consumers.

The environment.Pesticides will not only reach the target organisms but will also kill other organisms (e.g. beneficial insects, birds, earthworms, fish) in or around the crop fields, causing loss of biodiversity, deaths of wild life, and death of farm animals. Soil, air and water bodies can easily be contaminated with these poisonous chemicals. The unavoidable destruction of beneficial insects and spiders interferes with natural pest control.he mentioned risks are most obvious when pesticides cause acute toxicity to man, domestic animals and non-target organisms such as fish, bees, birds and soil organisms. The more subtle long-term chronic

effects (disruption of endocrine system, cancer, sterility and mutagenic effects) often go unnoticed and are not yet fully understood.Also in the environment, some pesticides have not only acute effects but also long-term effects. Especially the "persistent organic pollutants" (POPs) will continue to poison non-target organisms in the environment and will also appear as crop residues long after their use has ceased.No pesticide, synthetic or organic, is considered "safe". However, some are less dangerous to use than others, depending on their effect on living organisms. Before using a pesticide, it is essential to be well informed about the various effects it may have. Farmers have to know how to reduce the risks.Pesticides kill not only the pests but also the natural enemies of these pests. That means that natural control mechanisms are disrupted and it allows the pest populations to rapidly build up again to levels that can cause serious crop damage. The disruption of natural control can even create new pest problems. Minor pests that are usually kept at low numbers by their natural enemies will multiply rapidly in the absence of their enemies and cause outbreaks. So the control directed against one pests may result in the outbreak of another pest. The resurgence of pest populations after removing natural enemies creates a dependence on pesticides, which obviously is not sustainable. A key element of Integrated Pest Management is therefore to avoid resurgence. Conservation of natural enemies is required so that natural control will not be disrupted.

The economic problems related to the use of pesticides:

There are two sides to the economics of pesticide use.

Direct costsThis refer to buying the products, which requires investment by the farmers.

While many will argue that pesticides are cheap, they form a major part of the farm inputs.Many farmers have become trapped in a dependence on pesticides. By using pesticides they have disrupted natural control, which results in more pests and which leads to more pesticide use.

Indirect costsThis refers to all kind of expenses related to pesticide use, most of which are paid by the government spending tax payers' money.

A hidden cost is all the medical costs related to health problems and accidental deaths as a result of pesticide use. Governments spend millions on laboratories for residue testing, laboratories for testing the quality of pesticides, field testing of pesticides, testing of side effects, etc.Other costs born by the government include: costs for staff involved in registration, labeling, inspectors for implementing legislation, disposal of obsolete pesticides, cleaning of contaminated sites, etc.The import of pesticides requires large amount of foreign currencies.The pesticide residue issue is becoming more and more important in world trade. This is a development which is likely to have an adverse effect on the export market for countries that rely heavily on agriculture as a major part of their economy.

7. What are the different major infectious organisms and hazardous agents that cause environmental diseases?

There are many different types of environmental disease including:

Lifestyle disease such as cardiovascular disease, diseases caused by substance abuse such as alcoholism, and smoking-related disease

Disease caused by physical factors in the environment, such as skin cancer caused by excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation in sunlight

Disease caused by exposure to chemicals in the environment such as toxic metals

Categories of environmental disease First, there are those caused by the ancient metals: lead and mercury. Then there are those caused by the other metals: arsenic, phosphorus, and zinc. The newer metals can also cause environmental disease: beryllium, cadmium, chromium, manganese, nickel, cobalt, osmium, platinum, selenium, tellurium, thallium, uranium, and vanadium.

Additionally, there are environmental diseases caused by the aromatic carbon compounds including : benzene, hexachlorocyclohexane, toluenediisocyanate, phenol,pentachlorophenol, quinone and hydroquinone.Also included are the aromatic nitro-, amino-, and pyridiliumderatives: nitrobenzene, dinitrobenzene, trinitrotoluene, paramethylaminophenol sulfate (Metol), dinitroorthocresol,aniline, trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (tetryl), hexanitrodiphenylamine (aurantia), phenylenediamineand paraquat. The aliphatic carbon compounds can also cause environmental disease. Included in these are methanol, nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose, dimethylnitrosamine, and the halogenated hydrocarbons : methyl chloride, methyl bromide, trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, and the chlorinated naphthalenes. Also included are glycols: ethylene chlorhydrin anddiethylene dioxide as well as carbon disulfide, acrylonitrile, acrylamide, and vinyl chloride.

Other important chemical causes of environmental diseases are the noxious gases which can be categorized as : Simple asphxiants, chemical asphyxiants, and irritant gases. The simple asphixiants are nitrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide. The chemical asphyxiants are carbon monoxide, sulfuretted hydrogen and hydrogen cyanide. The irritant gases are sulfur dioxide, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide, chlorine, phosgene, and fluorine and its compounds, which include luroine and hydrofluoric acid, fluorspar,fluorapatite, cryolite, and organic fluorine compounds.

8. What are the basic Geological principles? How do tectonic plate movements affect condition for life in earth?

4 Common Geological Principles:a.) Law of Superposition. Nicolaus Steno, a Danish anatomist, geologist, and priest (1636 - 1686) observed the changes in a sequence of rock layers while working in the mountains of Italy. Steno's observations became known as the Law of Superposition which simply stated that in a sequence of sedimentary rock layers, each layer of rock is older than the layer above it and younger than the rock layer below it. The Law of Superposition also applied to other geologic events on the surface, such as lava flows and ash layers from volcanic eruptions.b.) Law of Crosscutting Relationships. Described by Scotsman James Hutton (1726 - 1997), the Law of Crosscutting Relationships stated that if a fault or other body of rock cuts through another body of rock then it must be younger in age than the rock through which it cuts and displaces.c.) Law of Inclusions. The Law of Inclusions was also described by James Hutton and stated that if a rock body (Rock B) contained fragments of another rock body (Rock A), it must be younger than the fragments of rock it contained. The intruding rock (Rock A) must have been there first to provide the fragments.d.) Law of Faunal Succession. In 1790, while engineering canals to link Britain's looming industrial age together, William Smith observed that fossils of invertebrate animals found in the rock layers appeared in a predictable sequence. From this observation the Law of Faunal Succession was developed and stated that fossils occur in a definite, invariable sequence in the geologic record.

Effects of Tectonic plate movements in the environment

At the boundaries of tectonic plates you get a lot of emission of various gasses either from hydrothermal vents at mid-ocean ridges or from volcanoes near plate subduction zones. These gasses typically comprise things like sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide that can have big impacts on climate and ocean chemistry. Another major impact on the environment from plate tectonics is mountain building, such as when two plates collide to form large mountain ranges such as the Himalayas. Big mountain ranges can have huge affects on weather patterns and precipitation. The Asian monsoons are heavily influenced by the Himalayan plateau for example. Also, weathering of mountain ranges can alter the atmospheric and ocean composition due to the chemical processes involved. Finally, as plate tectonics causes the continents to shift position it will have a direct effect on ocean circulation and how heat is distributed around the planet, as well as those continents shifting to different latitudes and climate regimes.

9. What are the geological hazards of earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis?

Earthquakes effects:

a.) Collapsing buildings, walls, bridges, falling furniture or objects, shattering glass windows and mirrors. Debris from collapsing structures is one of the principal dangers during an earthquake since the impact of large, heavy objects can be fatal to human beings. Earthquakes sometimes cause glass windows and mirrors to shatter and this is also quite dangerous. Earthquake aftershocks can result in the complete collapse of buildings that were damaged during an earthquake.

b.) Falling electricity lines. Earthquakes can cause electricity poles to fall and live wires to become exposed or to start fires.c.) Ruptured gas lines and spillage of flammable substances. Earthquake-generated fires can cause widespread destruction after a major earthquake. Escaping gas from broken gas lines and the toppling of containers with flammable substances (e.g. kerosene, household chemicals, etc.) present a significant threat of explosions and fires, which can cause death and destruction of property. Additionally, water pipes are sometimes ruptured during an earthquake and this compounds the problem of controlling such fires.

d.) Rock slides and/or landslides on mountains and hillsides. During an earthquake, large rocks and portions of earth high up in the hills can become dislodged and rapidly roll or slide down into the valleys.

e.) Floods caused by the collapse of dam walls. Earthquakes can cause dam walls to crack and eventually collapse, sending raging waters into surrounding areas and causing severe flooding.

f.) Tsunamis. A tsunami is a large sea wave or series of waves that can be generated by an earthquake. Large tsunamis can completely devastate low-lying coastal areas.

g.) Liquefaction. When sediments with a high water content are subjected to prolonged shaking, the pressure of the water held in pores in the sediment gradually increases eventually, the sediments lose all cohesive strength and begin to behave as if they were liquids. Building and other structures sink into the ground or overturn and buried tanks and other cavities rise to the surface. This is known as liquefaction. Liquefaction occurred during the earthquake of 1692 in Jamaica and was responsible for the destruction of the town of Port Royal. Over the past few decades, many parts of the Eastern Caribbean have become increasingly vulnerable to liquefaction because of the increased use of reclaimed land for urban development.

Ground shaking, in itself, is not dangerous. However, the resulting damage to buildings and other structures and the risk of casualties from falling debris can make it extremely hazardous. Some of the earthquake effects that can be harmful to people are:

Volcano Eruption Effects:

There is considerable debate on the role that humans play in changing global climate through both the burning of fossil fuels and the release of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases. Some argue that human interaction poses less of a threat to our atmosphere than do natural processes, like volcanic eruptions.

This places a great deal of importance on understanding the role of volcanic eruptions in affecting global climate change. Whatever the source, it is apparent that compositional changes in the earth's atmosphere generate three principal climatic effects:

a.) THE OZONE EFFECT: Intense sunlight in the stratosphere (above 12 km) produces bluish colored ozone (O3) by naturally breaking down normal oxygen molecules (O2) into two highly reactive oxygen atoms (O). Each oxygen atom then quickly bonds with an oxygen molecule to form ozone. Ozone absorbs UV radiation, and in the process ozone is changed back into an oxygen molecule and an oxygen atom. A balance exists in ozone destruction and production, so that an equilibrium concentration exists in the stratosphere. This equilibrium has probably existed throughout much of geologic time. Recently, however, an ozone hole has been detected in the stratosphere over Antarctica, presumably due to the atmospheric build up of ozone-destroying CFCs by humans. Ozone depletion has resulted in a greater penetration of ultraviolet radiation on the earth's surface, which is harmful to life on earth because it damages cellular DNA. The ozone effect does not appear to have a direct influence on global temperatures.

b.) THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT: Certain gases, called greenhouse gases (primarily carbon dioxide and water vapor; but also methane, N2O, and CFCs), allow short wavelength radiation from the sun (UV and visible light) to penetrate through the lower atmosphere to the earth's surface. These same gases, however, absorb long wavelength radiation (infrared), which is the energy the earth reradiates back into space. The trapping of this infrared heat energy by these greenhouse gases results in global warming. Global warming has been evident since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Most scientists attribute global warming to the release of greenhouse gases through the burning of fossil fuels.

c.) THE HAZE EFFECT: Suspended particles, such as dust and ash, can block out the earth's sunlight, thus reducing solar radiation and lowering mean global temperatures. The haze effect often generates exceptionally red sunsets due to the scattering of red wavelengths by submicron-size particles in the stratosphere and upper troposphere.

Tsunami Effects:

Tsunamis are large, destructive waves that are caused by the sudden movement of a large area of the sea floor. Tsunamis are often incorrectly called tidal waves, but unlike regular ocean tides they are not caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun. Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes, some are caused by submarine landslides, a few are caused by submarine volcanic eruptions and on rare occasions they are caused by a large meteorite impact in the ocean. The December produced the largest trans-oceanic tsunami in over 40 years, and killed more people than any tsunami in recorded history. The Krakatau volcanic eruption of 1883 generated giant waves reaching heights of 125 feet above sea level, killing thousands of people and wiping out numerous coastal villages.

While tsunami means "harbor wave" in Japanese, a tsunami is actually a series of large waves created by the sudden movement of the seafloor. The energy generated by the earthquake or other event is transmitted through the water as a large train of waves, but the movement of these waves is very different from the movement of waves generated by wind. NASA's Physics behind the Wave explains the structure of tsunamis. Tsunamis can travel rapidly across oceans, causing destruction far from the location where they were generated. All oceanic regions of the world experience tsunamis,

although tsunamis in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Caribbean tend to be smaller and less destructive than those in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. About 90 percent of recorded tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean. The reasons for this lie in the geologic structure of the Pacific basin - the ocean is surrounded by a geologically active series of mountain chains, deep ocean, trenches, and island arcs, sometimes called "the ring of fire." The earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that occur in the ring of fire are the source of many tsunamis.

The height of a tsunami in the deep ocean is small - usually about 1 foot - and they cannot be seen or felt by ships at sea. The distance between wave crests can be more than 100 miles. The speed at which the tsunami travels decreases as water depth decreases. In the deep waters of the mid-Pacific, a tsunami can reach a speed of more than 500 miles per hour, but in the shallow waters near land the speed drops to 100 miles per hour or less. As tsunamis reach shallow water the height of the waves increases dramatically, and can reach 100 feet or more. These huge waves can wash far inland, carrying large amounts of debris, destroying buildings and other structures, causing widespread flooding, and dramatically altering shorelines. Most tsunamis consist of a series of waves, and the first wave to reach shore may not be the largest.

10. Evaluate the cost and benefits of using coal, oil and natural gas.

NATURAL GAS Advantages • Burns clean compared to cola, oil (less polluting) • 70% less carbon dioxide compared to other fossil fuels • Helps improve quality of air and water (not a pollutant) • does not produce ashes after energy release • has high heating value of 24,000 Btu per pound • Inexpensive compared to coal • No odor until added

Drawbacks • Not a renewable source • Finite resource trapped in the earth (some experts disagree) • Inability to recover all in-place gas from a producible deposit because of unfavorable economics and lack of technology (It costs more to recover the remaining natural gas because of flow, access, etc.)

CRUDE OIL

Advantages • Oil is one of the most abundant energy resources • Liquid form of oil makes it easy to transport and use • Oil has high heating value

• Relatively inexpensive • No new technology needed to use

Disadvantages • Oil burning leads to carbon emissions • Finite resources (some disagree) • Oil recovery processes not efficient enough—technology needs to be developed to provide better yields • Oil drilling endangers the environment and ecosystems • Oil transportation (by ship) can lead to spills, causing environmental and ecological damage (major oil spill near Spain in late Fall 2002)

COAL Pros • One of the most abundant energy sources • Versatile; can be burned directly, transformed into liquid, gas, or feedstock • Inexpensive compared to other energy sources • Good for recreational use (charcoal for barbequing, drawing) • Can be used to produce ultra-clean fuel • Can lower overall amount of greenhouse gases (liquification or Gasification) • Leading source of electricity today • Reduces dependence on foreign oil • By-product of burning (ash) can be used for concrete and roadways

Cons • Source of pollution: emits waste, SO2, Nitrogen Oxide, ash • Coal mining mars the landscape • Liquification, gasification requires large amounts of water • Physical transport is difficult • Technology to process to liquid or gas is not fully developed • Solid is more difficult to burn than liquid or gases • Not renewable in this millennium • High water content reduces heating value • Dirty industry—leads to health problems • Dirty coal creates more pollution and emissions

11. What are the other potential energy sources?

Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels. The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time, as have controversies regarding energy use. Today,

because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as "alternative" is highly controversial. In a general sense, alternative energy as it is currently conceived, is that which is produced or recovered without the undesirable consequences inherent in fossil fuel use, particularly high carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming.

Common types of alternative energy:

a.) Solar energy is the use of sunlight. Light can be changed into thermal (heat) energy and electric energy.b.) Wind energy is the generation of electricity from the wind.c.) Geothermal energy is the use of the earth's internal heat to boil water for heating buildings or generating electricity.d.) Biofuel and Ethanol are plant-derived gasoline substitutes for powering vehicles.e.) Nuclear binding energy uses nuclear fission to release energy.f.) Hydrogen is burned and used as clean fuel for spaceships and some cars.

RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITYBONI AVENUE, MANDALUYONG CITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGYBACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE(FINAL EXAMINATION)

SUBMITTED BYFERNANDEZ, LOUISE LANE

CEIT-01-601AMH 09:00AM-10:30AM