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Environmental Communication A pplying Communication Tools Towards Sustainable Development 1999 Working Paper of the Working Party on Development Cooperation and Environment
EnvironmentalCommunicat ion
Applying Communication ToolsTowards Sustainable Development
1999
Working Paperof the Working Party on Development Cooperation and Environment
2
Published byPublished byPublished byPublished byPublished byDeutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbHP. O. Box 5180, D-65726 EschbornInternet: http://www.gtz.de
Division 44, Environmental Management, Water, Energy, Transport
Pilot Project Institutional Development in Environment (PVI)Wachsbleiche 1, D-53111 BonnTel.: (+49) 0228 98533-0Fax: (+49) 0228 98570-18E-Mail: [email protected]
AuthorsAuthorsAuthorsAuthorsAuthors Manfred Oepen, Manfred Oepen, Manfred Oepen, Manfred Oepen, Manfred Oepen, Winfried Hamacher and members of theOECD-DAC Working Party on Development Assistance and Environment
ResponsibleResponsibleResponsibleResponsibleResponsible Winfried Hamacher, Stephan Paulus, Kathrin Heidbrink
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Impressum
Foreword
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Since its beginning the GTZ Pilot Pro-gramme Institutional Development inEnvironment (PVI) has been workingon the issue of ‘Environmental Com-munication’. Environmental Commu-nication deals with the planned andstrategic use of communication pro-cesses and media products to supporteffective policy making, public par-ticipation and project implementationgeared towards environmental sustain-ability. Technical co-operation has arole to play in promoting this impor-tant and complementary policy instru-ment, which is needed to make en-vironmental programs and projectsmore effective.
During an International Workshop onEnvironmental Communication, orga-nized by PVI in Bonn in December1996, the proposal was made to putthis topic on the agenda of the OECDDAC Working Party on DevelopmentCooperation and Environment, in or-der to emphasize its importance atthe international level. During a Work-ing Party meeting in 1997 the issuewas first raised by PVI. Members ofthe Working Party expressed interestin this subject. They agreed, that thiswas a very important issue whichshould be examined in greater depthwith a view to enhancing environmen-tal programs. The Working Partyagreed to establish an interest groupled by Germany and joined by inter-ested members (CIDA, SIDA, BADC,UNEP and IUCN). For nearly twoyears an intensive discussion on a draftpaper issued by PVI started.
The broschure in hand is the result ofseveral rounds of peer reviews of spe-cialists associated with the membersof the interest group and will also beavailable via OECD DAC’s webpagein the near future. We wish this pa-per a wide dissimination and hope thatit will help people working in the fieldof environment to implement moresuccessful projects.
Bonn, November 1999
Winfried HamacherDr. Stephan Paulus
GTZ-Pilot Programme InstitutionalDevelopment in Environment
Forword
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Contents
5
Contents
Acknowledgement 6Introduction 7
1 Executive Summary 8
2 What Environmental 10Communication is all about
3 Environmental Communication 12in Project Management
4 1o Steps towards an Effective 15Communication Strategy
1 Situation analysis and 16problem identification
2 Actors and 18KAP - analyses
3 Communication 26objectives
4 Communication strategy 28development
5 Participation of 30strategic groups
6 Media selection 32and mix
7 Message 34design
8 Media production 36and pretesting
9 Media performance 37and field implementation
1o Process documentation, 38Monitoring and Evaluation
5 Checklist for Environmental 41Communication in Projects
Resources 42
4 Selected Literature 424 Annotated Internet Bibliography 434 Selected Case Studies 454 Case Study Literature References 48
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6
Acknowledgement
This paper was developed as a resultof several rounds of peer reviews ofspecialists associated with the
• Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnische Zusammenarbeit(GTZ) GmbH, Pilot ProjectInstitutional Development inEnvironment – GTZ-PVI,
• Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency – CIDA,
• Swedish InternationalDevelopment Agency – SIDA,
• United NationsEnvironmental Program – UNEP,
• Belgian Administration forDevelopment Cooperation –BADC,
• and the World ConservationUnion - Commission onEducation and Communication –IUCN - CEC
who, among others, were membersof the Interest Group on Environmen-tal Communication of the OECD-DAC Working Party on DevelopmentCooperation and Environment.
Acknoledgement
Introduction
7
Environmental Communication is theplanned and strategic use of commu-nication processes to support effec-tive policy-making and project imple-mentation geared towards environ-mental sustainability. Despite its ac-knowledged impact, EnvironmentalCommunication is rarely integrated indevelopment cooperation programsas a strategic tool. For this reason, theDevelopment Assistance Commit-tee’s Working Party on DevelopmentCooperation and Environment estab-lished an Interest Group on Environ-mental Communication in 1997 towork on these issues. The InterestGroup, with Germany in the lead,consisted of Canada, Belgium, Swe-den, UNEP, and IUCN.
This working paper presents the finalresults of the Interest Group’s work.The document is envisioned as a toolfor policy-makers and planners toobtain an overview of the issues in-volved. The hope of the InterestGroup is that this tool will quickly andconvincingly show how Environmen-tal Communication can become anintegrated component of policies andprojects, and thereby help ensure thatadequate human and financial re-sources are allocated to this end.
Introduction
Executive Summary
8
BackgroundOn the basis of Agenda 21, the DAChas declared environmental sustain-ability as one of its strategic goals in‘Shaping the 21st Century: The Con-ribution of Develoment Cooperation’.Capacity development in environ-ment (CDE) increasingly emerges asa key approach to this end, involvingmulti-faceted communication pro-cesses in inter-institutional coopera-tion, and interaction and consensusbuilding between a wide range ofactors. However, many implement-ing agencies realize that environmen-tal projects and action plans oftenhave limited success because the in-novations and solutions they offer arenot fully ‘owned’ by the people con-cerned.
Reasons for this limited success mayinclude basic constraints resultingfrom the way people think or behave:
• Assumptions on the part of envi-ronmentalists believing thatscientific facts and ecologicalconcerns are convincing andcompelling on their own. Howev-er, what affected people perceiveis influenced by emotions andsocialization, as well as by reasonand knowledge.
• Inflated expectations that the‘cognitive power’ of the word andthe image alone will solve a givenproblem. By taking a shortcut from‘Said’ to ‘Done!’, communicationbarriers are often disregarded.
• Conflicts of interest which arefought by stakeholders, notnegotiated by ‘shareholders’.Confrontational approaches lead toone-way information disseminationdisregarding understanding, insteadof relying on two-way communica-tion towards ‘shared meaning’ and‘win-win’ situations.
Also, practical limitations arising fromthe absence of a communication strat-egy lead to shortcomings. For exam-ple:
• A systematic and holistic commu-nication strategy that takes intoaccount people’s perceptions andalso saves funds is rarely consid-ered - but it could determine thesuccess or failure of a project.
• Communication activities areoften conducted on an ad-hocand sporadic basis, mainly usingtop-down mass media whileneglecting public participation incommunity media.
• Many decision-makers do notknow how to incorporate acommunication strategy in theirenvironmental project life cyclesand, hence, are not willing toinvest in this.
Major Findingson EnvironmentalCommunicationEnvironmental Communication (Env-Com) is the planned and strategic useof communication processes andmedia products to support effectivepolicy making, public participationand project implementation gearedtowards environmental sustainability.Embedded in a well-defined commu-nication strategy, EnvCom makes ef-ficient use of methods, instrumentsand techniques which are well estab-lished in development communica-tion, adult education, social market-ing, agricultural extension, public re-lations, non-formal training and oth-er fields.
Management ToolEnvCom is a management tool, likethe chain on a bicycle. The bike won’tmove without it but the transmissioncannot move on its own. Similarly,
Environmental Programscould be more effective,
sustainable and significantif Environmental Communication
was regularly employed
1
Said is not heard
Heard is not understood
Understood is not accepted
And accepted is not yet Done
1 - Executive Summary
9
A successful EnvComstrategy makes use ofStep-By-Step Planning
Stage 1 Assessment
Stage 2 Planning
Stage 3 Production
Stage 4 Action &Reflection
EnvCom transforms the power gen-erated by project managers and thepeople concerned into action. It pro-vides the missing link between thesubject matter of environmental is-sues and the related socio-politicalprocesses of policy making and pub-lic participation. EnvCom is intricate-ly related to education and trainingactivities, bridging ‘hard’ technicalknow-how and ‘soft’ action-orientedbehavioral change.
Communication will play a crucial rolethroughout the policy and program lifecycle of recognizing - gaining controlover - solving - and maintaining con-trol over an environmental problem.It is vital that policy-makers or plan-ners realize that different actors areinvolved at each stage, and that eachactor has different perceptions, inter-ests and ‘hidden agendas’. Under-standing where the project is in itsprogression from identification, for-mulation, implementation and man-agement is an essential basis for de-termining which communication in-struments should be used.
Many planners tend to think that pro-ducing posters and video films orlaunching a mass media ‘campaign‘is a solution to problems rooted inenvironmentally unsustainable prac-tices. However, isolated products ofthis type only have a chance of suc-cess if they are integrated into a com-prehensive communication strategywhich defines up-front for what pur-pose and for whom information ismeant and how beneficiaries are sup-posed to translate it into communi-cation and action. This can beachieved by means of the systematic‘10 Steps towards an Effective Envi-ronmental Communication Strategy’.
Knowing ‘what’ should be changedhas to be combined with ‘how’change should be brought about.
Lessons Learnedfrom the Field
Empirical evidence from manyprojects around the world indicatethat environmental practitionersshould
• define EnvCom as an output(supporting the goal of a project,e.g. ”Information on EIA lawdisseminated”) or an activity(supporting the output of aproject, e.g. ”Communicationstrategy on recycling developedwith relevant actors”),
• plan the communication strategyahead, taking research, continu-ous monitoring and evaluation,process documentation and anexit strategy seriously right fromthe beginning in project planning,
• start locally at a modest level, andlink issues raised, problemsaddressed and solutions proposedto existing trends, services andpotentials, if possible by ‘piggy-backing’ on existing communica-tion channels (see p.35),
• make use of up-stream compati-bility of media, e.g. from theaterto video and from there to TV,
• diversify the operational levels,e.g. local theater, city newspa-per, and national radion and TV(see p.31),
• use participatory approaches inmedia production, management,training etc. to increase localownership and credibility and,hence, program effectiveness,significance and sustainability.
What EnvironmentalCommunication is all about
10
Environmental Communication (Env-Com) is the planned and strategic useof communication processes and me-dia products to support effective pol-icy making, public participation andproject implementation geared to-wards environmental sustainability. Itis a two-way social interaction pro-cess enabling the people concernedto understand key environmental fac-tors and their interdependencies andto repond to problems in a compe-tent way. EnvCom aims not so muchat information dissemination as at ashared vision of a sustainable futureand at capacity building in socialgroups to solve or prevent environ-mental problems. Embedded in awell-defined communication strate-gy, EnvCom makes efficient use ofmethods, instruments and techniqueswhich are well established in devel-opment communication, adult edu-cation, social marketing, agriculturalextension, public relations, non-for-mal training, etc.
EnvCom is closely related to non-for-mal environmental education (NFEE),i.e. learning processes encompassingknowledge, values, socio-economicand technical skills related to proce-dures that facilitate the change ofnorms and practices towards sustain-able development through problem-solving action. From a long-term per-spective both, EnvCom and NFEEbuild on the factual knowledge offormal education regarding complexecological systems and their intercon-nection with human interventions onthe local, regional and global level.Pre-service and in-service vocational
training on sustainable developmentfosters the improvement and consol-idation of related curricula in all pro-fessions.
In the current debate on sustainabledevelopment, communication andeducation as the driving forces of en-vironmental learning processes havean impact on at least two levels:
1 perceptions of the environmentare to a large extent determinedby cultural contexts, visions, life-styles and value judgementswhich are acquired throughcommunication
2 criteria and options for decisionsregarding sustainable practices area result of public discourse andtransparently communicatedalternatives
Ultimately, sustainable developmentcannot be based on behavioral ma-nipulation alone but relies on a sharedvision which will help civil society todevelop adequate skills to manage itsenvironment.
Environmental Communicationis the planned and strategic use of
communication processes and media products tosupport effective policy-making, public
participation and project implementationgeared towards environmental sustainability.
2
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sensitization
EnvironmentalAction Tree
relating communication toformal + non-formal education,sensitization, vocational-training
communication
formaleducation
training
a c t i o na c t i o na c t i o na c t i o na c t i o n
non-formaleducation
2 - What EnvironmentalCommunication is allabout
11
. . . or what Environmental Communication is not aboutWhy EnvironmentalCommunication is sospecial
• Complexity ofEnvironmental IssuesEnvCom deals with science,economics, law, business man-agement, politics and humanbehavior, and their manytradeoffs and interactions in aholistic way.
• Comprehension GapWhat the lay public knows andunderstands about the technicaldimensions of the environmentdiffers widely from the knowledgeof experts.
• Personal ImpactsAs ‘nature’ is often associatedwith traditional beliefs and socio-cultural norms, EnvCom triggersreactions in non-rational (e.g.emotional and spiritual) dimen-sions of human behavior andpractices.
• Risk ElementRisks are a frequent factor inEnvCom, especially as distinctionsbetween passive/uncontrollableor active/voluntary actions areconcerned.
• Large-scale IntervenionsEnvironmental interventions, e.g.in watershed management, oftenrequire coordinated action bylarge populations which, incommunication terms, cannot befacilitated by individualistic orsmall-group approaches.
Liebig’s Lawon Plant Growth
Information alone, however, is notthe ‘missing link’ between a problemand a solution. Here, Liebig’s Law canbe applied: the yield is related to theone indispensable nutrient (light, wa-ter, fertilizers etc.) which is mostscarce. In other words – if your flow-er doesn‘t see the light, you maywater it as much as you want, it won‘tgrow. Applying this law to the growthof an environment or developmentprogram, even the most sophisticat-ed communication strategy will notsolve a problem if there is not a min-imum level of economic resources,social organization and political bar-gaining power in place. This is why aproject should define up front forwhat purpose and for whom infor-mation is meant and how beneficia-ries are supposed to translate it intocommunication and action. Also, thisis why EnvCom as a management toolshould be combined with other - e.g.market-based, legal, financial - instru-ments for best effects (see Part 3).
Environmental Communicationin Project Management
12
EnvCom bridges the subject matterof environmental issues and the re-lated sociopolitical processes of poli-cy-making and public participation. Itworks best in combination with oth-er instruments like economic incen-tives, laws and regulations or sectoralplanning. Most of all, EnvCom is veryintricately related to education andtraining activities. It bridges ‘hard’technical know-how and ‘soft’ action-oriented behavioral change, i.e. sci-entific agreement and social agree-ment on any given environmental is-sue. Its high public participation po-tential is indispensable for the accep-tance, credibility and sustainability ofenvironmental programs.
In a project life cycle as outlined be-low, EnvCom plays a crucial role atall stages. Problem identification,agenda setting, policy formulation,implementation, evaluation, manage-ment and control, etc. cannot dowithout properly defined communi-cation support. Concepts, technolo-gies and skills related to environmen-tal sustainability need to be commu-
nicated to policy-makers, opinionleaders, strategic groups or the pub-lic at large. Breaking down complexinformation into understandable ele-ments and putting those on the agen-da in a socio-culturally relevant andeconomically feasible way to differ-ent audiences is a prerequisite forconsensus building and change.
Communication plays a crucial rolethroughout the project life cycle. Itis imperative that project planners re-alize that different actors are involvedat each stage, and that each actor hasdifferent perceptions and interests.The potential contributions of com-munication are related to the variousstages of the project life cycle. Dur-ing the recognition phase, the role ofthe policy-maker increases, reachinga peak when the problem at handgets under control. Public awarenessof the problem decreases when so-lutions are offered but still needs tobe maintained. During all these stag-es, communication plays a continu-ous, yet different role - as indicatedbelow.
Phases in the Project Life Cycle
RecognizingA problem is identified and lobbied
for by social groups, and a publicdiscussion starts.
Gaining ControlPolicies are formulated, research
commissioned, and options forimprovements are intensely
deliberated.Solving
Policies, programs and projects areimplemented. The debate slows down
while the people affected remaininformed.
Maintaining ControlThe emphasis is on routine surveys.Decentralization and public-privatepartnerships may be considered for
sustainability.
EnvCom is a management tool,like the chain on a bicycle. The bikewon’t move without it but the chaincannot move on its own. Similarly,
EnvCom transforms the powergenerated by the people concerned
into action.
Relevance of a problem in public perception
33 - EnviromentalCommunication in ProjectManagment
13
Understanding where the project isin its progression from identification,formulation, implementation andmanagement is an essential basis fordetermining which communicationinstruments should be used.
RecognizingRegular opinion/attitude surveys• media content analysis • continu-ous networking with NGOs, e.g. con-sumer groups • regular meetings withinterest groups
Gaining controlKnowledge-Attitude-Practice (KAP)surveys • integrating communication
Communication Instrumentsin the Project Cycle
Knowing ‘what’ should be changed has to becombined with ‘how’ change should bebrought about.
in the mix of policy instruments• design of communication strategy• communication with those involved
SolvingCommunication as a complementa-ry instrument • information on otherinstruments (laws, incentives, etc.)• Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E)through qualitative research
Maintaining controlRegular public information • report-ing on changes in policy design andimplementation • up-dated opinion/attitude surveys.
Case Study
The above can be illustrated by the role of various communication instruments in the different phasesof Protected Area System Planning for a marine conservation programProtected Area System Planning for a marine conservation programProtected Area System Planning for a marine conservation programProtected Area System Planning for a marine conservation programProtected Area System Planning for a marine conservation program.
Phase in Park Methods of CommunicationManagement
1 - Preparation1 - Preparation1 - Preparation1 - Preparation1 - Preparation • Personal visits to the park with stakeholders to qualitatively assessthe extent of the problem for the people affected
• Qualitative knowledge/attitude/practice (,KAP’) surveys• Contact with non-governmental or community-based organizations
which will implement the EnvCom strategy• Basic information material on the park environment and the necessity
of conserving the area to be distributed to relevant groups• Regular briefings, interviews and meetings with interest groups in
order to give updates on the conservation process2 – Composition2 – Composition2 – Composition2 – Composition2 – Composition • Quantitative KAP surveys
• Integrating communication in the mix of policy instruments• Design of communication strategy• Extension to and communication with intended stakeholders
and beneficiaries3 - Implementation3 - Implementation3 - Implementation3 - Implementation3 - Implementation • Communication to raise awareness of conservation issues
among key groups of the local population• Inform groups on the use of other management instruments
(new legislation, subsidies, alternative technology)4 - Maintenance4 - Maintenance4 - Maintenance4 - Maintenance4 - Maintenance • M&E through qualitative research
• Continued public information• Regular opinion/attitude surveys
14
10 Steps towards anEffective Communication Strategy
15
Lessons Learned”If I had one hour to solve a problemI’d use 45 minutes to think about it,10 minutes to investigate potential solutionsand 5 minutes to implement the solution”(Albert Einstein)
Isolated ad-hoc initiatives that are notintegrated into a comprehensive com-munication strategy may cause inflat-ed expectations in rational appealsand the cognitive dimension of mes-sages.
This is why a project should defineup front for what purpose and forwhom information is meant, and howbeneficiaries are supposed to trans-late it into communication and ac-tion. This is best achieved in a sys-tematic and comprehensive EnvComstrategy which is always an integralpart of a larger project or program:
Stage 1 Assessment
01 Situation analysis and prob-lem identification
02 Actors and Knowledge,Attitude, Practices (KAP)analyses
03 Communication objectives
Stage 2 Planning
04 Communication strategy de-velopment
05 Participation of strategicgroups
06 Media selection and mix
Stage 3 Production
07 Message design08 Media production and pre-
testing
Stage 4 Action and Reflection
09 Media performances & fieldimplementation
10 Process documentation andMonitoring andEvaluation (M&E)
Lessons Learned
plan the communication strategyahead, taking research, continuousM&E, process documentation and anexit strategy seriously
start locally at a modest level, andlink issues raised, problems addressedand solutions proposed to existingtrends, services and potentials
make use of upstream compatibil-ity of media, e.g. theater - video -TV
diversify the operational levels, e.g.local theater, city newspaper, andnational TV or radio
use participatory approaches inmedia production, management,training, etc. to increase local own-ership and credibility and, hence, pro-gram effectiveness, significance andsustainability.
The 10 Steps will be outlined below in great-er detail. For illustration, case studies, ex-amples of tools and instruments will be re-ferred to. A case study from Thailand willserve as a ‘red thread’ throughout most ofthe steps. Its general objective was to pro-mote the appropriate application of a pestsurveillance and management systemamong rice farmers (12,000), school chil-dren (5,000) and teachers (400) in 116 vil-lages.
g Case StudyPest Management Campaign in Thailand(FAO, 1984)
Environmental Communicationmakes use of step-by-step strategic
planning as part of a project cycle
44 - Ten steps towards anEffective CommunicationStrategy
10 Steps ...
16
There are many ways to conduct asituation analysis and problem iden-tification - PRA is one of the mostparticipatory methods. It can easilybe combined with an analysis ofKnowledge-Attitudes-Practices (KAP)of the actors or groups concerned(Step 2) and the formulation of situa-tion-specific communication objec-tives (Step 3).
In order to enhance the degree ofparticipation and validity of Participa-tory Rapid Appraisal (PRA), it is rec-ommended that a 1 or 2 week train-ing event be held in which the staffof the implementing agencies, inter-mediaries (e.g. NGOs, media) andthe stakeholders or actors concernedjointly participate. Once a mode ofcooperation is established betweenthose groups, they will interact andshare experiences in other stages ofthe communication strategy as well,e.g. in pretesting media and messag-es, in utilising traditional and commu-nity as well as modern mass mediaor in evaluating the success of activi-ties.
PRA is structured by ‘triangles’
• teams - comprising men andwomen, old and young, multi-disciplinary orientations, insidersand outsiders,
• sources of information - eventsand processes, people, places,
• tools and techniques - observa-tions, diagrams, interviews anddiscussions.
The overruling principle of these tri-angles is participation
• from co-option and co-operation• via consultation and collaboration• to co-learning and collective
action.
PRA is processed in stages and bymeans of participatory tools
• rural protocol • transect walk •mapping of observations • seasonalcalendar • problem ranking by indi-viduals and groups • pairing of prob-lems related to potential projects orinterventions • data analysis • de-signing a development plan • tack-ling constraints
PRA has been adapted to environ-ment-related and other methods,such as:
• Rapid Environmental Appraisal -REA • Participatory Urban Environ-mental Appraisal - PUEA • Com-munity Self-survey - CSS • SocialImpact Assessment - SIA
PRA tools answer theWhat? - Who? - Where? - When? -Trends? questions of a situationanalysis.
STEP 1Situation Analysis and Problem Identification
Participatory RapidAppraisal (PRA)
enables people to share, presentand analyze facts that concern
their life and development
PRAPRAPRAPRAPRA• Is flexible and informal• Is applied in the community
by on-the-spot analysis• Works by ‘fuzzy logic’• Avoids biases by being self-critical
Step 1 - Situation Analysisand Problem Identification
17
Transect Mapand other PRA tools(see for example Chambers 1992,Schönhuth 1994, IIED 1995)
Participatory Rapid Appraisal - Mapping a Transect WalkTransect from Kiboum, Cameroon showing natural resources and land use pattern
Identified Problems of Pest Surveillance Systembased on a farmers’ KAP Survey in Chainat Province, Thailand (see FAO 1994)
IDENTIFIED PROBLEM PROBLEM RELATED TO
1 - Little knowledge on pest identification and Economic Threshold Level KNOWLEDGE2 - Lack of sufficient knowledge on the importance and KNOWLEDGE
potential benefits of using pests’ natural enemies3 - Lack of sufficient knowledge on the importance and KNOWLEDGE
benefits of resistant rice varieties4 - Lack of awareness of Surveillance and Early Warning System (SEWS) KNOWLEDGE/ PRACTICE
programme, and of ability in using Pest Surveillance form5 - Farmers prefer broad-spectrum pesticides and blanket spraying ATTITUDE6 - Farmers do not believe in the effectiveness of natural enemies ATTITUDE7 - Farmers go to the edge of the field, but NOT into the field to check ATTITUDE
for pests according to the recommended procedure and frequency8 - Farmers spray pesticides on sight of pests based on ATTITUDE
their ”natural instinct”9 - Farmers are aware of pesticide hazards, but DO NOT apply safety PRACTICE
precautions in pesticide handling, application and disposal
10 Steps ...
18
Tool Box(see for example FAO 1994,Adhikarya et al. 1987, IIED 1995)
STEP 2
• especially those later addressedas beneficiaries (or targetgroups), i.e. those addressed bythe communication strategy andfrom whom a change in practiceis expected,
• and the key intermediaries, i.e.individuals, groups or institutionswho can assist in reaching thetarget groups, often formal oropinion leaders, youth or wom-en’s organizations, NGOs whichmay lobby for public support, etc.
AudienceSegmentation
For the communication strategy as awhole, audience segmentation is veryimportant. Relevant actors, beneficia-ries and intermediaries are clusteredinto groups according to socioeco-nomic and other characteristics theyhave in common. In later stages, com-munication objectives, message ap-peals or participation options are an-alyzed and designed for each group.In audience segmentation, genderand age awareness play a crucial role.
Instruments and techniques useful for iden-tifying actors and relating them to eachother include,
• direct observation• interviews with individuals• focus group discussions or interviews• sociograms• resource users analysis.
Step 2 - Actors andKnowledge-Attitude-Practice (KAP) -
Awareness •Interest •
Trial •Adoption •
Within a project life cycleof an innovation from
awareness to adoption,communicators distinguish:
early innovators (10%)early majority (30%)late majority (40%)
laggards (20%)
Awareness is not enough
The lessons learned from develop-ment communication and agricultur-al extension teach us that if you askpeople to change their practices –e.g. by recycling household waste orsaving water – instructive informationand raising awareness is not enough.The diffusion of an innovation requires
• basic information about the newidea and how others use it,
• the innovation to be applied topersonal values and life style,
• preliminary attempts to practisethe innovation and evaluate itsusefulness and impact,
• acceptance and commitment tothe change in practice.
Especially in environmental commu-nication – where complex changesin attitudes and practices are at stake– this sequence is closely related tothe potential barriers of communica-tion which were mentioned earlierin the ”Said – Done” paraphrase.That is to say – if communicators can-not motivate and mobilize their au-diences to take action and committhemselves to the new, environmen-tally friendly practices, raising aware-ness or creating interest indeed willnot be enough. This process fromawareness to adoption works bestif the social groups concerned are ac-tively involved and supported in apartnership based on trust.
Therefore, it is crucial to identify andanalyze carefully
• the stakeholders and otheractors, i.e. individuals, groups orinstitutions who have an interestor assert power relevant to theenvironmental problem in ques-tion,
Said is not heard
Heard is not understood
Understood is not accepted
And accepted is not yet Done
Actors and Knowledge-Attitude-Practice (KAP) - Analyses
19
Tool BoxSWOT Window (see for example GFA 1994)
Actors and Interests
When actors have been identified and seg-mented in relation with the environmentalproblem at hand, it is necessary to under-stand their interests because this will helpto communicate with them more successful-ly.
If a simple matrix of actors and their sub-groups is not differentiated enough, theSWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportuni-ties and Threats) window is a useful tech-nique to go into details as is illustrated inthe example below about strategic groupsinvolved in a recycling program. The fol-lowing chart – from the context of an Indo-nesian Recycling Project outlined in this sec-tion – shows how the ‘Opportunities’ and‘Threats’ are fed into the communicationstrategy as benefits and costs of an intend-ed change which determine the selectedentry points of greatest impact. First, theSWOT of the new practice, namely recycling,are analyzed per strategic group. An op-portunity (or benefit) for households, forexample, may be additional income fromrecovered goods while a threat (or price)to them may be the extra costs and effortsput into separating waste. The selected en-try point of greatest impact may, therefore,be to start with separating the more profit-able and easy-to-handle goods such as pa-per, bottles or plastic and to link this sepa-ration of waste to the (informal) recyclingsector.
SWOT = Strengths+Weaknesses (present)Opportunities+Threats (future)
for example
· Households· Waste Pickers· Industry· Markets· Hotels· Real Estates· Shopping C.· Office Bld.· Local Auth.
in recycling
OPPORTUNITIES = BENEFITS
intended change
THREATS = COSTS
Entry Points ofGreatest Impact
Strategic Groups SWOT Environmental Communication Strategy
10 Steps ...
20
STEP 2
Critical Behavior andKey Factors of Influence
In order to narrow down the field ofpractices potentially relevant to an ob-served environmental problem, com-munities in cooperation with commu-nication specialists should consider
• the impact or importance of aparticular form of behavior to theproblem,
• the feasibility of changing ormaintaining the behavior,
• whether the ideal behavior, orsimilar forms, already exist in thecommunity concerned.
• The practices which meet thesecriteria can be called criticalbehavior. In order to screenbehavior that influences naturalresources and environmentalconcerns it is useful
• to focus on specific types ofbehaviors rather than generalcategories,
• to emphasize the positive inexisting practices,
• to classify behavior based onimpacts it has on sustainability,
• to understand the feasibility ofinfluencing relevant behavior,
• to understand behavioralflexibility.
Tools to screen critical behavior are
• historical (trend) matrices of (specific)resources and land use,
• ranking and prioritization techniques,of behavioral threats to sustainability,
• resource management decision charts,• matrices comparing the frequency of a
specific behavior in various sub-groups within a community, etc.
Key Factors
Understanding the key factors, moti-vational forces and influences relat-ed to critical behavior is the next step.In most cases, these include social,cultural, economic and ecological de-terminants: Potentially crucial factorsare
Social factors• Knowledge• values• social norms• cultural or religious values• skills• economics• laws• policies• gender, etc.
Ecological factors• Vegetative productivity• diversity• variability of physical environment
(e.g. climate, seasons, dailyperiodicity)
• history of disturbances• competition, etc.
BenefitsWhat is motivating, desirable, con-venient or pleasant about a practicedbehavior or what the actors think theygain when changing their behavior
CostsWhat is difficult, unpleasant or un-desirable about adopting a differentpractice.
Actors and Knowledge-Attitude-Practice (KAP) - Analyses
Tool Box
(see for example Chambers 1992,IIED 1995, IUCN 1997)
21
Tools that are useful in identifying key fac-tors among the many others that may berelevant to a given environmental prob-lem are, in general,
• checklists of potentially importantfactors from: focus groups, communitygathering, decision trees, pair-wiseranking, resource use trends, etc.,
• techniques for identifying perceivedbenefits and prices: surveys, focusgroups, comparisons of adopters andnon-adopters,
• data acquisition on educationalbackground, economic situation,gender, media access and othercharacteristics of the intendedbeneficiaries, cost-benefit-compari-sons, etc.,
• causal webs and wiring diagrams:Venn diagram, social network maps,relationship wiring, etc.,
• systems analysis (such as SINFONIE):influence matrix, effects and axisdiagram, force field analysis, etc.
KAP Surveys
Beneficiaries need to be consultedin the process of identifying problemsand/or needs regarding their require-ments or acceptability of a given in-novation, i.e. a change in practice. Asuggested procedure for conductinga participatory assessment of prob-lems and needs is through a baselinesurvey on beneficiaries’ Knowledge,Attitude, and Practice (KAP) with re-spect to specific and critical forms ofbehaviors and key factors. KAP sur-veys are problem-solving oriented andoperate at a micro-level, with a fo-cus on determining at least three con-ceptual categories :
• Knowledge, attitude and practice(KAP) levels of audiences vis-à-visthe critical elements of a givenrecommended or intendedinnovation.
• The KAP survey seeks qualitativeinformation from respondents,e.g. through focus group inter-views, such as on the reasons forcauses of their negative attitudesand non-adoption or inappropriatepractice with regard to theenvironmental problem.
• Information provided by KAPsurveys is useful for campaignobjectives or goals formulationand strategy development
KAP survey results can also be uti-lized for audience analysis and seg-mentation purposes, to determinewho needs which types of informa-tion/messages through what combi-nation of multi-media materials andchannels. In addition relevant find-ings from surveys on media consump-tion patterns and habits, media avail-ability and reach, and other socio-psy-chological and anthropological re-search studies are useful inputs.
Tool Box
(see e.g. IIED 1995,IUCN 1997, vol 2, denkmodell n.d.)
A tool for participatorystrategic planning and evaluation(see for example Adhikarya et al.1987, FAO 1994)
10 Steps ...
22
STEP 2Actors and Knowledge-Attitude-Practice (KAP) - Analyses
Results from KAP surveys, here from a pestmanagement project in Thailand, convinc-ingly show that communication can havean impact on peoples’ attitudes and prac-tice and changes their behavior in an en-vironmentally friendly way.
Tool Box(see for example FAO 1994)
KAP - Pest Management (FAO) Evaluation Results (see FAO 1994)
23
A B C - Model
Six Steps to Applied Behavioral ChangeSix Steps to Applied Behavioral ChangeSix Steps to Applied Behavioral ChangeSix Steps to Applied Behavioral ChangeSix Steps to Applied Behavioral Change
In a nutshell, the various steps in situation, actor and KAP analyses can also be summarized in anApplied Behavioral Change model which is often used in the context of social marketing approachesintegrated in the environmental communication strategy. The most crucial steps are outlined below.
1 - Observe Behavior Identify what people like and don’t like about acertain behavior that is to be changed. Don’tjust ask questions. Look, count, record behav-ior. Arrange for a few people to do what youwould like the whole community to do. Watchtheir problems.
2 - Listen to People Ask what matters to them, talk about how yourtarget behavior fits into their daily life. Lookfor what they get out of behavior as ‘gain’ orbenefit and who matters to them.
3 - Decide What Matters Compare people who show the desired behav-ior with people who don’t. What are they like,where do they live, how do they act out thebehavior you care about? Segmentize your au-diences because they will have to be communi-cated with differently.
4 - Generalize Facts Summarize critical environmental practices, keyfactors influencing behavior and other pointssuch as benefits people care about, messagespreferred, opinion leaders people trust. Testyour assumptions with a representative survey.
5 - Deliver Benefits Deliver benefits people want, not just informa-tion. Solve barriers the people face, don’t just‘educate’ them. This means that service deliv-ery and communication inputs have to be syn-chronized.
6 - Monitor Effects Find and fix mistakes. Selectively monitor cru-cial program elements by means of simple andmanageable indicators for the behavior you wishto change.
10 Steps ...
24
Actors and Knowledge-Attitude-Practice (KAP) - AnalysesSTEP 2
Social Marketing
The 10 Steps of an EnvironmentalCommunication Strategy or the sixsteps of the ABC Model are oftencombined with the key elements ofsocial marketing approaches whichhave proven effective in family plan-ning, health care and other fieldswhere, just as with environmentalissues, sensitive and complex behav-ioral changes are at stake (see forexample IUCN 1997).
The 4Ps of Social Marketing
Product Behavior or service promotedPlace Access to service systemPrice Costs, often barriers to changePromotion Public relations and communication
25
In a Waste Picker-related Poverty Allevia-tion and Recycling Program in Indonesia,Indonesia,Indonesia,Indonesia,Indonesia,an integrated communication strategy wasused. The pickers’ social and legal status islow despite their contributions to the envi-ronment and their self-employment in theinformal sector. An NGO trained them instreet theater which they performed in theirneighborhoods in order to rally for recog-nition and support. Their research for theplays made them discover their own micro-cosm in a more analytical way. Breakingthe ‘culture of silence’ through theater, theyorganized better, and articulated their needsand aspirations with greater self-confi-dence. Performances were recorded on vid-eo by the same NGO, and later broadcaston TV for environmental education. Expo-sure workshops for journalists, local author-ities and the private sector and a recyclingeducation component for schools were alsopart of the integrated strategy. As a result ofthe program and the use of media, the pub-lic image of the pickers was improved. Cityplanners now consider their integration intosolid waste management schemes at themunicipal level (see Oepen 1992).
Case Study g
Integrated Communication Strategyfor Waste Pickers and Recyclingin Indonesia
10 Steps ...
26
The descriptions of both, project andcommunication objectives should bemade more comprehensive and spe-cific and reflect the actual scope ofthe program.
In the case of an irrigation program,examples of communication objec-tives which would support theachievement of general extensionprogram goals could be:
• to inform at least 65 percent ofthe small farmers in X, Y and Zdistricts about the procedures andbenefits of an irrigation systemusing ring and tube wells withinone year,
• to reduce the proportion of smallfarmers in districts X, Y and Zwho have misunderstandings andmisconceptions about the costand technical requirements ofdrilling and building ring or tubewells, from the present 54 to 20percent in one year,
• to increase the proportion ofsmall farmers in districts X, Y andZ who have positive attitudestowards the practical and simpleuse of the irrigation system towater their farmland, from thepresent 32 to 50 percent withintwo years,
• to persuade small farmers indistricts X, Y and Z to use waterfrom the wells to irrigate theirfarmland, and to increase thispractice from the present 20 to35 percent in two years.
STEP 3
Inadequate”To provide irrigationfor rural people”.”To drill 4,000 ring wellsand 2,000 tube wellsby August 1994”.
Comprehensive”To increase the number ofsmall farmers in districts X, Y and Zusing water from the wells toirrigate their farmland fromthe present 100,000 to 175,000small farmers within two years”.
Step 3 - CommunicationObjectives
Communication Objectivesshould be very specific and aimed
at increasing knowledge,influencing attitudes, and changingpractices of intended beneficiarieswith regard to a particular action
A communication objectivedescribes an intended result ofthe environmental communicationactivity rather than the process of
communication itself
Once the problems have been iden-tified and the stakeholders analyzed,the communication objectives shouldbe defined. It should be pointed out,however, that communication objec-tives are usually not the same as theproject or program goals which areexpected to be the ultimate resultsof the whole communication strate-gy plusplusplusplusplus other supporting outputs. Theachievement of the communicationobjectives is a necessary, but not asufficient condition for achieving theproject or program goals. Hence,communication objectives should
• reflect the environmental policy,project or program goals,
• respond to the needs of theprogram and its target audience
• and help solve the problemsencountered in achieving suchgoals.
Communication objectives shouldspecify some important elements orcharacteristics of the policy, projector program activities which could helpto provide a clear operational direc-tion, and facilitate a meaningful eval-uation. Some of those elements are:
• the target beneficiariesand their location,
• the outcome or behavior tobe observed or measured,
• the type and amount/percentageof change from a given baselinefigure expected from thebeneficiaries,
• the time-frame.
Any policy, project or program goalshould be explicit in specifying whatis to be accomplished, not just thegeneral or operational elements to beachieved.
Communication Objectives
27
KAP - Pest Management Objectives
Defining clear-cut campaign objectives fora ‘Pest Management’ project in Thailandlinks the previous KAP survey to later stag-es of the campaign strategy, e.g. messagedesign.
Tool Box
(see for example FAO 1994)
EXTENSION CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES
To increase the percentage of farmers who haveknowledge regarding:a. Pest identification from 41% to 65% and,b. Necessary action for pest control from 15.1% to 40%
To increase the percentage of farmers who know the identity ofnatural enemies (good bugs) from 11.4% to 35%
To increase the percentage of farmers who have knowledgeregarding the recognition and importance of resistant ricevarieties from 35.8% to 50%
To create awareness by increasing the percentage of farmershaving knowledge on SEWS from 13.2% to 50% and to increasethe percentage of farmers skilled in the use of PestSurveillance (PS) form from 10.1% to 30%
To reduce the percentage of farmers using broad-spectrumpesticides by:a. Increasing the percentage of farmers who know how to
choose right chemicals from 5% to 16%b. Decreasing the percentage of farmers who prefer broad-
spectrum pesticides from 65% to 50%
To reduce the percentage of farmers who do not believe thatconservation of natural enemies can suppress pest populationfrom 36.5% to 25%
To increase the percentage of farmers who check their fieldsaccording to the recommended procedure from 17% to 35%
To reduce the percentage of farmers who believe in the needfor spraying pesticides as soon as pests are observed in thefield, without checking the field properly, from 69.8% to 55%
To increase the number of farmers observing adequate safetymeasures in using pesticides by increasing the percentage offarmers practising correct disposal of left-over pesticide from10.7% to 25%
Specific and Measurable Campaign ObjectivesBased on the Problems Identified by the KAP Survey for theStrategic Extension Campaign (SEC) on Pest Surveillance System in Chainat Province, Thailand
IDENTIFIED PROBLEMS
1 Low knowledge on pest identification and nec-essary action for pest control
2 Lack of sufficient knowledge on the importanceand benefits of natural enemies
3 Lack of sufficient knowledge on the importanceand benefits of resistant rice varieties
4 Lack of awareness on Surveillance and EarlyWarning System (SEWS) programme and PestSurveillance (PS) form
5 Farmers prefer broad-spectrum pesticides andblanket spraying
6 Farmers do not believe in the effectiveness ofnatural enemies
7 Farmers go to the edge of the field, but NOT intothe field to check for pests according to therecommended precedure and frequency
8 Farmers spray pesticides on sight of pests based ontheir “natural instinct”
9 Farmers are aware of pesticide hazards, but DONOT apply safety precautions in pesticide handling,application and disposal
10 Steps ...
28
At this point, enough baseline dataon problems, needs, actors, projectand communication objectives isavailable to put all information in acontext. The effectiveness of an en-vironmental communication strategydepends very much on its planningwhich should be specific and system-atic. Strategic planning reflects thebeneficiaries’ identified problems andneeds and the way information, ed-ucation, training and communicationwill be used in solving such problemsor meeting the needs. Such a planmust outline the management ac-tions to be taken in implementing thestrategy. Strategic planning can be op-erationally defined simply as the bestpossible use of available and/or limit-ed resources, i.e., time, funds, andstaff, to achieve the greatest returnsor pay-off, i.e., outcome, results, orimpact.
The process of developing a strategicextension plan can be divided intotwo major parts. The first part is theprocess of strategy development plan-ning which comprises the first eightsteps of the communication strategyas outlined above, i.e. up to and in-cluding message design, media pro-duction and pretesting. The secondpart is the process of managementplanning. When a plan for a strategyis completed, it must be translatedinto action. At that stage, the task ofa communication planner shifts fromstrategy development to managementplanning. Even though these steps willnot be implemented until later, theyneed to be planned at this stage.
To transform strategies into activities,management objectives must beidentified clearly to include at leastthe following elements:
• what the action is,• who is to carry out the action,• how the action is to be
carried out,• what resources will be needed
and how to obtain suchresources,
• when the action is tobe accomplished,
• how to set standards formeasuring progress and impactof implementation.
In addition to media performanceand field implementation (step 9), andprocess documentation alongsideMonitoring and Evaluation (step 10),other management tasks are
• to develop an exit strategy for thetime after the program or project,to which the communicationstrategy is related, has beenconcluded,
• to identify and meet needs ofboth field personnel and benefi-ciaries in terms of training andskills.
The chart overleaf provides an orien-tation guideline on how to determinethe general communication strategydirection and priority on the basis ofKAP survey findings. This general strat-egy needs to be made more specificin steps 4, 5 and 6 of the planningprocess. The guidelines should not beused as a recipe but as a tool to con-ceptualize and systematize commu-nication strategy planning and devel-opment.
STEP 4
There are three kinds ofmanagement activities for whichregularly updated information isneeded to make effective decisions:personnel, finance and logistics.
Media and MaterialPosters and films are materials,i.e. ”the carriers of your message”while walls and TV are the media,”the vehicle that brings thematerial with the message to thetarget audience”.
Communication Strategy Development
Planning is defined as a process ofidentifying or defining problems, formulating
objectives or goals, thinking of ways toaccomplish goals and measuring progress
towards goal achievements
Planning has to includestrategy planning
i.e. what to do andmanagement planningi.e. how to make it happen
Step 4 - CommunicationStrategy Development
29
KAP Results for Planning and Developing a Communication Strategy
Tool Box
(see FAO 1994, Adhikarya et al. 1987)
Examples of communication strategy de-velopment related to a ‘Pest Manage-ment’ and a ‘Rat Control’ campaign arepresented in ‘Strategic Extension Cam-paigns’ by FAO and other publications
If: Then:
Situation Position of people involvedconcerning
Priorities of an Environmental Educationand Communication Strategy
Fields of action andcommunication channels forenvironmental education andcommunication
K
knowledge
A
attitude
P
practiceMainApproach
Main Objective
DidacticalEmphasis
MassMedia
Sensitiz.
GroupMedia
NGO
Interpers.Commun.
Consult.
1low tomedium
low low informative awareness creation, increase ofoperational knowledge, identifyneeds and advantages
What + Why high low low
2medium medium low informative
motivatingd identify needs and advantages,Inform about and demonstratealternatives
Why high medium low
3
medium medium medium motivatingactionoriented
alternative problem view, discusssolution approaches, explore rootsand consequences of negativeactivities, try out feasibility ofsolution proposals participatorily
Why + How medium high medium
4
high medium medium motivatingactionoriented
explore negative roots of atitudes,skills training through „learning bydoing” for behavior change, correctcounter-productive practices
Why + How low medium high
5
high high lowmedium
actionoriented
skills training through „learning bydoing” for behavior change,logistical assistance andconsulting, explore dissidentattitudes and tackle roots
How low high high
10 Steps ...
30
The participation of strategic groupsis a crucial element in the EnvComstrategy because people will notchange their environmentally relevantpractices if they do not have a say inplanning, implementing and evaluat-ing the action for change. That is whyit should be considered as an individ-ual step in the mainstream of theentire process. But, like planning orevaluation, participation should be acontinuous, not a one-shot effort. Thekeyword here is ownership. It shouldbe taken literally in terms of mediaproducts and communication pro-cesses not for or about people butwith and by the people themselves.This procedure safeguards project orprogram sustainability and achievesthe media mix that is best suited tothe socio-cultural circumstances. It isdifficult to ‘own’ TV, video, or radiobecause of the financial, technicaland skills levels involved. It is mucheasier to ‘own’ a people’s theater pro-duction or other community mediathat are managed and produced bylocal means and geared towards lo-cal ends. This does not imply, how-ever, that participation should be con-
strained to the ‘community media’.Instead, strategic alliances with the‘mass media’ should be built thatstrengthen the ‘upward compatibili-ty’ of the communication processes– e.g. a local theater performance onpeople’s action related to an environ-mental problem that is recorded onvideo, edited professionally andbroadcast on TV as a feature film ornews cast.
Participation incorporates all projectlevels: assessment • planning • im-plementation • M&E
• Who sets the agenda on thegeneral problems to be studied?
• Who says which needs should bemet?
• Who is consulted in planning forappropriate solutions?
• Who determines which mediawill be used?
• Who carries out the action?• Who produces the media and
designs the messages?• Who sets the standards for
measuring progress and impact?
Participationis a process of motivating and mobilizingpeople to use their human and material
resources in order to shape their lives andtheir hopes themselves
STEP 5Participation of Strategic Groups
Traditional Media for ResourceManagement in Indonesia
g Case Study
Appropriate Communication for the Devel-opment of Communities (ACDC) is an Indo-nesian approach of using traditional mediafor rural development and resource man-agement. In particular theater forms wereused by farmers in the Sunda highlands tomotivate neighboring villages to join ascheme which envisaged the terracing ofland and irrigation in an attempt to stopsoil erosion and land deterioration in thewatershed. The media formats were de-
signed as ‘infotainment’ of high credibilityand impact. In addition to traditional me-dia the farmers also used self-producedphoto-stories to address decision-makers inthe provincial capital for support and rec-ognition (see Oepen 1988).
Step 5 - Participation ofStrategic Groups
31
GTZ - Burkina Faso
Four Fields of Decision-Making
AAAAA Project identificationBBBBB Determining the
terms of referenceCCCCC Decisions on local activitiesDDDDD Organization of crucial tasks
Three Aspects
11111 Influence of the target group ondecisions in general
22222 their representationin consultations
33333 and in decision-making.
Six-grade Scale
‘no participation’ (0) to‘autonomous decision’ (5)
Participation Profile
This makes comparisons on different levels eas-ier - it shows, for example, that project plannerhave a different perspective from the people con-cerned regarding participation in determiningthe terms of reference (see Wolff 1997).
ACT - Indonesia
The key indicator of participation is who reallydetermines the agenda and the impacts for chang-es in attitude and practice. According to a set ofcriteria the influence of various actors at severalproject levels is measured in terms of degree ofparticipation and self-determination in consulta-tions and decision-making (see chart).
Initiatives, activities and changes in practice areevaluated in terms of the degree of influence byvarious actors from ‘no involvement’ (0) to ‘au-tonomous decision’ (10). The related chart pro-vides a quick overview over who has a say in whatmatters. In the case above, the initiative wasoriginally (level 1-2) an external one but wasgradually taken over by local groups at level 3-5 (see Oepen 1988).
Tool BoxAs participation is vital, it is important toknow how to measure and evaluate it.Two approaches from Africa and Asia serveto illustrate this.
Influence byInfluence byInfluence byInfluence byInfluence byLevelsLevelsLevelsLevelsLevels Outsiders Local Local Individual Group
Elite Motivators concerned concerned
1 Planning 7 7 3 – –
2 Media and 6 6 6 4 8content selection
3 Communication processes 2 4 8 8 8and media production
4 Evaluation 7 3 7 2 7
5 Follow-up in media and – – 7 7 9community development
Degre
e of p
artici
patio
n
Fields
PlannersStakeholders
Aspects
10 Steps ...
32
A general approachto multi-media selection
Select and use a medium:
• for a single or specific rather thanfor different goals,
• that has a unique characteristic orparticular advantage which isuseful to accomplish a specificpurpose,
• which the target audience isalready familiar with and hasaccess to,
• which can easily accommodate‘localized’ messages,
• that can be locally developed,produced and operationallysupported,
• that complements and reinforcesothers used in the same strategywhile offering distinct functionalstrengths and emphases.
GTZ aims to bridge intercultural barriersbetween farmers and consultants in Boliviaand Nepal by means of comics and photostories with a high degree of identificationand mobilization potential. Projects in theforestry sector use street theater for aware-ness raising on environmental issues inHonduras and rural radio in local languag-es in various countries. In Malawi, GTZ re-alized that modern mass media are not al-ways appropriate to matters of environmen-tal health and, therefore, opted for tradi-tional media.
STEP 6Media Selection and Mix
Multi-media MixExperience and research show that using a
combination of mass, group and interpersonalcommunication is most cost-effective
g Case Study
Community media complementmass media in GTZ Projects
Based on the previous results of au-dience and KAP analyses and the pre-liminary considerations regarding theparticipation of strategic groups an ap-propriate multi-media mix should bedeveloped. The media selectedshould be appropriate to the audi-ences’
• information-seeking habits,• preferred information sources,• media access,• media consumption patterns,• communication networks,• and group communication
behavior.
The rationale is that a coherent, co-ordinated and reinforcing system ofcommunication should be able toaddress specific but varied informa-tion, attitude and behavior problemsand needs of intended beneficiaries.
• No medium is effective for allpurposes or target beneficiaries.
• A communication strategy usuallyhas various information, educa-tional and communication objec-tives.
• Different media and communica-tion channels complement andreinforce each other
• Strategic planning means to selectwhich medium or combination ofmedia should be used for whatpurpose by whom in order todeliver which specific messagesto whom.
Step 6 - MediaSelection and Mix
33
Audience segmentation, media selection and message design
Tool Box
(see FAO 1994, Adhikarya et al. 1987)
Audience segmentation based on KAP (step2), media selection (step 6) and messagedesign (step 7) are closely inter-relatedin the example overleaf from the ‘PestManagement’ project in Thailand referredto previously.
10 Steps ...
34
The effectiveness of a communica-tion strategy largely depends on theability of its messages to catch theattention of and be understood by thetarget audience. Therefore, messag-es must be designed to suit the spe-cific characteristics, educational andintellectual horizon and the aspira-tions of each group of intended ben-eficiaries. Also, they should fit themedia selected. This is why theyshould not be formulated early on inthe strategy development. Other-wise, one project’s message mightcontradict another one’s, e.g. ‘estab-lish a fish pond’ by a nutrition cam-paign might be counteracted by ‘getrid of non-running water’ propagatedby a health campaign. As especiallyurban populations are burdened withan ‘information overload’, messagesneed to be strategically ‘positioned’so that they ‘stand out’ from the oth-ers. They might otherwise not be no-ticed even though they are relevantand useful to the target audience.
Message Content
For the message to be successful, theinformation should be
• accessible • accurate• verifiable • complete• timely • relevant
Positioning a message
The positioning of a messages should
• ensure validity and relevance,
• outline the general strategyapproach: informational, motiva-tional or action-oriented
• identify a message focus ortheme according to the strategy’sissue or objective,
• make the theme attractive andpersuasive by ‘packaging’ themessage utilizing psychological orsocial appeals such as
4incentive/reward4fear-arousal4role-model4civic duty4common-man etc.
• give the theme special treatmentin line with the strategy’s objec-tives
4humorous4popular/informal4fact-giving4conclusion-drawing etc.
• take advantage of the specificstrengths and potential of thevarious media selected, e.g.visual media for fear-arousal andemotions or print media for fact-giving and conclusion-drawing,
• pre-test messages carefully permedia and per group of targetbeneficiaries, especially visualinformation and (semi-)illiteratebeneficiaries, to save time andcosts.
STEP 7Message Design
M. e. = R : E
Message effectiveness (M.e.) isa function of the reward (R) themessage offers and the efforts
(E) required to interpret andunderstand it
Step 7 - MessageDesign
35
Tool Box
(see for example FAO 1994, Mody 1991)
This checklist from a ‘Pest Management’project in Thailand clearly indicates howmessage design and media selection areclosely related to the earlier stages of thecommunication strategy, e.g. problemidentification or KAP analysis. Making max-imum use of cost-effective ways of com-munication may start from a detailed as-
sessment of the most appropriate mediain relation to the preferences of carefullysegmented audiences. Whether or not allmedia are employed later on, largelydepends on the financial and human re-sources available to the respective project.
Media - Message - Audience Checklist
MEDIA TYPE
Motivationalposter A
Motivationalposter B
Booklet
Motiv. poster C
Flipchart
Video
Leaflet
Pest Surveillance(PS) form
Audio-cass. tape
Radio spotsand songs
Sticker
Billboard
Comic sheet
Flyer
Cloth flipchart
FOR WHOM
Farmers
Farmers
Extension Agents
Farmers
Extension Agents
Extension Agents
Farmers
ExtensionAgents, Farmers
Ex.Agents, Farm.
Farmers,Extension Agents
Farmers
Farmers
School children
Farmers
Farmers
TO SOLVEPROBLEM
1, 2, 6, 7
4, 7, 8
1 - 9
1 - 9
1 - 9
1 - 9
1 - 9
1, 5, 7, 8
1 - 9
1 - 9
4, 7
4, 7
7
2, 3, 5, 6
1 - 9
MAIN MESSAGE
1. Spiders kill planthoppers2. Excessive use of pesticides will destroy spiders
1. Check your field planthoppers: spray only if you find40 hoppers in 4 plants or hills, and no spiders
1. Identifying pest2. Simplified technology on pest surveillance3. Use of resistant varieties4. Safe use of pesticides
1. Safe use of pesticides
1. Use of resistant varieties, identification of pest and naturalenemies, steps in pest surveillance, safe-use of pesticides
1. Identification of natural enemies2. Surveillance and Early Warning System3. Safe use of pesticides
1. Steps in pest surveillance2. Use of resistant varieties
1. Use of simplified PS form2. Importance of checking fields properly3. Use correct Economic Threshold Level (ETL)4. Use right chemicals
1. Motivational radio spots and songs
1. What is pest surveillance?2. Proper disposal of pesticide containers3. Spray only at correct ETL4. What natural enemies can do5. Use of resistant varieties6. Going into the field is easy, will not destroy plants
1. Motivation to go into the fields to check
1. Motivation to go into the fields to check
1. Result of farmer checking field from dike only
1. Identifying natural enemies2. Use of resistant varieties
1. Steps in a simplified technology in pest surveillance
10 Steps ...
36
Media Effectiveness
The media or material selectedshould not be mass produced tooearly in the elaboration of the Env-Com strategy. The implementation ofa multi-media communication strat-egy has a greater chance of being suc-cessful if:
• the media materials are producedas planned and on time,
• various media are mobilized andcoordinated as suggested,
• all actors involved in this processhave been trained accordingly, ifnecessary,
• the impact and effects of thestrategy’s implementation areassessed by means of a built-informative (continuous) andsummative (ex-post) evaluation.
In general, the following steps shouldbe taken:
• Brief all media designers andproducers clearly on communica-tion materials regarding
4content4design4persuasion4memorability
• Make a precise plan for eachmaterial
• Inform all staff on involvementand timing
• Select external communicationexperts for specialized tasks
• Pretest before producing largerquantities of material
• Pre-test on location and withrepresentative sample socialgroups
• Define precisely what should betested, e.g.
4relevance4textual / visual understanding.4motivation / action potential4acceptance / credibility
• Produce material as close aspossible to where they will beused
• Determine precisely a productiontime table
STEP 8
g Case StudyCase StudyCase StudyCase StudyCase Study
Community Media RevitalizeIndigenous Food Plants in Kenya(WIF, 1991-93)
Media Production and Pretesting
In its Indigenous Food Plants Program inKenya the Worldview International Foun-dation uses a mix of community media fromtraditional theater to video, to counteractdecreasing biodiversity and food problemswith the rural poor. Often, schools are usedas an entry point with teachers as motiva-tors and students as media, who carry in-formation home and instigate interest invegetable gardens. As seed capital, train-ing and extension are made available, thenew skills are immediately put into practice(see WORLDVIEW 1991).
Step 8 - MediaProduction andPretesting
37
ManagementInformation System
This is the point in the strategy pro-cess where management planningtakes over from strategy developmentas the main task of a communicationspecialist. One of the worst problemsin communication strategy imple-mentation is the untimely delivery oreven unavailability of inputs or ser-vices required for the adoption of therecommended practice changes oractions by the target beneficiarieswho have been motivated and per-suaded before-hand. This may leadto frustration among members of thisgroup and ultimately undermine thecredibility of the strategy.
The implementation of a multi-me-dia communication strategy requiresa good management information sys-tem that provides the organizers withrapid feedback on important strategyactivities and thus helps to readjustor change the strategy if necessary.
This information system should alsocover the proper coordination of var-ious activities which often need tobe carried out simultaneously.
Action Recommended
Proper implementation of activitieswithin the estimated time period isalso essential. A delay in one of theinter-related multi-media activitieswill often trigger chain-reaction ef-fects. Time estimates should there-fore be considered carefully to en-sure that they are realistic.
• Determine a time table permedia and social group
• Consider the most appropriateevents, occasions, times andplaces
4if possible, coordinate withmass media inputs
4if possible, reinforce yourstrategy with side effects,incentives, non-economicbenefits
• ‘Cross-fertilize’ various media andcommunication channels (e.g.the emotional appeal of radiowith the factual impact of printmedia)
• Plan for multiplier effects amongthe various media used (e.g. aradio show about a people’stheater performance),
• Create events that ‘stage’ mediainputs (e.g. festivals, VIP visits,etc.)
• ‘Piggy-back’, i.e. get a free-rideon existing communicationchannels, extension services orother institutional outlets
STEP 9
Be readywhen the people are
Media Performance and Field Implementation
Step 9 - Media Perfor-mance and Field Imple-mentation10 Steps ...
10 Steps ...
38
Evaluation should be made a contin-uous effort of communication plan-ners at all stages of the strategy. Itsmajor focus should be on:
• the efficiency of programimplementation,
• the effectiveness and relevanceof an activity or overall program,
• the impact and effects of anactivity or overall program.
Types of Evaluation
Ex-ante (appraisal) as part of plan-ning to estimate what effects shouldbe expectedOn-going (monitoring) during im-plementation to assess whether theprogram is on course (also called for-mative evaluation).Ex-post (impact assessment) soonafter implementation to ascertain theeffects (also called summative evalu-ation)Terminal (impact assessment)some time after implementation torate the sustainability of effects.
1 Problem and ResearchProblem and ResearchProblem and ResearchProblem and ResearchProblem and Research
• Whose problem isbeing discussed?
• How relevant is it tothe audience?
• Is the topic well understood:causes, dynamics, etc.?
• What is the overall context ofthe problem?
• Do research results reflect reality?• Does the problem generate
emotion: interest, anger, etc.?
2 Choice of Media Choice of Media Choice of Media Choice of Media Choice of Media
• How appropriate is the mediachoice regarding the audio-visualliteracy of the audience?
• Is there an information overloador shortage?
• Does the media choice help tostrengthen the message?
3 Effects
• Is the message oriented towardspeople, not projects?
• Does the media choice respectthe culture and sensitivity of theaudience?
• Does the message boost self-confidence and self-help?
• Is the message and its deliverynon-patronizing and non-propagandistic?
• Are the messages heard,understood and accepted, and,most importantly, do theymotivate and mobilize the peopleto modify their behavior and takeaction?
Process Documentationof Lessons Learned
Based on a chronological descriptionand analysis of successful and less suc-cessful decisions made during plan-ning, implementation and manage-ment certain generalizations can beproposed for future replications ofsimilar activities. This type of processdocumentation of the critical issuesand decision-making requirementsshould be started from the very be-ginning.
STEP 10
Evaluationshould be a
continuous effort
Process Documentation, Monitoring and Evaluation
Step 10 - ProcessDocumentation and M&E
39
The evaluation results from a ‘Rat Control’Campaign show the changes in terms of theKAP levels of rice farmers in Penang vis-à-vis rat control campaign recommendationsand messages. As a result of the campaign,the number of farmers who reported thatall the rice plant damages were due to ratsdropped from 47 % before the campaignto 28 % after the campaign. The rice fielddamages due to rats in 1984 (before thecampaign) was about 700 ha, compared toonly 223 ha in 1988 (see FAO 1994).
g Case Study
Rat Control Campaign in MalaysiaFAO (1994)
Evaluation results from the ‘Rat Control’ Campaign
40
Checklist for EnvironmentalCommunication in Projects
41
Fields in which EnvCom isparticularly useful
4 support and capacitydevelopment of environmentcenters, institutions andadministrations,
4 urban-industrial environmentalprotection,
4 development andimplementation of national,regional or local environmentalaction plans or sector strategies,
4 environmental management inrural regional developmentplanning, social forestry or parkmanagement,
4 solid waste management,energy and water management,
Pre-conditions forEffective EnvCom
4 generate technical know-how,4 integrate EnvCom up front in
project planning,4 provide advanced training
options,4 allocate appropriate staff and
funds,4 define EnvCom as an output
(supporting the goal of a pro-ject, e.g. ‘Information on EIALaw disseminated’) or an acti-vity (supporting the output of aproject, e.g. ‘Communicationstrategy on recycling developedwith relevant actors’)
Role of spezialized Experts
4 advanced training in specificEnvCom strategies,
4 training in selected EnvCommethods, instruments andmedia,
4 development of a local pool ofexperts,
4 process coaching duringEnvCom implementation,
4 exchange of experience at theinternational, national, regionaland local level,
4 capacity and institutionaldevelopment,
4 strategic alliances (partnerships,twinning, etc.)
EnvCom Consultant Profile
4 needs-oriented andparticipatory,
4 more process- than goal-oriented,
4 incorporation of local know-howand partners,
4 communication or socialscience,
4 participatory methods ofEnvCom,
4 media design,4 conflict management and
mediation,4 interdisciplinary cooperation,4 strategic and systemic thinking,4 moderation and visualization
skills,4 process coaching in an inter-
cultural context,4 capacity and institutional
development.
55 - Checklist for Environ-mental Communication inProjects
Resources
42
AAAAAdhikarya R dhikarya R dhikarya R dhikarya R dhikarya R (1996) Participatory EnvironmentEducation through Agricultural Training: BestPractices and Lessons Learned from Six AsianCountries, paper to a GTZ InternationalConference on 'Communicating the Environ-ment', Bonn, Germany: Dec 15-19
Boafo K ed. Boafo K ed. Boafo K ed. Boafo K ed. Boafo K ed. (1993) Media and Environment inAfrica, Nairobi: ACCE
Byers BA Byers BA Byers BA Byers BA Byers BA (1996) Understanding and InfluencingBehaviors in Conservation and Natural ReourcesManagement, African Biodiversity Series, No. 4,Washington D.C.: USAID
Chambers R Chambers R Chambers R Chambers R Chambers R (1992) Participatory Rapid Appraisal -PRA, IDS Discussion Paper 311, Brighton
Denkmodell Denkmodell Denkmodell Denkmodell Denkmodell (not dated) SINFONIE - SystemicInterpreation of the Nature of FactorsInfluencing Organizations and Networks inTheir Environment, Berlin n.d.
DSE-ZEL DSE-ZEL DSE-ZEL DSE-ZEL DSE-ZEL (1996) Community Communication forRural Development. A Training Curriculum andManual, Feldafing
DSE-ZÖV DSE-ZÖV DSE-ZÖV DSE-ZÖV DSE-ZÖV (1998)'Environmental Communication'. ATwo-Week Training Course Module, Berlin
FAO FAO FAO FAO FAO (1994) Strategic Extension Campaign, RomeFAO FAO FAO FAO FAO (1995) Understanding farmers ‘ communication
networks. An experience in the Philippines,Rome
FAO FAO FAO FAO FAO (1996) Communication for rural development inMexico, Rome
FAO FAO FAO FAO FAO (not dated) Guidelines on Communication forRural Development. A brief for developmentplanners and project formulators, Rome
Fortner R, Smith-Sebasto N, Mullins G Fortner R, Smith-Sebasto N, Mullins G Fortner R, Smith-Sebasto N, Mullins G Fortner R, Smith-Sebasto N, Mullins G Fortner R, Smith-Sebasto N, Mullins G (1994)Handbook for Environmental Communication inDevelopment, Columbus/Ohio
Fraser C Fraser C Fraser C Fraser C Fraser C (1994) How Decision-Makers See'Communication for Development', SpecialReport in: Journal of Development Communica-tion, pp. 56-67
Fraser C, Restrepo-Estrada S Fraser C, Restrepo-Estrada S Fraser C, Restrepo-Estrada S Fraser C, Restrepo-Estrada S Fraser C, Restrepo-Estrada S (1998) Communicat-ing for Development. Human Change forSurvival, London/New York
GFA GFA GFA GFA GFA (1994) SWOT Analysis and Strategic Planning,Hamburg
GreenCom-USAID GreenCom-USAID GreenCom-USAID GreenCom-USAID GreenCom-USAID (1997) What Works: A Donor’sGuide to Environmental Education andCommunication Projects, Washington D.C.
GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI (1994) Information, Bildung undKommunikation im Umweltbereich, Bonn
GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI (1996) Umweltprojekte durch Kommunika-tion verbessern, Bonn
GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI GTZ-PVI (1997) 'Communicating the Environment'.International Conference Documentation, Bonn
Guerrero SH et al. Guerrero SH et al. Guerrero SH et al. Guerrero SH et al. Guerrero SH et al. (1993) Public Participation inEnvironmental Impact Assessment. A Manualon Communication, Manila
Haan G de ed. Haan G de ed. Haan G de ed. Haan G de ed. Haan G de ed. (1995) Umweltbewußtsein undMassenmedien, Berlin
Haan G de, Kuckartz U Haan G de, Kuckartz U Haan G de, Kuckartz U Haan G de, Kuckartz U Haan G de, Kuckartz U (1996) Umweltbewußtsein.Denken und Handeln in Umweltkrisen,Opladen
Hemert M v, Wiertsema W, Yperen M v Hemert M v, Wiertsema W, Yperen M v Hemert M v, Wiertsema W, Yperen M v Hemert M v, Wiertsema W, Yperen M v Hemert M v, Wiertsema W, Yperen M v (1995)Reviving links. NGO experiences in environmen-tal education and people’s participation inenvironmental policies, Amsterdam
Hines JM, Hungerford HR, Tomera AN Hines JM, Hungerford HR, Tomera AN Hines JM, Hungerford HR, Tomera AN Hines JM, Hungerford HR, Tomera AN Hines JM, Hungerford HR, Tomera AN (1987)Analysis and Synthesis of Research onResponsible Environmental Behavior: A Meta-Analysis, in: Journal of EnvironmentalEducation, vol. 18, No 2, S. 1-9
IIED IIED IIED IIED IIED (1995) Participatory Learning and Action. ATrainer’s Guide, London
IUCN IUCN IUCN IUCN IUCN (1997) Beyond Fences. Seeking SocialSustainability in Conservation, Gland
Mehers GM ed. Mehers GM ed. Mehers GM ed. Mehers GM ed. Mehers GM ed. (1998) Environmental Communica-tion Planning Handbook for the MediterraneanRegion, IAE-Genf
Mody B Mody B Mody B Mody B Mody B (1991) Designing Messages for DevelopmentCommunication, Los Angeles
Oepen M Oepen M Oepen M Oepen M Oepen M (1988) Breaking the Culture of Silence. ADevelopment Support Communication Programin Indonesia, in: Sarilakas 3, Manila
Oepen M Oepen M Oepen M Oepen M Oepen M (1992) Gold in the Garbage: MediaSupport to a Scavenger Development Programin Indonesia, in: D+C 4/92, S. 26f
Oepen MOepen MOepen MOepen MOepen M ed. (1995) Media Support andDevelopment Communication in a World ofChange. Proceedings of a ACT/FU Berlin/WIFconference in Berlin1993, Bad Honnef
Oepen M, Fuhrke U, Krüger T Oepen M, Fuhrke U, Krüger T Oepen M, Fuhrke U, Krüger T Oepen M, Fuhrke U, Krüger T Oepen M, Fuhrke U, Krüger T (1994) Umweltbil-dung und Umweltkommunikation - Erwartun-gen, Erfahrungen, Erkenntnisse, Wedemark
Palmer J, Goldstein W, Curnow A eds. Palmer J, Goldstein W, Curnow A eds. Palmer J, Goldstein W, Curnow A eds. Palmer J, Goldstein W, Curnow A eds. Palmer J, Goldstein W, Curnow A eds. (1995)Planning education to care for the earth, IUCN
Richmond GM Richmond GM Richmond GM Richmond GM Richmond GM (1978) Some Outcomes of anEnvironmental Knowledge and Attitude Surveyin England, in: Science and Education, vol 8
Schneider H ed. Schneider H ed. Schneider H ed. Schneider H ed. Schneider H ed. (1993) Environmental Education,Paris: OECD
Schönhuth M, Kievelitz U Schönhuth M, Kievelitz U Schönhuth M, Kievelitz U Schönhuth M, Kievelitz U Schönhuth M, Kievelitz U (1994) ParticipatoryLearning Approaches, GTZ
Shrestha AM Shrestha AM Shrestha AM Shrestha AM Shrestha AM (1987) Conservation Communication inNepal, Kathmandu
Wolff HP Wolff HP Wolff HP Wolff HP Wolff HP (1997) Beurteilung der Zielgruppen-beteiligung in Entwicklungs-vorhaben, GTZ:MA-CILSS, Ouagadougou
literature refering tocase studies
is listed on p. 46
66 - ResourcesSelected Literature
Selected Literature
43
AnnotatedInternetBibliography
www.umass.edu/wbt/envcom
Annotated InternetBibliography
Resources
44
MadagaskarMadagaskarMadagaskarMadagaskarMadagaskar WWF: Environmental Educa-WWF: Environmental Educa-WWF: Environmental Educa-WWF: Environmental Educa-WWF: Environmental Educa-tion as national programmetion as national programmetion as national programmetion as national programmetion as national programmethrough teaching material andteacher´s training for primaryand secondary schools, not muchbroad effect (von Loebenstein1993)
SahelSahelSahelSahelSahel EG+CINAM: Training andEG+CINAM: Training andEG+CINAM: Training andEG+CINAM: Training andEG+CINAM: Training andInformation Programmes onInformation Programmes onInformation Programmes onInformation Programmes onInformation Programmes onthe Environmentthe Environmentthe Environmentthe Environmentthe Environment for teachers /pupils/parents in nine west-african countries through cur-ricula, teacher´s training,learning material, communityaction; not much broad effect(Filho 1993)
WorldWorldWorldWorldWorld UNESCO: International Envi-UNESCO: International Envi-UNESCO: International Envi-UNESCO: International Envi-UNESCO: International Envi-ronmental Educationronmental Educationronmental Educationronmental Educationronmental EducationProgrammeProgrammeProgrammeProgrammeProgramme, offers regionalspecific training material, cur-ricula and teacher´s training tointerested member countries(Oepen 1993)
Burkina FasoBurkina FasoBurkina FasoBurkina FasoBurkina Faso Patecore: Patecore: Patecore: Patecore: Patecore: positive example of therole of NGO and participationrole of NGO and participationrole of NGO and participationrole of NGO and participationrole of NGO and participationfor the improvement of villageland use (Funke 1992)
EcuadorEcuadorEcuadorEcuadorEcuador Fundacion Natura: LongtermFundacion Natura: LongtermFundacion Natura: LongtermFundacion Natura: LongtermFundacion Natura: Longtermlobby and sensitization mea-lobby and sensitization mea-lobby and sensitization mea-lobby and sensitization mea-lobby and sensitization mea-sures in several steps sures in several steps sures in several steps sures in several steps sures in several steps forindustrial and political decisionmakers in environmental andconsumer´s protection; curriculadevelopment, teacher´s training,150 radio programmes, visualmedia, community development(OECD 1993: 215)
GhanaGhanaGhanaGhanaGhana EPC+IEED: EnvironmentalEPC+IEED: EnvironmentalEPC+IEED: EnvironmentalEPC+IEED: EnvironmentalEPC+IEED: EnvironmentalEducation StrategyEducation StrategyEducation StrategyEducation StrategyEducation Strategy for Ghana,concluding formal and informaleducation, community develop-ment, NGO, media, advisoryservices, religious institutions anda catalogue of aims andacitivities. Governmental, littleparticipation (Education o.J.)
IndiaIndiaIndiaIndiaIndia Centre for Environment Educa-Centre for Environment Educa-Centre for Environment Educa-Centre for Environment Educa-Centre for Environment Educa-tion: formal and non-formaltion: formal and non-formaltion: formal and non-formaltion: formal and non-formaltion: formal and non-formalenvironmental educationenvironmental educationenvironmental educationenvironmental educationenvironmental education e.g.‘News and Feature-Service’ for1.000 periodica and a journalistnetwork, curricula, teacher´straining, (OECD 1993: 53)
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenyaKenya Kengo Kengo Kengo Kengo Kengo (Kenya Energy andEnvironment Organisation):::::umbrella organization of 200umbrella organization of 200umbrella organization of 200umbrella organization of 200umbrella organization of 200environmental NGOsenvironmental NGOsenvironmental NGOsenvironmental NGOsenvironmental NGOs with ownpublication, seminars, lobbying,training, community develop-ment; (OECD 1993: 48)
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenyaKenya Wildlife Clubs of Kenya:Wildlife Clubs of Kenya:Wildlife Clubs of Kenya:Wildlife Clubs of Kenya:Wildlife Clubs of Kenya:environment clubsenvironment clubsenvironment clubsenvironment clubsenvironment clubs at 1.500 (or77% of all) secondary andprimary schools with magazine,newsletter, publications,teacher´s training, similar toChongololo/Zambia, Mila HaiClubs/Tanzania, Wildlife Clubs/Uganda; (OECD 1993: 57)
MalaysiaMalaysiaMalaysiaMalaysiaMalaysia CAP (Consumers AssociationCAP (Consumers AssociationCAP (Consumers AssociationCAP (Consumers AssociationCAP (Consumers AssociationPenang): indirect environmen-Penang): indirect environmen-Penang): indirect environmen-Penang): indirect environmen-Penang): indirect environmen-tal educationtal educationtal educationtal educationtal education through seminars,courses, media, lobbying, legalassistance, consumer´s educationand consulting, consumer´sclubs, teacher´s training, expo-sure for pupils, students, NGO,public authorities, enterprises etc.(Oepen 1993; Keiper 1985; CAP1989)
NepalNepalNepalNepalNepal GTZ: Media Support for WasteGTZ: Media Support for WasteGTZ: Media Support for WasteGTZ: Media Support for WasteGTZ: Media Support for WasteManagement Management Management Management Management via campaigns,horizontal communication withcitizens´s participation; (Waste1992)
NepalNepalNepalNepalNepal KMTNC: Formal und InformalKMTNC: Formal und InformalKMTNC: Formal und InformalKMTNC: Formal und InformalKMTNC: Formal und InformalEnvironmental CommunicationEnvironmental CommunicationEnvironmental CommunicationEnvironmental CommunicationEnvironmental Communicationvia home visits, seminars, visualmedia, adult education, curricula6th-8th grade in AnnapurnaConservation Area Project; (vonLoebenstein 1993)
PeruPeruPeruPeruPeru several NGO: Environmentalseveral NGO: Environmentalseveral NGO: Environmentalseveral NGO: Environmentalseveral NGO: EnvironmentalEducation andEducation andEducation andEducation andEducation andAAAAAwarenessbuildingwarenessbuildingwarenessbuildingwarenessbuildingwarenessbuilding via in-service teacher´s training andnetwork (APECO). ‘School, Ecologyand the Peasant Community’with radio-campaigns for teach-ers, pupils, daily 1 hour ruralradio, Andean Rural School forpeasant leaders, cadres; actionoriented; (OECD 1993: 233)
Formal Education
literature referencesare listed on p. 40
Non-formal Education
Selected Case Studies
Selected Case Studies
45
SahelSahelSahelSahelSahel IUCN: Environmental Educa-IUCN: Environmental Educa-IUCN: Environmental Educa-IUCN: Environmental Educa-IUCN: Environmental Educa-tion and Communicationtion and Communicationtion and Communicationtion and Communicationtion and Communication,through Walia-Magazine (5.000issues) from/for pupils/teachers(5.000/400) in order to makepupils nature protectors andreach adults via them. Redactionmeeting twice per year with 25schools and action orientednature clubs; similar IUCN-approaches in Niger, BurkinaFaso, Senegal; (OECD 1993:159)
SenegalSenegalSenegalSenegalSenegal ENDAENDAENDAENDAENDA: Micro-project Approach: Micro-project Approach: Micro-project Approach: Micro-project Approach: Micro-project Approachto Environmental Educationto Environmental Educationto Environmental Educationto Environmental Educationto Environmental Education,rural youth organizations and 12primary schools with workshopsresulting in mini-projects onhygiene, health, agro-forestry,stock-farming and on socialaspects; (OECD 1993: 137)
ThailandThailandThailandThailandThailand PDAPDAPDAPDAPDA: Environmental Education: Environmental Education: Environmental Education: Environmental Education: Environmental Educationand youth work and youth work and youth work and youth work and youth work via seminars,visual media, video at schoolsand in the project center of RuralDevelopment for ConservationProject; (von Loebenstein)
Thailand/NepalThailand/NepalThailand/NepalThailand/NepalThailand/Nepal GTZ: Manual for Urban Envi-GTZ: Manual for Urban Envi-GTZ: Manual for Urban Envi-GTZ: Manual for Urban Envi-GTZ: Manual for Urban Envi-ronmental Managementronmental Managementronmental Managementronmental Managementronmental Management NepalNepalNepalNepalNepalincludes in the action plantraining for administrativebodies, NGO, teachers, research-ers, electronic and traditionalmedia, NGO-networks; (Manual1993)
WorldWorldWorldWorldWorld NGO-co-operation with SchoolNGO-co-operation with SchoolNGO-co-operation with SchoolNGO-co-operation with SchoolNGO-co-operation with SchoolSector and Journalists Sector and Journalists Sector and Journalists Sector and Journalists Sector and Journalists as e.g.Fundacion Natura/Ecuador,Living Earth/Cameroon for formaleducation, CAP/Malaysia, YIH/Indonesia for non-formal educa-tion, Panos, Worldview Interna-tional Foundation, Centre forEnvironment Education/India formedia reporting; (OECD 1993:45; Worldview 1992)
WorldWorldWorldWorldWorld School Magazine: School Magazine: School Magazine: School Magazine: School Magazine: Action/Southern Africa, Chongololo/WCSZ-Zambia, Piedcrow/CARE-Kenya, Walia/IUCN-Mali, Tor-toise/Ghana etc; (OECD 1993)
ZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabwe Zimtrust: Campfire. Role ofZimtrust: Campfire. Role ofZimtrust: Campfire. Role ofZimtrust: Campfire. Role ofZimtrust: Campfire. Role ofparticipation, NGOparticipation, NGOparticipation, NGOparticipation, NGOparticipation, NGO and legaltitle for resource management byrural population and districtadministration; (von Loebenstein1993)
BolivienBolivienBolivienBolivienBolivien SEMTA+GTZ: Comics andSEMTA+GTZ: Comics andSEMTA+GTZ: Comics andSEMTA+GTZ: Comics andSEMTA+GTZ: Comics andPicture Stories Picture Stories Picture Stories Picture Stories Picture Stories with highidentification value and mobiliza-tion to bridge the interculturalgap between peasants andconsultants; (gate 2/93, S.12+ 22)
Cote d’IvoireCote d’IvoireCote d’IvoireCote d’IvoireCote d’Ivoire WWF: In vain PR for Tai Na-WWF: In vain PR for Tai Na-WWF: In vain PR for Tai Na-WWF: In vain PR for Tai Na-WWF: In vain PR for Tai Na-tional Park in Buffer Zonetional Park in Buffer Zonetional Park in Buffer Zonetional Park in Buffer Zonetional Park in Buffer Zone andfor tourists with slide-voice-show,video, film and T-shirts, to protectthe park from environmentdestructing use; (WWF Environ-mental Education Dossier 1992)
EcuadorEcuadorEcuadorEcuadorEcuador Fundacion Natura: LongtermFundacion Natura: LongtermFundacion Natura: LongtermFundacion Natura: LongtermFundacion Natura: Longtermlobby and sensitization mea-lobby and sensitization mea-lobby and sensitization mea-lobby and sensitization mea-lobby and sensitization mea-sures in several steps sures in several steps sures in several steps sures in several steps sures in several steps forindustrial and political decisionmakers in environmental andconsumer´s protection; curriculadevelopment, teacher´s training,150 radio programmes, visualmedia, community development(OECD 1993: 215)
IndiaIndiaIndiaIndiaIndia Dasholi Gram SwarajyaDasholi Gram SwarajyaDasholi Gram SwarajyaDasholi Gram SwarajyaDasholi Gram SwarajyaMandal: Eco-developmentMandal: Eco-developmentMandal: Eco-developmentMandal: Eco-developmentMandal: Eco-developmentcampscampscampscampscamps 3-4 times p.a. for 250-300 concerned people, planers,govenment, fieldworker, NGO,academics, teachers in damagedmountain regions for mutualexperience exchange and newaction orientation; (OECD 1993:59)
IndonesienIndonesienIndonesienIndonesienIndonesien YHI: Environment SensitizationYHI: Environment SensitizationYHI: Environment SensitizationYHI: Environment SensitizationYHI: Environment Sensitizationat Environmental CentreSeloliman through sensualexperience, seminars and train-ing for different social groups;(WWF Environmental EducationDossier 1992)
TogoTogoTogoTogoTogo CFSME: Environment AnalysisCFSME: Environment AnalysisCFSME: Environment AnalysisCFSME: Environment AnalysisCFSME: Environment Analysisvia picture stories via picture stories via picture stories via picture stories via picture stories with highidentification value and mobiliza-tion potential; identical withGRAPP-method in Westafrica;(Thioune 1993: 67, Hoffmann1991; Albrecht 1987: 2. Bd)
ZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabweZimbabwe IUCN: Zimbabwe Environmen-IUCN: Zimbabwe Environmen-IUCN: Zimbabwe Environmen-IUCN: Zimbabwe Environmen-IUCN: Zimbabwe Environmen-tal Atal Atal Atal Atal Awareness Supportwareness Supportwareness Supportwareness Supportwareness SupportProgrammeProgrammeProgrammeProgrammeProgramme supports NGO inconceptualizing and implement-ing of ‘Environmental AwarenessCamps’ for teachers/pupil groups;additionally a pupil´s magazinewith 100.000 issues; (unpub.)
Awareness raising
Resources
46
BolivienBolivienBolivienBolivienBolivien SEMTA+GTZ: Comics andSEMTA+GTZ: Comics andSEMTA+GTZ: Comics andSEMTA+GTZ: Comics andSEMTA+GTZ: Comics andPicture Stories Picture Stories Picture Stories Picture Stories Picture Stories with highidentification value and mobiliza-tion to bridge over interculturalbarriers between peasants andconsultants; (gate 2/93, S.12+ 22)
BrasilBrasilBrasilBrasilBrasil WWF: Communication forWWF: Communication forWWF: Communication forWWF: Communication forWWF: Communication forConservationConservationConservationConservationConservation. In vain trial toprotect a park from destructiveuse by using slide-voice-shows,movies and T-shirts (Dietz 1992)
ChinaChinaChinaChinaChina ‘China Environment News’:‘China Environment News’:‘China Environment News’:‘China Environment News’:‘China Environment News’:national daily newspapernational daily newspapernational daily newspapernational daily newspapernational daily newspaper 3x/week with 1/2 Mio no. of copiessince 1984 and 400 associatedjournalists; (OECD 1993: 49)
Costa RicaCosta RicaCosta RicaCosta RicaCosta Rica Broadcasting and EducationBroadcasting and EducationBroadcasting and EducationBroadcasting and EducationBroadcasting and EducationMinistry: Environment Educa-Ministry: Environment Educa-Ministry: Environment Educa-Ministry: Environment Educa-Ministry: Environment Educa-tion via Ation via Ation via Ation via Ation via Adult Education ondult Education ondult Education ondult Education ondult Education onBroadcast; Broadcast; Broadcast; Broadcast; Broadcast; (Thioune 1993: 52)
DominicanDominicanDominicanDominicanDominican Broadcast: Environment Edu-Broadcast: Environment Edu-Broadcast: Environment Edu-Broadcast: Environment Edu-Broadcast: Environment Edu-cation via ‘Interactive Radio’cation via ‘Interactive Radio’cation via ‘Interactive Radio’cation via ‘Interactive Radio’cation via ‘Interactive Radio’for schools and audition clubs;
RepublicRepublicRepublicRepublicRepublic (Thioune 1993: 53)GambiaGambiaGambiaGambiaGambia WIF: Sensitization of ruralWIF: Sensitization of ruralWIF: Sensitization of ruralWIF: Sensitization of ruralWIF: Sensitization of rural
population for Environmentpopulation for Environmentpopulation for Environmentpopulation for Environmentpopulation for EnvironmentProtection Protection Protection Protection Protection via traditional media,video, horizontal communication;teacher/pupil as motivators;(Worldview 1992)
IndiaIndiaIndiaIndiaIndia Centre for Environment Educa-Centre for Environment Educa-Centre for Environment Educa-Centre for Environment Educa-Centre for Environment Educa-tion: Formal and non-formaltion: Formal and non-formaltion: Formal and non-formaltion: Formal and non-formaltion: Formal and non-formalEnvironment EducationEnvironment EducationEnvironment EducationEnvironment EducationEnvironment Education, e.g.‘News and Feature-Service’ for1.000 periodica und a journalistnetwork, curricula, teacher´straining; (OECD 1993: 53)
IndiaIndiaIndiaIndiaIndia Kerala Sastra SahityaKerala Sastra SahityaKerala Sastra SahityaKerala Sastra SahityaKerala Sastra SahityaParishad/KSSP: EnvironmentalParishad/KSSP: EnvironmentalParishad/KSSP: EnvironmentalParishad/KSSP: EnvironmentalParishad/KSSP: EnvironmentalSensibilization and LobbySensibilization and LobbySensibilization and LobbySensibilization and LobbySensibilization and LobbyWork Work Work Work Work through street theatre(250 times per month), villagestudy circle, media campaigns,traditional scrolls etc. followed upby concrete local communitydevelopment- und environmen-tal care-measures, representationof interest around ‘Silent Valley’;(OECD 1993: 49; Baskaran1990)
IndiaIndiaIndiaIndiaIndia Chipko Movement with the-Chipko Movement with the-Chipko Movement with the-Chipko Movement with the-Chipko Movement with the-ater, traditional Media.ater, traditional Media.ater, traditional Media.ater, traditional Media.ater, traditional Media.MarshesMarshesMarshesMarshesMarshes in Ghandi-Trad. (vio-lent-free opposition) with 170NGO over 400km with meetings,theatre, singing on resourceprotection in mountain region,followed up by concrete lokalcommunity development- andenvironmental care-measures;(Baskaran 1990)
IndienIndienIndienIndienIndien Link Society Link Society Link Society Link Society Link Society (NGO) with streettheatre 1989 on a 1.000km-marsh through 300 villages and8 cities on resource protectionthemes followed up by concretelocal community development-and environmental care-mea-sures; (OECD 1993: 61)
IndienIndienIndienIndienIndien SAC-DECU: 2000 traditionalSAC-DECU: 2000 traditionalSAC-DECU: 2000 traditionalSAC-DECU: 2000 traditionalSAC-DECU: 2000 traditionaltheatre programme for marketstheatre programme for marketstheatre programme for marketstheatre programme for marketstheatre programme for marketsto environment problems throughurbanization; (Baskaran 1990)
IndonesienIndonesienIndonesienIndonesienIndonesien GTZ: Integrated Media StrategyGTZ: Integrated Media StrategyGTZ: Integrated Media StrategyGTZ: Integrated Media StrategyGTZ: Integrated Media Strategytowards waste disposal/recyclingvia theatre, video, TV underparticipation of affected people;(Oepen 1992)
IndonesienIndonesienIndonesienIndonesienIndonesien PPLH: ACDC - TraditionalPPLH: ACDC - TraditionalPPLH: ACDC - TraditionalPPLH: ACDC - TraditionalPPLH: ACDC - Traditionaltheatre theatre theatre theatre theatre for proliferation ofadopted land use methods forpeasants within a participatoryArea Development Programm;(Oepen 1986)
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenyaKenya WIF: ‘Social Marketing forWIF: ‘Social Marketing forWIF: ‘Social Marketing forWIF: ‘Social Marketing forWIF: ‘Social Marketing for‘Indigenous Food Plant‘Indigenous Food Plant‘Indigenous Food Plant‘Indigenous Food Plant‘Indigenous Food PlantProgramme’ andProgramme’ andProgramme’ andProgramme’ andProgramme’ and biodiversitythrough traditional media, video,bulletins, schools und communitydevelopment; (Worldview 1992)
MalawiMalawiMalawiMalawiMalawi GTZ: Traditional Theatre in-GTZ: Traditional Theatre in-GTZ: Traditional Theatre in-GTZ: Traditional Theatre in-GTZ: Traditional Theatre in-stead of Video for Healthstead of Video for Healthstead of Video for Healthstead of Video for Healthstead of Video for HealthEducation; Education; Education; Education; Education; (Hollenbach 1993)
MalaysiaMalaysiaMalaysiaMalaysiaMalaysia WWF: Mobile Unit Conserva-WWF: Mobile Unit Conserva-WWF: Mobile Unit Conserva-WWF: Mobile Unit Conserva-WWF: Mobile Unit Conserva-tion Programmetion Programmetion Programmetion Programmetion Programme. in vain trialrelated to the National Park inSaba, to convince 50 villageswithin three years to adaptenvironmental sound landuse viaslide-voice-shows, discussions andfilms; (OECD 1993: 60)
NigeriaNigeriaNigeriaNigeriaNigeria National Conservation Foun-National Conservation Foun-National Conservation Foun-National Conservation Foun-National Conservation Foun-dation und TV Adation und TV Adation und TV Adation und TV Adation und TV Authority:uthority:uthority:uthority:uthority:Environmental Education viaEnvironmental Education viaEnvironmental Education viaEnvironmental Education viaEnvironmental Education viaTV-doll theatre, TV-doll theatre, TV-doll theatre, TV-doll theatre, TV-doll theatre, although asbritish import; (Doran 1994)
Communication
Selected Case Studies
47
PakistanPakistanPakistanPakistanPakistan IUCN: Journalist ResourceIUCN: Journalist ResourceIUCN: Journalist ResourceIUCN: Journalist ResourceIUCN: Journalist ResourceCentre for the EnvironmentCentre for the EnvironmentCentre for the EnvironmentCentre for the EnvironmentCentre for the Environmentwith ‘News and Feature-Service’for journalist network, seminars,training, media campaign, prizecompetition, quiz, etc. (OECD1993: 53)
RuandaRuandaRuandaRuandaRuanda GRAPP: Picture Stories GRAPP: Picture Stories GRAPP: Picture Stories GRAPP: Picture Stories GRAPP: Picture Stories withhigh identification value andmobilization potential also forparticipative environment analy-sis at and from rural populationgroups; similar to CFSME/TogoCFSME/TogoCFSME/TogoCFSME/TogoCFSME/Togoand Westafrica; (Hoffmann 1991;Gabathuler 1991)
Sri LankaSri LankaSri LankaSri LankaSri Lanka WIF: Environmental EducationWIF: Environmental EducationWIF: Environmental EducationWIF: Environmental EducationWIF: Environmental Educationvia TV Quiz, via TV Quiz, via TV Quiz, via TV Quiz, via TV Quiz, school calendar andbooks, NGO-media training(Worldview 1992)
Southern ASouthern ASouthern ASouthern ASouthern Africafricafricafricafrica AAAAAction Magazine: Environmentction Magazine: Environmentction Magazine: Environmentction Magazine: Environmentction Magazine: EnvironmentMagazine Magazine Magazine Magazine Magazine for pupils/teacher,80.000 number of copies, comics,quiz etc, partly with follow-up vialocal media (WWF EnvironmentalEducation Dossier 1992)
Southern ASouthern ASouthern ASouthern ASouthern Africafricafricafricafrica IUCN: ‘Communicating theIUCN: ‘Communicating theIUCN: ‘Communicating theIUCN: ‘Communicating theIUCN: ‘Communicating theEnvironment’ via Mass MediaEnvironment’ via Mass MediaEnvironment’ via Mass MediaEnvironment’ via Mass MediaEnvironment’ via Mass Media,Databank, NGO network fordecision makers, multiplikators(unpublished mission-report of1994)
ThailandThailandThailandThailandThailand Thai Environment and Commu-Thai Environment and Commu-Thai Environment and Commu-Thai Environment and Commu-Thai Environment and Commu-nity Development Association:nity Development Association:nity Development Association:nity Development Association:nity Development Association:‘Magic Eyes’-Multimedia‘Magic Eyes’-Multimedia‘Magic Eyes’-Multimedia‘Magic Eyes’-Multimedia‘Magic Eyes’-MultimediaCampagneCampagneCampagneCampagneCampagne 1987 about urbanenvironment pollution and wastereduction, later in rural areasabout forest destruction; similarto Bangladesh Government onBangladesh Government onBangladesh Government onBangladesh Government onBangladesh Government onWorld Environment Day World Environment Day World Environment Day World Environment Day World Environment Day 1989about tree plantings, environ-ment protection; (OECD 1993:61)
ThailandThailandThailandThailandThailand WIF: Broad- andWIF: Broad- andWIF: Broad- andWIF: Broad- andWIF: Broad- andnarrowcasting for Highlandnarrowcasting for Highlandnarrowcasting for Highlandnarrowcasting for Highlandnarrowcasting for HighlandDevelopment.Development.Development.Development.Development. Environmentprotection through auditor´sclubs in Dialects, 2-way-communi-cation between villages andadministrative bodies, video,NGO-mediatraining (Worldview1992)
WorldWorldWorldWorldWorld Journalist Associations: Envi-Journalist Associations: Envi-Journalist Associations: Envi-Journalist Associations: Envi-Journalist Associations: Envi-ronmentally engaged Journal-ronmentally engaged Journal-ronmentally engaged Journal-ronmentally engaged Journal-ronmentally engaged Journal-ist Networksist Networksist Networksist Networksist Networks, normally massmedia on national (e.g. Nepal/Zimbabwe/Zambia Association ofEnvironmental Journalists),regional (Asia-Pacific Forum) andinternational level; (Oepen 1993)
WorldWorldWorldWorldWorld Panos Institute, London: WithPanos Institute, London: WithPanos Institute, London: WithPanos Institute, London: WithPanos Institute, London: With‘Down to Earth’, ‘Panoscope’,‘Down to Earth’, ‘Panoscope’,‘Down to Earth’, ‘Panoscope’,‘Down to Earth’, ‘Panoscope’,‘Down to Earth’, ‘Panoscope’,‘Panos Feature Service’‘Panos Feature Service’‘Panos Feature Service’‘Panos Feature Service’‘Panos Feature Service’ aworld-wide net on production,distribution und publication ofenvironmental informations(unpublished Mission-Report ofBMZ)
ZambiaZambiaZambiaZambiaZambia Wildlife Conservation SocietyWildlife Conservation SocietyWildlife Conservation SocietyWildlife Conservation SocietyWildlife Conservation SocietyZambia: Environment Maga-Zambia: Environment Maga-Zambia: Environment Maga-Zambia: Environment Maga-Zambia: Environment Maga-zine and Broadcast zine and Broadcast zine and Broadcast zine and Broadcast zine and Broadcast plusauditor´s clubs for pupils/teachers partly with follow-up vialocal media (unpublished.Mission-Report of BMZ)
Resources
48
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Case Study – Literature References
