Course title: Environment Analysis Course no: 3107

JAGANNATH UNIVERSITY

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Submitted to, Abu Hasan Lecturer Dept of geography and environment Jagannath University Dhaka

Submitted by, Dhananjoy Dey

Roll:117607 Sec:20101-2011

6th batch 3rd semester 1st year

Dept of geography and environment

Jagannath University Dhaka

About Environment

The environment is the sum total of human surroundings consisting ofthe atmosphere,

the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the biota. Human beings are totally dependent on

the environment for life itself. The atmosphere provides us with the air we breathe, the

hydrosphere provides the water we drink and the soil of the lithosphere provides us with

the vegetables that we eat. In addition, the environment provides us with the raw

materials to fulfill our other needs: the construction of housing, the production of the

numerous consumer goods, etc. In view of these important functions it is imperative that

we maintain the environment in as pristine a state as is possible. Fouling of the

environment by the products of our industrial society (i.e. pollution) can have many

harmful consequences, damage to human health being of greatest concern. In addition

to the outdoor environment, increasing concern is being expressed about the exposure

of individuals to harmful pollutants within the indoor environment, both at home and at

work. Levels of harmful pollutants can often be higher indoors than outdoors, and this is

especially true of the workplace where workers can be exposed to fairly high levels of

toxic substances. Occupational health, occupational medicine, and industrial hygiene

are subjects that deal with exposure at the workplace. Pollution is mainly, although not

exclusively, chemical in nature. The job of the environmental analyst is therefore of

great importance to society. Ultimately, it is the environmental analyst who keeps us

informed about the quality of our environment and alerts us to any major pollution

incidents which may warrant our concern and response.

Fig:Interactions between component parts of the biosphere

Biogeochemical Cycles

The different components of the biosphere and their interactions are illustrated in Figure 1.1. The biosphere is that part of the environment where life exists. It consists of the hydrosphere (oceans, rivers, lakes), the lower part of the atmosphere, the upper layer of the lithosphere (soil) and all life forms. The concept of the biosphere was first introduced by the Russian scientist Vladimir Vernadsky (1 863-1 945) as the “sphere of living organisms distribution”. Vernadsky was among the first to recognise the important role played by living organisms in various interactions within the biosphere, and he established the first-ever biogeochemical laboratory specifically dedicated to the study of these interactions. He expounded his theories in an aptly entitled book, “Biosphere”, published in 1926

Environmental Pollution

Pollution is commonly defined as the addition of a substance by human activity to the environment which can cause injury to human health or damage to natural ecosystems. This definition excludes “natural pollution”, although natural processes can also release harmful substances into the environment. There are different categories of pollution: chemical, physical, radioactive, biological and aesthetic. This book is concerned primarily with chemical pollutants and their determination in environmental matrices.

Aim of analysis

The purpose of environmental analysis is two-fold: To determine the background, natural, concentrations of chemical constituents in

the environment (background monitoring) To determine the concentration of harmful pollutants in the environment (pollution

monitoring) Background monitoring is useful in studies of general environmental processes, and for establishing concentrations against which any pollution effects could be assessed. It is, however, a fact that pollution has now affected even the most remote areas of the globe, and true background levels of many substances are becoming increasingly difficult to determine. The objectives of pollution monitoring are:

To identify potential threats to human health and natural ecosystems. To determine compliance with national and international standards. To inform the public about the quality of the environment and raise

wareness about environmental issues. To develop and validate computer models which simulate environmental

processes and are extensively used as environmental management tools. To provide inputs to policy making decisions (land-use planning ,traffic, etc.). To assess the efficacy of pollution control measures To investigate trends in pollution and identify future problems

. . Environmental analysis is often used in environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies. These studies are carried out before any major industrial development is given a go-ahead by the authorities and their aim is to assess any potential impacts of the development on environmental quality. As part of EIA it is often necessary to establish the baseline concentrations of various substances at the proposed site so that potential impacts may be assessed

Types of Analysis

The chemical substance being determined in a sample is called an analyte (i.e. element, ion, compound). Samples are “analyzed” whereas analytes are “determined”. We can broadly define two categories of chemical analysis: Qualitative analysis - concerned with the identification (i.e. determining the nature) of a chemical substance. Quantitative analysis - concerned with the quantlJication (i.e.determining the amount) of a chemical substance. The former answers the question: “Which substance is present?” while the latter answers the question: “How much is present?”. Results of quantitative analysis are generally expressed in terms of concentration. Concentration is the quantity of analyte (in grams or moles) per unit analysis involves the determination of organic compounds. Quantitative analysis may be classified according to the following categories: Complete analysis - each and every constituent of the sample is determined. Ultimate analysis - each and every element in the sample is determined without regard to the compounds present Partial analysis - the amount of one or several, but not all, constituents in a sample is

determined.

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Stages of Analysis

Both industry and government operate laboratories dedicated to environmental analysis. Furthermore, environmental analysis is performed by commercial analytical laboratories, serving smaller industries that find it more cost effective to sub-contract out analytical work rather than to invest in their own laboratories, and by universities and institutes that carry out research into environmental chemistry and pollution. Hence, there is a wide range of employment options available for trained environmental

chemists. An environmental analyst should be proficient at carrying out all the different stages of an analysis given below:

Concepts of Environmental Analysis

Environmental analysis is the use of analytical chemistry and other techniques to study the environment. The purpose of this is commonly to monitor and study levels of pollutants in the atmosphere, rivers and other specific settings. In other words the analysis of the context of instructional systems, both the physical and use aspects of the instructional products is termed as Environmental Analysis. It is a phenomenological approach to instructional design in that it seeks to describe the project 'as it is' in the real world, how it relates to the system(s) into which it will be embedded. It is a profile of where instruction occurs, who uses it, how it is used and how it will be sustained.

Environmental Chemistry

Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. It should not be confused with green chemistry, which seeks to reduce potential pollution at its source. It can be defined as the study of the sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of chemical species in the air, soil, and water environments; and the effect of human activity on these. Environmental chemistry is an interdisciplinary science that includes atmospheric, aquatic and soil chemistry, as well as heavily relying on analytical chemistry and being related to environmental and other areas of science. Environmental chemistry involves first understanding how the uncontaminated environment works, which chemicals in what concentrations are present naturally, and with what effects. Without this it would be impossible to accurately study the effects humans have on the environment through the release of chemicals. Environmental chemists draw on a range of concepts from chemistry and various

environmental sciences to assist in their study of what is happening to a chemical

species in the environment. Important general concepts from chemistry include

understanding chemical reactions and equations, solutions, units, sampling, and

analytical techniques.

Green Chemistry Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is a philosophy of chemical

research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that

minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. Whereas environmental

chemistry is the chemistry of the natural environment, and of pollutant chemicals in

nature, green chemistry seeks to reduce and prevent pollution at its source. In 1990 the

Pollution Prevention Act was passed in the United States. This act helped create a

modus operandi for dealing with pollution in an original and innovative way. It aims to

avoid problems before they happen.

As a chemical philosophy, green chemistry applies to organic chemistry, inorganic

chemistry, biochemistry, analytical chemistry, and even physical chemistry. While green

chemistry seems to focus on industrial applications, it does apply to any chemistry

choice. Chemistry is often cited as a style of chemical synthesis that is consistent with

the goals of green chemistry. The focus is on minimizing the hazard and maximizing the

efficiency of any chemical choice. It is distinct from environmental chemistry which

focuses on chemical phenomena in the environment.

Environment in a Post-Disaster Context

The cause-effect relationship between environmental degradation, poverty and disasters is complex and has been the subject of many analyses. All signs, however, show that the number of environment-related disasters is currently on the increase, with flooding expected to be among the highest of future predictions. As the many ramifications of a changing global climate also become more apparent, it must be expected that certain zones which to date may not have experienced serious impacts of natural disasters may in future become more vulnerable to such events. Predicting natural disasters is a growing area of research. The scale of human suffering

however in post disaster situations is rarely considered ahead of a disaster occurring. In

some cases, this places an immediate extra burden on perhaps already damaged or

degraded environmental services for the provision of emergency shelter, water or waste

provisioning. In almost every disaster situation, however, there are some forms of

environmental impact, some of which in turn may have additional secondary negative

implications for the already affected communities. Understanding the dynamics between

a disaster, its environmental (as well as social and economic) impacts, the needs of the

community and implications for the early recovery process is therefore a vital need.

Table 1 shows some of the recurrent environment-related consequences associated

with recent disasters

Table 1. Common and Recurrent Natural Disasters and some Environment-related

Consequences

Type of Disaster

Associated Environmental Impact

Hurricane/Typhoon / Cyclone

Loss of vegetation cover and wildlife habitat

Short-term heavy rains and flooding inland

twater intrusion to underground fresh water reservoirs

mechanisms

y temporarily displaced people

infrastructure (e.g. deforestation, quarrying waste pollution)

Tsunami

Ground water pollution through sewage overflow

Saline incursion and sewage contamination of groundwater reservoirs

cial deposition of sediment on beaches/small islands

– additional waste disposal sites required

sociated with reconstruction and repair to damaged

infrastructure (e.g. deforestation, quarrying, waste pollution)

Earthquake

Loss of productive systems, e.g. agriculture

Possible mass flooding if dam infrastructure weakened or destroyed

– additional waste disposal sites required

infrastructure (e.g. deforestation, quarrying, waste pollution)

threat, e.g. leakage from fuel storage facilities

Flood

Ground water pollution through sewage overflow

k and livelihood security

ns or close to river banks

Volcanic Eruption

Loss of productive landscape and crops being buried by ash and pumice

gas release Secondary flooding should rivers or valleys be blocked by lava flow

threat, e.g. leakage from fuel storage facilities Impacts associated with reconstruction and repair to damaged infrastructure (e.g. deforestation, quarrying, waste pollution)

Landslide

Damaged infrastructure as a possible secondary environmental threat, e.g. leakage from fuel storage facilities Secondary impacts by temporarily displaced people

infrastructure (e.g. deforestation, quarrying, waste pollution)

Drought

Loss of surface vegetation.

Epidemic

Loss of biodiversity

Loss of productive economic systems

on of new species

Forest Fires

Loss of forest and wildlife habitat

Sand Storms

Loss of productive agricultural land

At the same time, however, there are a number of humanitarian- and relief-related activities that are commonly undertaken during the early recovery phase which may themselves have an impact on the state of the environment. Specific attention needs to be given to these – many of which are cross-cutting activities from other related clusters – among which are:

-extraction of ground water aquifers;

-intensive systems such as desalination plants;

onstruction and Fuel wood;

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Selecting Environmental Challenges for Analysis: in View of Bangladesh

The Country Environmental Analysis (CEA) is intended to assist the Government, civil society and development partners of Bangladesh in identifying and addressing critical environmental constraints to sustainable, poverty-reducing growth. The initial set of issues chosen for analysis is selected jointly by the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) and the World Bank based on their relevance to growth and poverty reduction, as well as a consideration of the value of new analysis. These criteria led to a focus on five priority issues in the CEA, as follows:

environmental risks to human health;

protection of water quality in Dhaka;

management of capture fisheries;

sustaining soil quality; and

strengthening institutions for environmental management. These selected topics do not constitute an exhaustive list of environmental issues in Bangladesh. Urban environmental degradation, for example, extends beyond Dhaka; but with its population expected to grow fivefold in the next fifty years, the capital is clearly a priority, and provides lessons relevant to other cities. Similarly, natural resource concerns extend beyond the selected priorities of capture fisheries and soil quality, with forest management a prominent pending issue, as is adaptation to climate change.

An Eight Step Environmental Analysis Process and its Associated Outputs

1. Identify the Project: Identify the purpose and need of the proposed action. Develop a goal to provide a framework for EA. 2. Scoping: Identify the issues, opportunities, and effects of implementing the proposed action. 3. Collect and Interpret Data: Collect data. Identify probable effects of project implementation. 4. Design of the Alternatives: Consider a reasonable range of alternatives. Usually at least three alternatives are considered. Include a No-Action Alternative. Consider the mitigation of negative impacts. 5. Evaluate Effects: Predict and describe the physical, biological, economic, and social effects of implementing each alternative. Address the three types of effects -- Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative. 6. Compare Alternatives: Measure the predicted effects of each alternative against evaluation criteria. 7. Decision Notice and Public Review: Select preferred alternative. Allow for review and comment by the affected and interested public. 8. Implementation and Monitoring: Record results. Implement selected alternative. Develop a monitoring plan. Insure that EA mitigations are being followed

Implications of Environmental Analysis

Environmental Analysts have determined that the environmental resource areas listed below will be analyzed in the Environmental Impact Report (EIR).The environmental analysis incorporated herein identifies the environmental consequences of the proposed alternatives on these resource areas, as well as the mitigation measures proposed to address any adverse effects.

transportation,

air quality,

biological resources,

community services (public services),

cultural resources,

electromagnetic fields,

energy,

environmental justice,

geology, soils and seismicity,

hazardous materials,

hydrology and water quality,

land use,

noise and vibration,

safety and security,

socioeconomics (population and housing),

utilities,

visual quality (aesthetics), and

Construction impacts.

Needs in Geography

By Knowing Environmental Analysis one can pursuing professional carriers in local, regional or national planning agencies or organizations, engineering consulting firms, GIS service providers, environmental companies, and other public or private organizations. Students are able to earn a degree in Geography with specialization in Environmental Analysis.

Environmental Geography

Environmental geography is the branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the dynamics of geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, ecology, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment. The links between cultural and physical geography were once more readily apparent than they are today. As human experience of the world is increasingly mediated by technology, the relationships have often become obscured. Environmental geography represents a critically important set of analytical tools for assessing the impact of human presence on the environment by measuring the result of human activity on natural landforms and cycles. Environmental geography is one of

three branches of geography: environmental, physical and human. Environmental geography concentrates on the relationship between human and the surrounding world7.

Classical Methods for Environmental Analysis

Although modern analytical chemistry is dominated by sophisticated instrumentation, the roots of analytical chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments are from traditional techniques many of which are still used today. These techniques also tend to form the backbone of most undergraduate analytical chemistry educational labs. Qualitative Analysis A qualitative analysis determines the presence or absence of a particular compound, but not the mass or concentration. That is, it is not related to quantity. Chemical Tests There are numerous qualitative chemical tests, for example, the acid test for gold and the Kastle-Meyer test for the presence of blood. naturally as they oxidize on their own in the air.Optionally, the swab can first be treated with a drop of ethanol in order to lyse the cells present and gain increased sensitivity and specificity. This test is nondestructive to the sample, which can be kept and used in further tests at the lab; however, few labs would use the swab used for the Kastle-Meyer test in any further testing, opting instead to use a fresh swab of the original stain. Flame Test Inorganic qualitative analysis generally refers to a systematic scheme to confirm the presence of certain, usually aqueous, ions or elements by performing a series of reactions that eliminate ranges of possibilities and then confirms suspected ions with a confirming test. Sometimes small carbon containing ions are included in such schemes. With modern instrumentation these tests are rarely used but can be useful for educational purposes and in field work or other situations where accesses to state-of-the-art instruments are not available or expedient. Gravimetric Analysis Gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material present by weighing the sample before and/or after some transformation. A common example used in undergraduate education is the determination of the amount of water in a hydrate by heating the sample to remove the water such that the difference in weight is due to the loss of water. Volumetric Analysis Titration involves the addition of a reactant to a solution being analyzed until some equivalence point is reached. Often the amount of material in the solution being analyzed may be determined. Most familiar to those who have taken college chemistry is the acid-base titration involving a color changing indicator. There are many other types of titrations, for example potentiometric titrations. These titrations may use different types of indicators to reach some equivalence point.

Figure: Block diagram of an analytical instrument showing the stimulus and

measurement of response

Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with electromagnetic radiation. Spectroscopy consists of many different applications such as atomic absorption spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, dual polarisation interferometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, Mössbauer spectroscopy and so on.

Mass Spectrometry

Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric and magnetic fields. There are several ionization methods: electron impact, chemical ionization, electrospray, fast atom bombardment, matrix assisted laser desorption ionization, and others. Also, mass spectrometry is categorized by approaches of mass analyzers: magnetic-sector, quadrupole mass analyzer, quadrupole ion trap, time-of-flight, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance, and so on.

Electrochemical Analysis

Electroanalytical methods measure the potential (volts) and/or current (amps) in an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. These methods can be categorized according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The three main categories are potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is measured),

coulometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential).

Thermal Analysis

Calorimetric and thermo-gravimetric analysis measure the interaction of a material and heat.

Separation

Separation processes are used to decrease the complexity of material mixtures. Chromatography and electrophoresis are representative of this field.

Hybrid Techniques

Combinations of the above techniques produce a "hybrid" or "hyphenated" technique. Several examples are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under development. For example, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-NMR spectroscopy. liquid chromagraphy-infrared spectroscopy and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry. Hyphenated separation techniques refers to a combination of two (or more) techniques to detect and separate chemicals from solutions. Most often the other technique is some form of chromatography. Hyphenated techniques are widely used in chemistry and biochemistry. A slash is sometimes used instead of hyphen, especially if the name of one of the methods contains a hyphen itself.

Microscopy

The visualization of single molecules, single cells, biological tissues and nanomaterial’s is an important and attractive approach in analytical science. Also, hybridization with other traditional analytical tools is revolutionizing analytical science. Microscopy can be categorized into three different fields: optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and scanning probe microscopy. Recently, this field is rapidly progressing because of the rapid development of the computer and camera industries.

Some Sophisticated Instruments

There are a lot of instruments that directly or indirectly closely related with the Environmental Analysis. In Physical Geography Laboratory includes different landform models, rocks and minerals' testing equipment, particle measuring devices, arsenic contamination testing tools, pollution measuring kits and pH meter etc. are some of them.

The Environmental Sample Processor (ESP)

The Environmental sample processor is an automated molecular biology laboratory that fits in pressure housing about the size of a garbage can. Floating in the open ocean or

moored in the deep sea, it can detect microbes and other tiny living organisms using their DNA. It can also detect other biologically important compounds such as toxins generated during harmful algal blooms.

Applications of ESP

Surface water

Deep Water

The Laser Raman Spectrometer (LRS)

Raman spectroscopy is a useful technique for the identification of a wide range of substances - solids, liquids, and gases. It is a straightforward, non-destructive technique requiring no sample preparation. Raman spectroscopy involves illuminating a sample with monochromatic light and using a spectrometer to examine light scattered by the sample. By shining a specially tuned laser beam on almost any object or substance--solid, liquid, or gas--a laser Raman spectrometer allows scientists to determine the subject's chemical composition and molecular structure.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that images the sample surface by scanning it with a high-energy beam of electrons in a raster scan pattern. The electrons interact with the atoms that make up the sample producing signals that contain information about the sample's surface topography, composition and other properties such as electrical conductivity. The types of signals produced by an SEM include secondary electrons, back-scattered electrons (BSE), characteristic X-rays, light (cathodoluminescence), specimen current and transmitted electrons. Secondary electron detectors are common in all SEMs, but it is rare that a single machine would have detectors for all possible signals. The signals result from interactions of the electron beam with atoms at or near the surface of the sample. In the most common or standard detection mode, secondary electron imaging or SEI, the SEM can produce very high-resolution images of a sample surface, revealing details about less than 1 to 5 nm in size. Due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three-dimensional appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample. A wide range of magnifications is possible, from about 10 times (about equivalent to that of a powerful hand-lens) to more than 500,000 times, about 250 times the magnification limit of the best light microscopes.

Figure: Schematic diagram of Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).

Back-scattered electrons (BSE) are beam electrons that are reflected from the sample by elastic scattering. BSE are often used in analytical SEM along with the spectra made from the characteristic X-rays. Because the intensity of the BSE signal is strongly related to the atomic number (Z) of the specimen, BSE images can provide information about the distribution of different elements in the sample. For the same reason, BSE imaging can image colloidal gold immuno-labels of 5 or 10 nm diameter which would otherwise be difficult or impossible to detect in secondary electron images in biological specimens. Characteristic X-rays are emitted when the electron beam removes an inner shell electron from the sample, causing a higher energy electron to fill the shell and release energy. These characteristic X-rays are used to identify the composition and measure the abundance of elements in the sample.

Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM)

The environmental scanning electron microscope or ESEM is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) that allows for the option of collecting electron micrographs of

specimens that are "wet," uncoated, or both by allowing for a gaseous environment in the specimen chamber. Although there were earlier successes at viewing wet specimens in internal chambers in modified SEMs, the ESEM with its specialized electron detectors (rather than the standard Everhart-Thornley detector) and its differential pumping systems to allow for the transfer of the electron beam from the high vacuums in the gun area to the high pressures attainable in its specimen chamber make it a complete and unique instrument designed for the purpose of imaging specimens in their natural state.

Applications of ESEM

Some representative applications of ESEM are in the following areas: i) Biology An early application involved the examination of fresh and living plant material including a study of Leptospermum flavescens. The advantages of ESEM in studies of microorganisms and a comparison of preparation techniques have been demonstrated. ii) Medicine and medical iii) Archaeology In conservation science, it is often necessary to preserve the specimens intact or in their natural state. iv) Industry ESEM studies have been performed on fibers in the wool industry with and without particular chemical and mechanical treatments. In cement industry, it is important to examine various processes in situ in the wet and dry state. v) In-situ studies Studies in-situ can be performed with the aid of various ancillary devices. These have involved hot stages to observe processes at elevated temperatures, microinjectors of liquids and specimen extension or deformation devices. vi) General materials science Biofilms can be studied without the artifacts introduced during SEM preparation, as well as dentin and detergents have been investigated since the early years of ESEM.

Microscope Spectrometer

Microscope Spectrometers are designed to measure UV-visible-NIR spectra of microscopic samples or microscopic areas of larger objects. There are two basic types: the fully integrated microspectrometer that has been built and optimized for micro spectrometry. There is also the spectrometer unit designed to attach to an open photo port of an optical microscope. Each has its strengths and depending upon the configuration, both are capable of measuring the spectra of microscopic samples by transmission, absorbance, reflectance, fluorescence, emission and polarization spectrometry. With special software, both are capable of thin film thickness measurements and colorimetry as well

Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS)

Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) is a spectroanalytical procedure for the qualitative and quantitative determination of chemical elements employing the absorption of optical radiation (light) by free atoms in the gaseous state. In analytical chemistry the technique is used for determining the concentration of a particular element (the analyte) in a sample to be analyzed. AAS can be used to determine over 70 different elements in solution or directly in solid samples. Atomic absorption spectrometry was first used as an analytical technique, and the underlying principles were established in the second half of the 19th century by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, both professors at the University of Heidelberg, Germany. The modern form of AAS was largely developed during the 1950s by a team of Australian Chemists. They were led by Sir Alan Walsh at the CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization), Division of Chemical Physics, in Melbourne, Australia.

Application of AAS

Determination of even small amounts of metals (lead, mercury, calcium, magnesium, etc) as follows: Environmental studies: drinking water, ocean water, soil; Food industry; Pharmaceutical industry; Biomaterials: blood, saliva, tissue; Forensics: gunpowder residue, hit and run accidents; Geology: rocks, fossils.

Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry (ICPS)

Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry (ICPS), a method capable of providing fast multielement measurement of around 75 chemical elements in one sample solution, over concentration range varying from percent to Ultra trace.

Electroanalytical Methods

Several sampling techniques for air, water and soil analysis are described, together with many applications. The coverage of ion-selective electrodes is included in Electroanalytical methods. The techniques are grouped according to the measured parameter in three classes: potentiometry, amperometry and conductivity. While in the first category several common types of ion-selective electrodes (including pH electrodes).In the second the discussion is focused on polarography, anodic and cathodic stripping voltammetry and their applications to the detection of metals, sulfur and dissolved oxygen. Finally, a brief presentation of conductivity measurements closes this chapter.

Automated methods for chemical analysis

Continuous-Flow, Flow-Injection and discrete analysis, the importance of automated methods for chemical analysis, especially for direct monitoring, where data are needed in real time, is stressed out. The theoretical principles and practical systems for each technique are presented, pointing the advantages of flow-injection and discrete analysis over segmented continuous flow systems. In the final section, various examples illustrate the importance of these methods in soil analysis. Ion Chromatography (IC) Ion Chromatography (IC), a very popular technique for accurate and precise determination of anions and cations in various environmental materials, including soils. The principle of IC methods and an evaluation of these instruments for soil, plant and water analysis were reviewed and applications are described. The potential that IC offers, particularly for the simultaneous analysis of several anions, justify the future use of this technique in environmental analysis. CHNS analyzers CHNS elemental analysers provide a means for the rapid determination of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur in organic matrices and other types of materials. They are capable of handling a wide variety of sample types, including solids, liquids, volatile and viscous samples, in the fields of pharmaceuticals, polymers, chemicals, environment, food and energy. Principle of Operation of CHNS Analyzers The sample weighed in milligrams housed in a tin capsule is dropped into a quartz tube at 1020°C with constant helium flow (carrier gas). A few seconds before the sample drops into the combustion tube, the stream is enriched with a measured amount of high purity oxygen to achieve a strong oxidizing environment which guarantees almost complete combustion/oxidation even of thermally resistant substances. The combustion gas mixture is driven through an oxidation catalyst (WO3) zone, then through a subsequent copper zone which reduces nitrogen oxides and sulphuric anhydride (SO3) eventually formed during combustion on catalyst reduction to elemental nitrogen and sulphurous anhydride (SO2) and retains the oxygen excess. The resulting four components of the combustion mixture are detected by a Thermal Conductivity detector in the sequence N2, CO2, H2O and SO2. In case of oxygen which is analyzed separately, the sample undergoes immediate pyrolysis in a Helium stream which ensures quantitative conversion of organic oxygen into carbon monoxide separated on a GC column packed with molecular sieves. Gas chromatography (GC) Gas chromatography (GC), is a common type of chromatography used in analytic chemistry for separating and analysing compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition. Typical uses of GC include testing the purity of a particular substance, or separating the different components of a mixture. In some situations; GC may help in identifying a compound. In preparative chromatography, GC can be used to prepare pure compounds from a mixture. In gas chromatography, the moving phase (or "mobile phase") is a carrier gas, usually an inert gas such as helium or an unreactive gas such as nitrogen. The stationary

phase is a microscopic layer of liquid or polymer on an inert solid support, inside a piece of glass or metal tubing called a column (a homage to the fractionating column used in distillation). The instrument used to perform gas chromatography is called a gas chromatograph (or "aerograph", "gas separator"). The gaseous compounds being analyzed interact with the walls of the column, which is coated with different stationary phases. This causes each compound to elute at a different time, known as the retention time of the compound. The comparison of retention times is what gives GC its analytical usefulness.

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique which is used to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption, emission, photoconductivity or Raman scattering of a solid, liquid or gas. An FTIR spectrometer simultaneously collects spectral data in a wide spectral range. This confers a significant advantage over a dispersive spectrometer which measures intensity over a narrow range of wavelengths at a time. FTIR technique has made dispersive infrared spectrometers all but obsolete (except sometimes in the near infrared) and opened up new applications of infrared spectroscopy. The term Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy originates from the fact that a Fourier transform (a mathematical algorithm) is required to convert the raw data into the actual spectrum. Concentration

Concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions, where it refers to the amount of solute in the solvent. To concentrate a solution, one must add more solute (e.g. NaCl), or reduce the amount of solvent (e.g. water). By contrast, to dilute a solution, one must add more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute 19.

Expression of Concentration 1. Molarity (M) Molarity is probably the most commonly used unit of concentration. It is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution at constant temperature. 2. Molality (m) Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Because the density of water at 25°C is about 1 kilogram per liter, Molality is approximately equal to Molarity for dilute aqueous solutions at this temperature. These is a useful approximation, but remember that it is only an approximation and doesn't apply when the solution is at a different temperature, isn't dilute, or uses a solvent other than water.

3. Normality (N) Normality is equal to the gram equivalent weight of a solute per liter of solution. A gram equivalent weight or equivalent is a measure of the reactive capacity of a given molecule. Normality is the only concentration unit that is reaction dependent. Dilutions Dilute a solution whenever adding solvent to a solution. Adding solvent results in a solution of lower concentration. One can calculate the concentration of a solution following a dilution by applying this equation: MiVi = MfVf where M is molarity, V is volume, and the subscripts i and f refer to the initial and final values

Units of Measure Concentrations in Soil

Concentrations of chemicals in Soil are typically measured in units of the mass of chemical (g or μg), per mass of soil (Kg). This is written as mg/Kg or μg/Kg. Sometimes concentrations in soil are reported as parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb). Parts per million and parts per billion may be converted from one to other using this relationship: 1 part per million = 1,000 parts per billion. For Soil, 1ppm= 1mg/Kg of contaminated Soil. And 1 ppb= 1μg/Kg

Concentrations in Water

Concentrations of chemicals in water are typically measured of the mass of chemical (mg or μg) per volume of water (L or mL). Concentrations in water can also be expressed as ppm or ppb. For Water, 1 ppm= 1mg/L or μg/mL, 1 ppb= or 1μg/L or ng/mL Occasionally, concentration of chemicals may be expressed as grams per cubic meter (g/m3). This is same as grams per 1000 Liters, which may be converted to mg/L. Therefore, 1 g/m3 = 1 mg/L = 1 ppm. Likewise, one mg/m3 is equal to one micro gram /L (μg/L) which is 1 ppb.

Concentrations in Air

Concentrations of chemicals in air are typically measured in units of the mass of chemical (mg, μg, ng, or pg) per volume of air (Cubic meter). However, concentrations may also be expressed as ppm or ppb using a conversion factor. The conversion factor is based on the molecular weight of the chemical and is different for each chemical. Also atmospheric temperature and pressure affect the calculation. Typically, conversions for chemicals in air are made assuming a pressure of 1 atmosphere of 25oC. For these conditions, the equation to convert from concentration. 1. ppm to concentration in mg/m3 is as follows

Concentration (mg/m3)= 0.0409 x concentration in ppm x molecular weight

2. To convert from mg/m3 to ppm, the equation is: Concentration (ppm) = 24.45 x concentration (mg/m3) ÷ Molecular weight

3 The same equations may be used to convert μg/m3 to ppb and vice versa.

Concentration (μg/m3)= 0.0409 x concentration in ppb x molecular weight Concentration (ppb) = 24.45 x concentration (μg/m3) ÷ Molecular weight

Reference

Practical Environmental Analysis(Radojevic bashkin)

www.wikipedia.org

www.google.com

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http://www.evsc.virginia.edu/

http://www.uea.ac.uk/environmental-sciences

http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/earth_climate/environmental_science/

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