J. Daniel Arthur, P.E., SPEC of ALL ConsultingOn behalf of the
American Energy and Environmental Research FoundationSeptember 28, 2010
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Introduction Energy Overview Study Approach Reference Materials Environmental Concerns
Environmental Impacts Evaluated Air Quality Water Resources Surface Disturbances Biological Resource Noise Visual
Summary
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This study examines the environmental impacts associated with the development and production of renewable and non-renewable energy sources.
The purpose of the study is to add to the national discussion regarding a path forward for energy development in light of the environmental costs associated with various fuel choices and proven generation methods so that an objective basis for equitable comparisons can be established.
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--En
ergy
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Rene
wab
les
Type
sN
on-
rene
wab
les
Biomass Fuels
Solar Thermal
Wind, Hydro
Photo-voltaics
Fossil Fuels Nuclear
Fuels
Geothermal
Heat Generator ElectricityChemical
Nuclear
Photosynthesis
End Uses:ResidentialCommercialIndustrialTransportation
Gas
Oil
Coal
Fission
Fusion
Adapted from Tester, J.W., E.M. Drake, M.J. Driscoll, M.W. Golay, and W.A. Peters. 2005. Sustainable Energy: Choosing among Options. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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71% of Petroleum is used for transportation
91% of Coal is used to generate electricity
100% of Nuclear is used to generate electricity
51% of Renewables are used to generate electricity
Natural Gas is versatile 34% Industrial 34% Residential/commercial 29% Electrical generation 3% Transportation
Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2008, June 2009, Table 1.3 and Figure 2.0.
In 2008 the U.S. consumed over 99.2 quadrillion Btu’s of energy.
93 Percent of Energy Consumed is from Nonrenewable Sources
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Comparative Metrics: Normalized or equivalent denominators that allow an even handed view of the impacts. 1,000 MWe for electrical power Gallons of fuel per 100 miles driven
Regulation and Compliance: Federal and state regulations that limit the degree or intensity of the impacts permitted and may impose mandatory mitigation measures.
Environmental Impacts: Changes that affect all media (air, water and land) and have a range of effects on the natural ecosystems as well as on the human environment and health.
Life Cycle Assessment: Supply chain view from extraction through conversion, transportation, distribution and end use, and that reflects the various impacts generated by the process.
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All energy resources have adverse impacts
Each requires materials, manufacturing and construction
Most require land for facilities
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Clockwise from top to left(1) Wind farm in San
Gorgonio Pass, CA (2) BP oil spill, Gulf of Mexico (3) Sempra Energy Solar
Farm, El Dorado, NV(4) Mountaintop removal coal
mine in southern WV(5) Nuclear Reactor (Three-
mile Island)
AEERFAEERF Wind Farm and Natural Gas Fields near Forsan, Texas.
Wind Farm
Natural Gas Fields
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“Environmental Cost” as presented herein is a euphemism for Impact
Impacts are a change – the physical demonstration of the effect of energy production or use on the environment
The public often associates impacts as negative, not all are, and this should not mean that energy use has an overall detrimental impact on society. Quite the opposite: the advantages to civilization of energy systems are vast.
Hydroelectric impoundments may alter river ecosystems, but they also provide new recreational opportunities. Glen Canyon Dam, Lake Powell, AZ.
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Generation of Electricity: Emissions from the original production
of the fuels Emissions from burning the fuel source
for electrical power generation Transportation Fuels: Emissions from the original production
of the fuels Emissions from the use of the
transportation fuels CO2 emissions from the use of
transportation fuels
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Electrical generation and transportation are the largest sources of air emissions in the U.S. Coal is the largest
contributor for the electrical generation sector
Oil is the largest contributor for the transportation sector
0.00000 0.00050 0.00100 0.00150 0.00200 0.00250
Commercial
Residential
Industrial
Transportation
Electricity Generation
Coal Natural GasPetroleum
Source: U.S. EPA, “Climate Change – Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Human-Related Sources and Sinks of Carbon Dioxide” (updated March 3, 2010), http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/co2_human.html (accessed June 2010).
Emissions of four major pollutants – CO, NO2, PM, and SO2 – from energy sources used to generate electricity and to provide energy for transportation in light duty vehicles.
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Total Electric Generation by Fuel Source 2008
48%
22%
1%20%6%
3%
Coal Gas Oil Nuclear Hydroelectric Renewables
Source: U.S. EIA, “Table 1.1: Net Generation by Energy Source: Total (All Sectors), 1996 through March 2010),” Electric Power Monthly with Data for March 2010 (June 16, 2010), http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epm/table1_1.html (accessed June 2010).
Coal is the largest emitter of CO2 from electrical generation accounting for 82 percent of GHG from all power sources
Wind, solar, nuclear and hydroelectric power have very small emissions, mostly from construction and transportationTotal Generation – 4,110 GWh
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0 5 10 15 20 25
Natural Gas (Combined Cycle)
Oil (Combined Cycle)
Wood-fired
Coal
Tons of Emissions per MWh Generated
Crite
ria P
ollu
tant
NOx SO2 PM CO
Source: U.S. EIA, “Table 1.1: Net Generation by Energy Source: Total (All Sectors), 1996 through March 2010),” Electric Power Monthly with Data for March 2010.
NOX and SO2 are the largest emissions from coal generation
CO is the principal pollutant from gas generation
SO2 is the greatest emission from oil generation
Wood produces large amounts of CO and NOX
Comparison of emissions, in tons, of four major air pollutants, NOX, PM, SO2, and CO, for the four fuel sources, from the generation of one MWh of electricity.
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Emissions per vehicle are small
There are over 250 million gasoline-fueled LDVs on the road in the U.S.
If each emits about ten pounds of CO, when driving 1,000 miles, over 1.2 million tons of CO would be emitted.
Comparison of Light Duty Vehicles Emissions
Source: U.S. DOT and Research and Innovative Technology Administration, “Table 1-11: Number of U.S. Aircraft, Vehicles, Vessels, and Other Conveyances,” National Transportation Statistics 2010. 2010. Available at http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_statistics/pdf/entire.pdf.
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Water Withdrawals by Sector
Freshwater Consumption by Sector
Water Intensity of Raw Fuels
Water Intensity of Electrical Generation and Power Plants
Water Intensity of Transportation Fuels
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Water withdraws continue to increase Population Irrigation Energy demand
Fresh water is becoming an increasingly important resource
Sources: M. Hightower, “Energy and Water: Issues, Trends and Challenges.” presented at the EPRI Workshop (July 2008); with data from Susan S. Hutson, Nancy L. Barber, Joan F. Kenny, Kristin S. Linsey, Deborah S. Lumia, and Molly A. Maupin, “Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2000,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268 (Reston, VA: 2004), table 14.
Between 1950 and 2000, water withdrawals for energy production experienced the largest overall increase in gallons of water withdrawn per day.
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U.S. Fresh water consumption was equal to 100 billion gallons/day (in 1995)
Irrigation is the dominant fresh water consumption sector.
Irrigation80.6%,
Livestock3.3%
Commercial 1.2%Thermoelectric
3.3%Industrial 3.3%
Domestic7.1%
Mining 1.2%
Sources: U.S. DOE, “Energy Demands on Water Resources,” report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (December 2006); and W. B. Solley, R. R. Pierce, and H. A. Perlman, “Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1995,” USGS Circular 1200 (1998), Figure 7.
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Gals/MMBtu Deep Shale
Natural Gas 0.6–3.8
Natural Gas 1–3 Coal (no slurry
transport) 2–8 Nuclear 8-14 Conventional Oil
8-20 Fuel Ethanol
(Irrigated Corn) 2,500-29,100
Biodiesel (irrigated soy) 14,000-75,000
Hydrogen (electrolysis 100-200)
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Other Natural Gas
Deep Shale Gas
Coal (no slurry transport)
Nuclear (processed Uranium ready to use in power …
Convetnional Oil
Synfuel - Coal Gasification
Petroleum from Shale Oil (in-situ retorting)
Coal (with slurry transport)
Petroleum from Shale Oil (Surface Retorting)
Petroleum from Tar Sands (Oil Sands)
Synfuel - Coal Liquid (Fischer-Tropsch)
Enhanced Oil Recovery
Fuel Ethanol (irrigated corn)
Biodiesel (irrigated soy)
Gallons of Water
Ener
gy S
ourc
e
Sources: Matthew E. Mantell (Chesapeake Energy Corporation), “Deep Shale Natural Gas: Abundant, Affordable, and Surprisingly Water Efficient,” paper prepared for Presentation at the 2009 GWPC Water/Energy Sustainability Symposium, Salt Lake City, Utah, September 13-16, 2009; and U.S. DOE, “Energy Demands on Water Resources,” report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water (December 2006), Table B-1.
Gallons of water used per million Btu produced
Water Intensity: The amount of Water needed to extract, mine, or grow materials that are processed and later used for energy or transportation fuels
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Consumption Gals/MWh Wind & Photovoltaic: 1-2 Natural Gas Combined
Cycle: 110-190 Fossil/Biomass Steam
Turbine: 230-510 Nuclear: 430-750 Concentrating Solar:
758-928 Geothermal Steam:
1,400
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Fossil/Biomass Open Loop
Steam Turbine Closed Loop
Natural Gas Combined Cycle Open Loop
Natural Gas Combined Cycle Closed Loop
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle Closed Loop
Nuclear Steam Turbine Open Loop
Nuclear Steam Turbine Closed Loop
Geothermal Steam Closed Loop
Concentrating Solar: Trough Closed Loop
Concentrating Solar: Tower Closed Loop
Wind and Photovoltaic
Other Uses Consumption Steam Condensing Consumption Steam Condensing Withdrawal
Sources: U.S. DOE, “Energy Demands on Water Resources,” Table B-1; and Hightower, “Energy and Water.”
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Resource Extraction Wells Mines Farms
Transportation of Raw Resource Pipelines Transmission lines
Refining/Processing Electrical Power
Generation Electrical Power Use
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Acres Nuclear - 169 Shale Gas - 496 Wind Turbines - 1,943* Conventional Natural Gas - 2,051 Coal – Surface Mines - 2,054 Conventional Oil - 2,236 Geothermal - 2,381 Concentrating Solar - 17,241 Photovoltaic - 31,786 Hydroelectric - 172,241 Bio Diesel (soy) - 4,214,227
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Nuclear
Gas - Shale Gas
Coal - Underground Mines
Oil - Shale Oil
Wind
Conventional Gas
Coal - Surface Mines
Gas - CBNG
Conventional Oil
Geothermal
Solar - CSP
Solar - PV
Hydroelectric
Biodiesel from soy
Sources: See Appendix A.
Surface acreage disturbance incurred in the generation of 1,000 MW of “new” energy for the national electric grid.
Horizontal scale is logarithmic
*Wind turbines only accounts for the surface disturbed for the pad and access routes not the entire farm.
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Power SourcePower Density
(W/m2)Low High
Natural Gas 200 2,000
Coal 100 1,000
Solar (Photovoltaic) 4 9
Concentrating Solar Plant 4 10
Wind 0.5 1.5
Biomass 0.5 0.6
Source: Vaclav Smil, “Power Density Primer: Understanding the Spatial Dimension of the Unfolding Transition to Renewable Electricity Generation” (May 8, 2010), available at http://www.vaclavsmil.com/wp-content/uploads/docs/smil-article-power-density-primer.pdf.
Power density is a measure of energy flux expressed as watts per meter squared (W/m2) of horizontal area of land or water surface
Compared to surface disturbances by energy source the magnitude of difference between sources is similar
Larger power density indicates less disturbance
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Source Area (km2) Equivalence
Solar (Photovoltaic) 5,600 State of
Delaware
Wind Turbines 22,500 State of Vermont
Wood-Fired 215,000 State of Utah
Area Required to Produce 10% (395 TWh) of U.S. Electrical Generation Annually Based on 2009 Power Consumption
Source: Vaclav Smil, “Power Density Primer: Understanding the Spatial Dimension of the Unfolding Transition to Renewable Electricity Generation” (May 8, 2010), available at http://www.vaclavsmil.com/wp-content/uploads/docs/smil-article-power-density-primer.pdf.
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Four to eight horizontal wells from a common well pad can produce as much oil or gas as sixteen vertical wells
Reduces surface impacts by as much as 10 fold
Horizontal drilling is becoming more common with shale formation development
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Habitat Fragmentation Displacement Seasonal or Year-
Round Temporary or
Permanent Directly Related to
Surface Disturbance
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Varying Biological Impact Characteristics
Intensity Duration Spatial Impact
Power Density – a measure of the energy produced per acre of disturbance.
More concentrated energy sources have a higher power density.
Impact Characteristics Power Density (energy per acre disturbed)25,26Energy Source Intensity Duration Spatial
ImpactSurface Coal Mining1,2 High Moderate Local HighMountain Top Removal/Valley Fill3,4,5 High Moderate Regional HighUnderground Coal Mining6 Low Long Local HighCoal-Fired Electrical Generation7,8 High Long Regional HighConventional Oil & Gas Drilling9,10,11 Moderate Short Local HighShale Gas Drilling12,13 Moderate Short Local HighOil & Gas Production/Operations14 Moderate Long Local HighNuclear (Solution Mining)15 Moderate Moderate Local Very HighNuclear Electrical Generation16 High Long Local Very HighBiofuels (corn stover)17 High Long Local Very LowBiomass (switch grass)17 High Long Local Very LowBiomass/Biofuels Electrical Generation17 High Long Local Very LowGeothermal18 High Moderate Local ModerateHydroelectric19,20 High Long Local LowSolar21,22 High Long Local LowWind23,24 Moderate Long Local Low
Sources are in Appendix A
To get a true picture of the impacts from a given energy source, impact characteristics must be evaluated in light of the power density of each of the energy sources.
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The extent and magnitude of impacts may vary considerably from one energy source to another
The low power density often results in more wide-spread impacts
Energy sources with low or moderate impact intensity and high power density often pose less risk of impact to biological resources
EnergySource
ResourceExtraction
Power Generation
Coal Higher HigherOil Moderate ModerateNatural Gas Lower LowerNuclear Lower LowerBiomass/Biofuels Higher HigherGeothermal Moderate ModerateHydroelectric HigherSolar HigherWind Higher
Resource extraction and power generation are simultaneous activities for hydroelectric, solar, and wind energies.
Sources: See Appendix A.
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Noise Loudness Frequency Distance Temporary or Permanent
Visual Size/height Location (ridge top, field, etc.) Color/Contrast Temporary or Permanent
Photograph of Sound Barriers placed around compressors in the Barnett Shale Play.
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EPA identified noise levels requisite for the protection of public health and welfare against hearing loss, annoyance and interference with activities for 24 hour exposure levels: Noise levels of 70db or less
prevent measurable hearing loss
Outdoor noise levels of 55 db or less prevent interference with human activities.
Indoor noise levels of 45 db or less prevent interference with human activities.
Noise is a subjective nuisance form of impact.
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Wind Turbine1.5 MW(262.46’)
Wind Turbine2.3 MW(393.70’)
Statue of Liberty
(301.25’)
Nuclear Hybrid Cooling Tower
(169.04’)
Natural Draft Cooling Tower
(500’)
Pump Jack(15’)
GasWellhead
(6’)
High Voltage Tower(82’)
Visual impact: is the alteration of an aesthetic experience of a viewshed. It is highly subjective; therefore, quantifying visual impacts can be complex.
This study focused on skyline impairment and surface disturbance which allow a degree of scaling.
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All Energy Sources Have Impacts - Impacts may vary in type, magnitude, and areal extent
Not all concerns are scientifically supported Choices among energy sources entail tradeoffs
among impacts, as well as costs, benefits, security, availability, and other factors.
There is no free energy: making available sound, scientifically supported information on impacts and tradeoffs will improve policy and investment decisions
J. Daniel Arthur, P.E., SPEC [email protected]
918.382.75811718 South Cheyenne Avenue
Tulsa, OK 74119
American Energy and Environmental Research Foundation (AEERF), The Environmental Cost of Energy, Presented at GWPC Annual
Forum and Water/ Energy Symposium, Pittsburgh, PA, September 26-29, 2010