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INTRODUCTION

Environmental pollution is the introduction of contaminants (harmful and objectionable

materials) into the natural environment in a level that causes harmful effects on human health

and other components of the environment, most commonly as a result of human activities(David, 2007).

Some of the most obvious examples of pollution are smoke produced by industrial operations,

carbon dioxide and other gases released into the atmosphere as a by-product of burning fuels, silt

and sediment washed off land by rainwater, oil spillage, and garbage dumped on land. People

have had to deal with issues of pollution for thousands of years, probably from the first time that

a cave dweller s home filled with smoke from a campfire (Lomborg, 1998).

History has witnessed numerous disasters, both natural and manmade, that are remembered even

today for their devastating impact on human health and environment. Every disaster or accident

leaves behind it, victims, either in form of direct loss of lives and properties or indirectly by

altering the natural processes. Atmospheric pollution for example, has often been the cause of

many accidents, which had far reaching effects on the environment. Weather condition often

provides favourable atmospheric conditions for the pollution episodes to occur (Lomborg, 1998).

In this presentation, major environmental pollution episodes and their environmental impacts are

brought forward ranging from the world at large, down to Africa as our continent and to Nigeria

in specific as our noble country and finally to the northern part of Nigeria, which hopefully, will

help the readers and the listeners realize the importance of clean environment.

MAJOR POLLUTION CAUSES

From centuries, pollution has posed a problem for city dwellers. The earlier manifestation of

pollution was the smoke produced by burning poor quality coal in relatively cold climates for

heating effects in Europe for example. This caused high sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particleexposure, sometimes with serious health impacts. The Industrial Revolution introduced point

sources of larger emissions from various processes. The most important of these was the burning

of coal for energy production, resulting in SO2 and combustion particles (smoke). Coal burning

in small and large sources was allowed to continue without required abatement well into the 20 th

century. Elevated stacks were the only mode of pollution abatement. Large emissions of SO2 and


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smoke particles overloaded the atmosphere during temperature inversions in stable high-pressure

situations with stagnant air, leading to notorious air pollution episodes. The 1952 London fog

episode was the worst, resulting in an estimated 4,000 deaths in five days (McKinney et al,

2003).

Although the components of air pollution have changed over the years, with the emergence of

industrial sources like toxic gases - methyl isocyanide (CH3CN) in the case of Bhopal disaster in

1984; coal still remains an important source of air pollution. In addition, vehicular pollution

sources have expanded rapidly in the last three decades. Traffic activity in urban areas of

industrialised western nations has witnessed a four to five fold increase over the decades. In

developing nations, this increase has been ten-fold to more. Prime examples of urban air

pollution are the smog in London and photochemical smog in Los Angeles and Mexico. Both oil

spill and water pollution from domestic and industrial sources have left indelible effects in the

life of man and his environment (McKinney et al, 2003). What follows shows the history of

major environmental pollution episodes and their effects.


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MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION EPISODES AND THEIR EFFECTS

LONDON EPISODES 1873 1963

The industrial revolutions in the 19th century saw the set in of air pollution in Europe on a large

scale. The industries and the households relied heavily on coal for heating and cooking. Due to

burning of coal for heat during the winter months, emissions of smoke and sulphur dioxide were

much greater in winters than they were during the summer months. Smoke particles trapped in

the fog gave it a yellow/black colour and this smog often settled over cities for many days

(Lomborg, 1998).

The effects of smog on human health were evident, particularly when smog persisted for several

days. Many people suffered respiratory problems and increased deaths were recorded, notably

those relating to bronchial causes. The smog-related deaths were first recorded in London in

1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1880, the toll was more than 1000. London had one of its

worst experiences of smog in December 1892. It lasted for three days and resulted in about 1000

deaths. Despite gradual improvements in air quality during the 20th century, eight air pollution

episodes occurred in London between 1948 and 1962. The December 1952 episode is the major

episode in the history of air pollution. The Killer Smog began on Thursday, Dec. 4, 1952 as a

high-pressure air mass created a subsidence temperature inversion over southern England. With

the particulate and SO2 levels going up due to extensive use of coal as fuel for space heating and

electric production, the fog turned black. At the same time the high-pressure area stalled and

became stationary. The build up of pollutants combined with the fog resulted in essentially zero

visibility. Within a matter of three days, the pollutants were concentrated enough to cause deaths.

The old and respiratory affected died first, but younger people exposed to the outside atmosphere

were also affected. The maximum daily SO2 concentration recorded at that time was 1.34 ppm

(about 4000 g/m3, standard SO2 conc. in clean dry atmosphere is 0.0002 ppm) and smoke levels

were 4.46 mg/m

3

. The Great London Smog lasted for five days and lifted on 9

th

Dec, resulting inabout 4000 deaths (Lomborg, 1998).


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BHOPAL DISASTER, 1984

In the mid night of 2nd - 3rd December 1984, in a densely populated area of Bhopal, Central

India, a poisonous vapor burst from the tall stacks of the Union Carbide pesticide plant. About

forty tons of toxic gases had leaked from the Carbides Bhopal plant and spread throughout thecity. The cause was the contamination of Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) storage tank with water

carrying catalytic material. Residents of the city awoke to clouds of suffocating gas, unaware of

the magnitude of the devastation, which had engulfed them. The city of Bhopal was immediately

turned into a city of dead bodies, and the whole place smelled of burning chilli peppers. Of the

million people living in Bhopal at that time, more than 2,000 died immediately (one fourth of

actual figures) and as many as 300,000 were injured. In addition, about 7,000 animals were

affected, of which about 1000 were killed. The precise number of deaths still remains a mystery

till date. The degree of injury was so high that about 30% of the injured were unable to return to

their jobs. Among the survivors, most of them still suffer agonizing pain from the disastrous

effects of the massive poisoning while there are still apprehensions of the future generations

being affected. The Bhopal Disaster was the worst episode in the history of industrial air

pollution (lenntech.com).

DONORA FOG, 1948

Horror visited the US Steel company town of Donora on the Halloween night of 1948, when a

temperature inversion descended on the town. Fluoride emissions from the Donora Zinc Works

smelting operation and other sources containing sulphur, carbon monoxide and heavy metal

dusts were trapped by weather conditions, causing 20 deaths within 14 hours. Cold ground and

high-pressure conditions intensified the elevated inversion of the anticyclone that arrived in the

region. The situation was aggravated by local conditions of meteorology, industrial pollutant

emissions and peculiar terrain of the area. The meteorological conditions and the geographical

characteristics of the area produced a strong temperature inversion with a temperature gradient ashigh as 33oC/km. The fog was held close to the ground by the stability of the elevated inversion

layer. During the third and fourth days of the episode, as ambient levels of pollutants escalated,

almost half of the population of 14,000 people became ill. Almost 43 % of the population in

Donora and Webster, PA experienced the effects of the smog. Most of the affected were above

the age group of 60 years and above (29% of this group were seriously affected). The health


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effects were mainly symptoms affecting the lung, and in particular, upper respiratory symptoms

such as nasal discharge, constriction of the throat, or sore throat were experienced

(lenntech.com).

MEUSE VALLEY, 1930

An episode occurred in the first week of December 1930, when a thick mist lay over large parts

of Belgium. On December 3rd, 4th and 5th, several thousand cases of acute pulmonary attacks

occurred in the densely populated valley of the Meuse, east of Liege, resulting in 60 deaths. Post

episode investigations led to the conclusion that the cause was poisonous products in the waste

gas of the many factories in the valley, in conjunction with unusual climatic conditions. During

that time, the day temperature was a little above freezing point while at night it measured up to

10oC below, while the wind speed was only 1-3km/hr. It was impossible to indicate any definite

substance or chemical compound as the cause, but the investigators were of the opinion that the

disaster in all probability had been brought about by sulphur dioxide (SO 2) or oxidation products

of that compound, of which quantities were found in the factory smoke. The investigation also

looked into the question of fluorine intoxication, however its role is doubtful.

The cases of illness were reported after the mist had lasted about 2 days. It was estimated that the

total number of cases was several thousands. In three days, there were 60 deaths, of which fifty-

six were in the eastern half of the valley and only four deaths were reported from the west of

Engis. The area around Engis was the worst affected (visionriviewpoint.com).

MEXICO, POZA RICA, 1950

A catastrophic exposure episode involving the release of large quantities of hydrogen sulfide

occurred in Poza Rica, Mexico in November 1950. Poza Rica, a city of 22,000 people located

about 210 km northeast of Mexico City, was then the centre of Mexicos leading oil-producing

district and the site of several oil field installations, including a sulphur-recovery plant. An earlymorning malfunction of the waste gas flare resulted in the release of large quantities of unburned

hydrogen sulfide into the atmosphere. The unburned gas, aided by a low-level temperature

inversion and light early morning breezes, was carried to the residential area adjacent to the plant

area. Residents of the area succumbed while attempting to leave the area and assisting stricken


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neighbours. Within a matter of 3 hours, 320 persons were hospitalized and 22 were killed

(lenntech.com).

THE EXXON VALDEX OIL SPILL, 1989

In an attempt to reduce U.S. oil imports, a consortium of oil companies announced plans in 1969

to construct a pipeline from Alaska's North Slope to Valdez, an ice-free port on the southeastern

coast of Alaska. Federal approval for the 800-mile Trans Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) was

obtained in 1973, and the first oil tanker shipment originated from Valdez on August 1, 1977.

Just after midnight on March 24, 1989, the Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker, after receiving 53

million cargo of crude, pulled away from the Valdez pipeline terminal at 9:26 P.M., on its 28th

trip out of the sound since its construction in 1986. The trip to Long Beach California, its

destination, was to take five and a half days. The tanker hit Bligh Reef in the Prince William

Sound dumping 11 million gallons of crude oil into the pristine blue waters, the worst oil spill in

United State's history. The Prince William Sound, an island body of water off of Alaska's

southern coast, is home to one of the country's richest concentrations of wildlife, as well as

booming fishing industries and native villagers. The sound also serves as a thorough fare for the

Alyeska Pipeline's oil tankers shipping oil to the consumers of the lower 48 states.

Alaska's natives, fishermen and environmentalists had always been weary of the oil industry's

foothold in the region for the potential risks of an oil spill. On that spring night their worst fears

were realized. This accident would touch off a battle between the native Alaskans and the oil

industry, both in the court room and in the press, not only over the culpability for the accident

but the future of the region and the future of oil transportation and oil spill readiness.

Exxon led the clean up effort with 11,000 workers in the summer months expending some $1.9

billion dollars. Sea otter rehabilitation centers were established while salmon and herring

fisheries were closely isolated and monitored. Even today, scientists are still attempting todetermine the ecological damage caused by the spill.

The Exxon Valdez is one of the largest vessels on water. Almost a thousand feet long, it moves

with tremendous force through the water. At its top speed of 15 miles per hour it would take 3

miles for it to come to a halt. On board that night was Captain Joseph Hazelwood, a harbor pilot,


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and third mate Gregory Cousins. The impact was so forceful that it ripped through its cargo

tanks, spilling tons of oil into the sound so quickly that it created waves of oil three feet above

water level.

All told, over 11 million gallons of oil leaked out into the Prince William Sound creating theworst oil spill in American history. One of the conditions on which the Trans Alaska Pipeline

was constructed was that Alyeska submit an oil spill response plan. According to that plan,

Alyeska would be at the site with response equipment within five hours of the spill. However, at

the time of the Valdez spill, little of the oil-containment equipment was ready and the barge

which should have much of the equipment already on it sat nearly empty. It would be ten hours

before clean up crews would arrive, at this point the oil slick had spread for miles.

The weather was also uncooperative for an effective early clean up. Additionally, waters were

too calm to use oil clean-up chemicals called "dispersants" which are sprinkled on the water by

airplane. Dispersants break up the oil and work best in rough seas where they spread and foam,

like dishwater soap. When the seas finally started behaving, the skies were much too stormy for

planes to fly and spread dispersants. By the third day, the slick had covered 100 square miles and

was spreading. There were simply not enough containment booms to prevent the oil from

spreading. The amount of oil was overpowering.

Perhaps the most interesting, effective, and technologically advanced method of clean up is bio-

remediation. This is a process whereby the chemicals nitrogen and phosphorous are sprayed on

oil contaminated soil and rocks. These chemicals then act as a catalyst to the growth of micro-

organisms naturally protecting the environment which break down oil. This technique could

actually double the speed of natural oil removal (wiredchemist.com).


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THE AMOCO CADIZ OIL SPILL, 1978

In 1978 on March 16 the Liberian super tanker Amoco Cadiz stranded on Portsall Rocks off the

coast of Brittany, France because of failure of the steering mechanism at 9:15 am. Although

Captain Pasquale Bandari hoisted the international signal for "Not Under Command" almostimmediately, he did not request assistance until 11:20 am, when his engineer determined that the

damage was irreparable. The Amoco Cadiz started drifting to shore where touching the bottom

ripped open the hull and storage tanks.

The crew of the tanker was rescued by helicopter, but the ship broke in two releasing 227,000

tons of crude oil, which spread through the English Channel. The oil spill polluted approximately

360 kilometers of Breton coastline, destroying fisheries, oysters and seaweed beds. Beaches of

76 Breton communities were polluted by oil.

Cleanup efforts were restricted for two weeks following the accident, as a result of the isolated

location of the grounding and rough seas. Severe weather eventually caused the complete break-

up of the ship before any additional oil could be removed from the wreck.

This was one of the largest environmental disasters known to men in the 1970's. In 1988 a US

federal judge ordered Amoco Oil Corporation to pay 85.2 million dollars in fines, consisting of

45 million dollars for the costs of the spill and an additional 39 million dollars of interest

(greennature.com).


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THE BAIA MARE CYANIDE SPILL, 2000

Workers in gold mines use cyanide (CN) to purify gold from rocks. This is applied for example

in Rumania. At 10:00 pm on January 30, 2000, cyanide used in a gold mine in Baia Mare

overflowed into the major river the Somes and subsequently into the river Tisza. The cause ofthe spill was a break in the dam that surrounded a settling basin. This resulted in the release of at

least 100,000 cubic meters of water with very high cyanide concentrations. The waste water did

not only contain cyanide, but also heavy metals such as copper, zinc and lead. Copper

concentrations exceeded the heavily polluted threshold 40-160 times, the zinc concentration was

twice above this standard and the lead concentration 5-9 times greater.

Cyanide is a very aggressive toxin that can kill people. Consequently, when Rumanian

authorities were notified of the spill they immediately raised the alarm. This rapid response

prevented any human victims. However, the spill did kill all aquatic plant and animal life for

dozens of miles downstream. On February 12, it even impacted the major European river

Danube, which receives water from the Tisza. This caused the impact to be noticeable in

Hungary and Serbia, as well. Inhabitants of Belgrado witnessed Danube water full of dead fish

flowing by. Up to 100 people, most of them children, have been treated in hospital after eating

contaminated fish.

Environmental organizations claim that large companies take advantage of the flexible

environmental regulation in poorer countries such as Rumania. It is stated this results in the

occurrence of environmental disasters such as that in Baia Mare. The major owner of the Baia

Mare gold mine is an Australian called Brett. He commented the media coverage of the Baia

Mare disaster, saying reports were utterly exaggerated. He denies the high rate of fish mortality

in the area had anything to do with the gold mine.

In Serbia the minister of environment announced he would sue the ones responsible for the spill.

He demands an international trial. Fishery was banned from the Tisza and the population was

recommended not to use the water. This caused many local residents to suffer from drinking

water shortages and caused some losses in the fishing industry (reliefweb.int).


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THE GULF OF MEXICO OIL SPILL, 2010

On April 20, 2010 drilling rig explosion claimed the lives of 11 workers, and the rig's subsequent

collapse unleashed a major oil spill that threatens U.S. Gulf of Mexico ecosystems and economy.

Also threatened is the heart of the U.S. energy production, both on and offshore as a giant,unprecedented underwater leak spreads oil across the northern Gulf of Mexico between the

mouth of the Mississippi River and Florida.

U.S. President Barack Obama's plans to widen offshore drilling have been put on hold, and

energy giant BP Plc faces another blow to its reputation and a multi-billion bill for cleaning up

the mess and paying damages.

The event, which resulted into explosion and fire on Transocean Ltd drilling rig Deepwater

Horizon licensed to British Petroleum, BP; claimed 11 workers, with 17 others injured. The rig

was drilling in BP's Macondo project 42 miles southeast of Venice, Louisiana, beneath about

5,000 feet (1,525 metre) of water and 13,000 feet under the seabed. A blowout preventer,

intended to prevent release of crude oil, failed to activate, in combination with methane bubble

that made its way up the oil line, is believed to be the cause for the explosion that destroyed the

BP Gulf oil rig.

In the three months following the explosion, the fauna and flora, the sea and the southern coasts

of the US fell prey to the destructive effects of the leaked oil.

The world watched in amazement and incredulity as yet another ecological catastrophe unfolded,

with seemingly constant media coverage of birds with feathers clogged by black tar, huge

patches of oil floating in the sea, and once-pristine beaches invaded by the black sludge.

Now two years after the explosion on a drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico, uncertainty

remains about the long-term damage of the disaster, as most of the chemical components of

crude oil are persistence organic compounds.

Nickolaus Gelpke, a Swiss marine biologist and editor of the magazine Mare, says that despite

the appearance of things having returned to normal in the Gulf, it is impossible to calculate the

effects of petroleum on the environment. Petroleum is a highly toxic substance, and even if it is


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no longer visible, it is still present in the food chain. In the long term, the effects on the

ecosystem are incalculable, Gelpke said (swissinfo.ch).


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AND IN AFRICA

AIR AND WATER POLLUTION

Air pollution is becoming a serious environmental problem in Africa, which, in the past 25 years,

has been experiencing the world s most rapid rate of urbanization at nearly 5% per annum. This,

alongside government regimes that encourage utilization of dirty fuels, a sharp rise in the

importation of old and outdated cars, and inefficient industrial plants, is seriously affecting air

quality on the continent. The high rate of urbanization (4 8% per annum in some cities),

expected to continue for the next decade, combined with low-income solutions to daily

commuting, has resulted in the rapid increase in pollutants emitted by motorized vehicles. The

available information suggests that the concentrations of toxic metals in many ecosystems are

reaching unprecedented levels. Because of the heavy load of contaminated dusts in the air of

highly populated cities, the ambient concentrations of toxic metals are now among the highest

that have been reported in the world. Lead pollution from the rising number of automobiles and

cottage industries represents a major health hazard, and it is estimated that 15 30% of infants in

some urban areas may already be suffering from lead poisoning (Nriagu, 2004). According to the

Africa Environment Outlook (AEO) report (UNEP, 2002), the use of biomass fuel, besides

degrading the environment, also raises the risk to health of women and children, who mostly do

the cooking in African families. In Tanzania, for example, children under five years of age who

die from acute respiratory infections are three times more likely to have been exposed to the

burning of such fuels.

Water pollution (for example, contamination in rivers and lakes) is also a serious hazard in sub-

Saharan Africa. In 2000, over 300 million people did not have access to clean and safe water,

and over 500 million went without adequate sanitation. In addition, low-income urban dwellers

have to pay high prices for water, sometimes up to 50 times the price paid by higher income

groups. This problem has been worsened by high rates of uncontrolled urbanization andindustrial activity. An investigation by the Nigerian Environmental Society in 1985 revealed that,

between 1970 and 1983, offshore and on-shore oil spillage amounted to 1,711,354 barrels of

crude oil (Aguiyi-Ironsi, 1988).


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ARTISANAL AND SMALL SCALE MINING

While large-scale mining can also adversely affect the environment, artisanal and small-scale

mining pose the most dangerous effects, as this type of mining activity tends not to be properly

regulated. The mine operators often have only limited access to technology. It is estimated thatover five million people are involved in artisanal mining in Africa.

Artisanal and small-scale mining has made a valuable contribution to some African countries,

providing employment to significant numbers of people, especially in rural areas, and adding to

foreign exchange earnings. At the same time, however, this type of mining has adversely

affected the environment. While the basic environmental impacts of intensive mining operations

include accumulation of sediments in rivers, lakes and water pipes; deforestation and erosion, as

well as dust and pollution (including heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium), the most

serious are pollution from mercury and land degradation (Hilson, 2002).

Mercury is used for gold amalgamation in artisanal mining. It is typically released into the

atmosphere and waterways, where it is converted by microbes into toxic methyl mercury and

poses a threat to the health of animals and humans. Toxic mercury hotspots have been identified

in several areas of the continent. These include the Victoria Fields in Tanzania, and Obuasi and

Dumasi in Ghana (Hilson, 2002).

The main causes of health hazards among miners include the following; inhaling large amounts

of siliceous dust, careless handling of mercury during gold panning, gold/mercury (Au/Hg)

amalgam processing, the existence of water-logged pits and trenches, and the sharing of poor

quality air in the mines by large numbers of individuals. The use of pressure burners to weaken

the reef is a deadly mining procedure, as hot particles of lead, arsenic, and other sulphide

minerals burn the body and, when the burns become septic, death can apparently follow within

2 3 years. Health problems of gold miners who have worked underground include increased

frequency of cancers of the trachea, bronchus, lung, stomach, and liver; increased frequency of

pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), silicosis, and pleural diseases; increased frequency of insect

borne diseases, such as malaria and dengue fever; noise-induced hearing loss; increased

prevalence of certain bacterial and viral diseases; and diseases of the blood, skin, and

musculoskeletal system (Hilson, 2002).


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TOXIC WASTE DISPOSAL

ABIDJAN, COTE DIVOIRE, AUGUST 2006

For the past three decades, poor African nations have been used as dumping sites for hazardous

toxic waste materials from developed countries. Such wastes include raw sewage, sludge,

incinerated ashes, contaminated oils, nuclear materials, acids, and poisonous solvents ejected by

chemical, pharmaceutical, and fertilizer-producing plants in the industrialized world The

dumping of toxic waste materials poses a grave environmental threat to African people, many of

whom are not aware of the dangers and are not equipped to handle the ensuing consequences. In

August 2006, for example, hundreds of tons of chemical slops were dumped in open-air sites in

Abidjan, Cte D Ivoire. Ten people are reported to have died, and thousands more are reported

to have fallen ill with vomiting, diarrhoea, nosebleeds, and breathing difficulties (BNW, 2007).


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AND IN NIGERIA

GAS FLARING

Gas flaring is a serious hazard in southern Nigeria. Every day, almost two million cubic feet of

natural gas is burnt during crude oil production, more than any gas flare reported from elsewhere

in the world. Not only does gas flaring cause major environmental pollution in the Niger River

Delta, where most of Nigeria s oil is produced, but it also wastes a valuable resource. According

to a World Bank report (Svensson et al, 2002), the gas flares in Africa could produce

approximately 50% of the continent s current power supply.

IMPACT OF THE OIL INDUSTRY ON THE ENVIRONMENT, THE NIGER DELTA

CASE

The Niger Delta is densely populated by about 20 million persons. The density in the region

continues to expand as oil operators recklessly occupy available lands, and as people, often

times, are forced to migrate when hitherto residential areas become inhabitable due to industrial

mess. Oil exploration by seismic companies involves surveying, clearing of seismic lines and

massive dynamiting for geological excavation (seismic testing). A thorough review of the

environmental impacts of the oil industry in Nigeria would take up an entire book. This is

because, virtually, every aspect of oil exploration and exploitation has deleterious effects on the

ecosystem s stability and local biodiversity which the peoples livelihoods depend upon

(Zabbey, 2005). According to Steiner (2008), oil spills in the Niger Delta have been extensive,

difficult to assess and often under-reported. Thus, UNEP (2006) cited in Steiner (2008) summed

the impacts of Oil spill in the Niger Delta as follows:

1. High mortality of aquatic animals.

2. Impairment of human health.

3. Loss of biodiversity in breeding grounds.

4. Vegetation hazards.

5. Loss of portable and industrial water resources.


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6. Reduction in fishing and farming activities.

7. Poverty, rural underdevelopment and bitterness.

Extensive mangrove area in the Delta have been converted for one form of oil facility or the

other, or degraded by oil pollution. The Niger Delta boasts of the largest mangrove belt in Africa

and the fourth largest in the world (Nandy and Mitra, 2004). Mangroves provide coastal

communities with about 46 ecosystem goods (seafood, fuel wood, dye, stakes, and so on) and 9

ecological services to other productive ecosystems (such as coral reef) in the seascape, and for

man. No doubts, mangroves are a strong livelihood support-base of the Delta inhabitants, and it

has been argued elsewhere (Zabbey, 2008) that mangroves are to the local communities what

taxes are to national governments! Studies have also shown that 60% of fishes in the Gulf of

Guinea breed in the mangroves of the Niger Delta. A cursory look at the area of mangrove

converted in Rivers and Bayelsa States alone for oil development illustrates the depth of erosion

of communal livelihoods that have taken place.


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AND IN THE NORTHERN NIGERIA

THE ZAMFARA MINING LEAD POISONING INCIDENT, 2010

Lead is a soft metal that has known many applications over the years. It has been used widely

since 5000 BC for application in metal products, cables and pipelines, but also in paint and

pesticides. Lead is one out of four metals that have the most damaging effects on human health.

It can enter the human body through of food (65%), water (20%) and air (15%).

In 2010, the increase in children mortality in some villages in Zamfara state alerted the attention

of medical practitioners and International agencies urgently scaled up their response to help local

authorities to cope with mass lead poisoning in the state, described by the World Health

Organization as an unprecedented environmental emergency.

The charity Mdecins Sans Frontires (MSF), whose staff first discovered the problem, says that

gold mining activity in the area has led to a substantial rise in numbers of deaths of children and

that hundreds of people are needing treatment for dangerously high levels of lead poisoning.

MSF s emergency medical manager, Lauren Cooney, was reported that they first detected an

increase in childhood mortality and illness in villages in Bukkuyum and Anka districts in March,

2010. In one village 30% of children aged under 5 years had recently died. Suspecting lead

contamination, they alerted the Zamfara state ministry of health, which called for outside

assistance.

The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention deployed a response team to help investigate

the cause. A team from TerraGraphics Environmental Engineering was also sent to conduct an

environmental assessment. WHO subsequently sent in a team of epidemiologists, a clinical

toxicologist, a paediatrician, an environmental health expert, and a laboratory specialist.

WHO said that investigations confirmed severe lead poisoning in nearly 200 children in the

villages of Dareta and Yargalma. They had a mean blood lead concentration of 119

micrograms/dL (concentrations as low as 10 micrograms/dL are associated with impaired

neurological development in young children). Lead concentrations in the soil of greater than 100,

000 parts per million were found in and around houses in the affected villages (the limit for

residential areas in the United States and France is 400 ppm).


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The source was traced to the nearby processing of lead rich ore, used in the extraction of gold.

The pollution appears not to come from official mining activities but mainly from small scale,

unlicensed operations conducted illegally by local villagers.

Subsequent investigations found a high degree of environmental lead contamination in five othervillages, where as many as 2000 children under 5 years old are believed to need treatment for

lead poisoning. Data from the state health ministry s hospital registry indicate further villages

where lead poisoning may also be a problem (UNEP/OCHA, 2010).


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CONCLUSION

The aftermath of these disasters led to serious public concern leading to various pollution control

acts and awareness about environmental health and safety. Relationships between environmental

pollution emissions and exposure are now better understood through studies of atmosphericdispersion, chemical reactions and deposition of pollutants. Pollution management including

assessment, control, and surveillance has also become more sophisticated.


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REFERENCES

Aguiyi-Ironsi L. (1988). The Looming shadow: Environmental Pollution is gradually changing

Nigeria s landscape, destroying sources of livelihood ,

Newswatch, 18 July.

BNW News and Archives (2007). Ivory Coast toxic Waste Case to be tried in Britain .

Available at http://news.biafranigeriaworld.com/archive/

cnn/2007/02/05/ivory_coast_toxic_waste_case_to_be_tried_in_britain.ph

David E. Newton (2007); Chemistry of the Environment. Infobase Publishing, New York,

Pg ix.

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