Epistemology Final Report Cognitio Dei Knowledge …...Epistemology Final Report – Cognitio Dei...

Epistemology Final Report – Cognitio Dei – Knowledge of God Jonathan Davis

Dr. Philippe Yates Holy Apostles Seminary

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In our day and age, people seem to have a better understanding and knowledge of

material things than they do God. They tend to keep their focus on the things of this world rather

than looking up toward God. For our human eyes and senses it is easy to touch, smell, see and

interact with the physical world and come to know facts about the things we encounter in the

world around us. Our five senses are receptors to physical information of the things we

experience. First, the senses pass the received information via the nervous system to the brain

where we can grasp the concept of what we are experiencing using our intellects. It is easy for us

to see that we can have and obtain knowledge of material things. It is also given that we can

know of things we cannot experience with our senses or have not encountered before in our

lives. Just for example, I can teach something intangible to my best friend, and he would believe

me and hold what I said is true because he trusts me and knows I would not lie to him.

Still, many people say that man cannot know God and also say that God does not exist.

Obviously, they say this on the premise that they themselves do not yet have a relationship with

God and have not yet explored the ways of knowing this Divine Being. Throughout the

centuries many people have written about how man can obtain knowledge of God and experience

His Being, and numerous discourses have been spilled out over the centuries on how man can

know God’s eternal Essence.

Natural Reasoning – St. Thomas Aquinas and the Five Ways

We will now turn to natural reasoning by which man can obtain knowledge of God namely

the Five Ways of God’s existence according to St. Thomas Aquinas. First, In St. Thomas’

“Treatise on God” from part one of his Summa. He explains that Since God is existence the term



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“God” implies “existence” and so therefore his existence is self-evident.1 St. Thomas Aquinas

says there are two ways in which something can be self-evident: something can be self-evident

but not to us or self-evident and to us. With our human nature, our minds are incapable of

grasping the meaning of such a term as “God” because his existence is not “self-evident” to the

limited knowledge of our minds. God is self-evident, but not to us. However, Aquinas says that

God can be made self-evident to us through these effects which are what St. Thomas talks about

in his Five Ways.2

I. Natural Theology and Natural Reason

Knowledge of God by Knowledge of His Effects – St. Thomas Aquinas He explains that God’s existence can be demonstrated by our reasoning that God is the

cause of the effects which we on earth experience. We will briefly describe the Five Ways that

we can have knowledge of that evidence God’s existence. First, St. Thomas Aquinas speaks

about the fact that there is motion in the world. He says that for something to be in motion it has

to be moved by something else, and so St. Thomas concludes that the effects of motion are

caused by a first mover who is God. Second, by the fact that there are multiple series of agents

(efficient causes) that bring about change or bring things into existence entails that there is a first

cause, a first efficient cause who is God. Something must be pre-existing in order to cause

something else to exist. Thirdly, the truth that there are possible beings (beings that can not-

exist) means there has to be a necessary being, God, who cannot not exist and who has His own

source of necessity. In reality we find kinds of things that can exist or cannot exist. It is possible

that some things can exist and at some point in history did not exist anymore. If it is possible that

1 Donald C. Abel, Fifty Readings in Philosophy, Third Edition, (New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2008), 32.

2 From this point definitions about the Five Ways comes from Donald C. Abel, 32-37.



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if there was a point in time that nothing ever existed then the reality would be that nothing could

have ever began to exist. This proves that the idea that at one time nothing existed is completely

false. Therefor there has to be a necessary fact in reality. We cannot regress back beyond the

cause of our existence. Therefore God is the intrinsically necessary being.

Next, in his fourth way, St. Thomas Aquinas writes that by the fact that there are

different kinds of beings with different degrees of perfections implies that there must be a

supreme being who causes these beings to be. The gradations we find in reality such as more or

less, more perfect or less perfect, more good or less good lead us to the knowledge of God who

causes goodness and perfection of qualities. It is logical to see that something exists which

causes other things to exist in more or lesser degrees. So there has to exist something that causes

existence as well as the goodness and perfection of every being, and so following, the cause of

all beings and their gradations is God. There has to be something that is the most perfect, most

excellent, and most true.

Finally In the fifth way, St. Thomas says that we can know God exists because natural

beings without intelligence such as plants act by with growing and reproducing as its goals.

Therefore these actions imply that another being guides non-intelligent things towards their

goals. Things without knowledge such as plants must be directed by an intelligent being who

orders all things of nature and directs their goals to their ends. Things in nature must be traced

back to God as their first cause Who is unchanging and directs unintelligent things.

Since knowledge is caused by demonstration, the invisible things of God become visible

when we understand the things that have been made.3 We come to the knowledge of the cause

3 Ibid., 34.



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through its effect, because the effect is more clearly seen than the cause, but we know that the

existence of the cause is real because the effects are known to us.4 Effects naturally depend on a

cause, and this First Cause is God. We can demonstrate the existence of God by any one of the

effects which have been shown to us in great detail.5

Article 12. Whether God can be known in this life by natural reason? In the First Part of St. Thomas Aquinas’ Summa Theologica is where St. Thomas speaks

about the knowledge of God and how we can know God. Particularly Question twelve of deals

with this subject and is divided up into thirteen articles.6 In his twelfth article St. Thomas

Aquinas explains that God can be known by natural reason. He says that natural knowledge is

obtained from sensible things and because of their physicality, knowledge can only be obtained

from sensible things to an extent. The human mind cannot see the essence of God from being led

by the senses. St. Thomas clarifies that the sensible effects produced by God are not equivalent

to the entirety of God’s power and therefore God’s essence cannot be seen from experiencing

His sensible effects. Sensible things can however lead man to know God because these effects

have God as their first cause, explains Aquinas.

Fr. Francisco Suárez Having spoken of the natural ways by which man can know God according to St. Thomas

Aquinas let us now turn to the natural theology of Fr. Francisco Suárez. Fr. Francisco Suárez was

a Jesuit Priest from Granada, Spain who lived between the years 1548-1617. In his time he was

very respected by the high intellectuals in universities across Europe and was honored by popes

4 Ibid. 35.

5 Ibid.

6 From this point on, all of the information regarding knowledge of God and His Divine Essence according to

Aquinas can be sourced from: St. Thomas Aquinas, “Summa Theologica,” First Part, Question 12, Articles 1-13. 2nd and Revised Edition. Translated by Fathers of the Dominican Province. Online Edition Copyright by Kevin Knight 2008. At New Advent. http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1012.htm#4. 20 July 2012.



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as well. Pope Paul V named him Doctor eximius et pius (Most exalted and pious teacher).7 He

wrote many theological and philosophical works including his monumental Disputationes

Metaphysicae (Metaphysical Disputations). Fr. Suárez wrote “About God, the First Being and

Uncreated Substance, as He Can by Natural Reason Be Known to Exist” this is primarily found

in the 29th

Disputation of his Disputationes Metaphysicae.8 In the 30

th Disputation he teaches

“On the First Being, Insofar as He Can Be Known Through Natural Reason, His Essence and

Attributes.”9 He explains his views by using pure philosophy, which means that he does not rely

on divine revelation to explain his philosophy to other people. In this work, he wrote in the role

of philosopher instead of theologian. He used natural theology, and like St. Thomas Aquinas, he

believed that the human intellect had a limited capacity to obtain knowledge of God and could

obtain this knowledge through natural reason by observing God’s effects. With St. Thomas

Aquinas, Fr. Francisco Suárez agreed that God’s existence is not self-evident, thus man needs a

metaphysical explanation. In the 29th

Disputation Fr. Suárez demonstrates the existence of God

as the first Cause, the Uncreated Being.

He said that a metaphysical explanation is the proper way to approach the subject of

God’s existence as opposed to natural philosophy. He says that natural philosophical arguments

for God fail to prove His existence or are forced to rely on metaphysical principles. Thus in his

argument for God, Fr. Suárez says that his first premise (P1) “Everything that is moved is moved

by another” comes from natural philosophy while his second premise (P2) “Everything that is

produced is produced by another” which comes from metaphysics, is necessary.10

He says this is

7 Bernie Cantens, "Francisco Suárez." The History of Western Philosophy of Religion ,Volume 3 Early Modern

Philosophy. Edited by Graham Oppy and Nick Trakakis. Durham: Acumen Publishing Limited, 2009, 75-87. 8 Ibid., 76.

9 Ibid., 76.

10 Ibid., 77.

http://www.berniephilosophy.com/files/45950558.pdf



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so because in P1, things can be moved by non-material things such as actions moved by a

person’s will.11

This is why he believed that to explain the existence of God, a metaphysical

approach was more appropriate than on by natural philosophy. Furthermore, he explains that P2

is more important because from it comes the conclusion that a thing can only be produced from

something else. Nothing can come from nothing. There are three possible ways held that

something can come into being: from another thing, from itself, or finally from nothing. The

final two ways are impossible because “something cannot come from nothing” and the second is

also false because prior to producing something from itself, itself had to come from. Therefore,

there has to be an eternal first cause which is the Uncreated Being. This is the Ultimate Reality

which every object in the universe points to.

Like St. Thomas Aquinas, Fr. Francisco Suárez says natural reason alone is not sufficient

for the created intellect to come to know the essence of God for it is impossible to have a priori

knowledge of God’s essence or attributes because the knowledge that we have of God comes by

way of His effects.12

When we do obtain knowledge of God’s attributes it is possible for man to

obtain knowledge of other attributes of God. In this way, the intellect derives knowledge of God

from other a priori concepts he has obtained so that the knowledge process is a sort of

consequential chain of events stemming from the first piece of knowledge obtained through

God’s effects.13

Fr. Suárez wrote that the first attribute we can know is that God is a necessary uncreated

being as per his argument for the existence for God which we just discussed, and we can also

11

Ibid. 12

Ibid., 83. 13

Ibid.



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know “that God is His own being through His essence.”14

Thus Fr. Suárez writes that the first

attribute we can know about God is that His “existence is identical to His essence,” and from this

attribute, Fr. Suárez derives other attributes about God such as “God is perfect, is infinite, is pure

act and absolute simplicity, is omnipresent, He lacks substantial and accidental composition, and

God is immutable, invisible, incomprehensible, and eternal to name a few.15

Also in the 30th

Disputation Fr. Suárez speaks about whether human intellects can

comprehend God. Similar to St. Thomas Aquinas, he writes that to human perception and to

natural intellects, God is invisible. His essence is invisible.16

Thus by our natural powers of our

intellects we cannot grasp the Divine Essence and so we cannot comprehend God; however, we

can still know many things about God’s attributes.17

[ Next Slide] Another attribute of God that Fr. Suárez wrote about is that God is ineffable

in the sense that His Divine Being cannot be properly spoken of. His perfection renders it

impossible to explain in words His Divine Essence.18

Because God has the attributes of

invisibility and incomprehensibility, it follows that God also is ineffable, and since names are

given as signs of concepts then we cannot name or illustrate God’s perfection with words.19

This

same acknowledgment of God’s ineffability is captured in the very first paragraph of Blessed

John Duns Scotus’ work titled A Treatise on God as First Principle. Here he says,

“O Lord our God, true teacher that you are, when Moses your servant asked you

for your name that he might proclaim it to the children of Israel, you, knowing

what the mind of mortals could grasp of you, replied: "I am who am," thus

14

Ibid. 15

Ibid. 16

Ibid., 86. 17

Ibid. 18

Ibid. 19

Ibid.



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disclosing your blessed name. You are truly what it means to be, you are the

whole of what it means to exist.”20

II. Knowledge of God through the Intellect How created intellects can have knowledge of the Increateable God

In his Summa, St. Thomas Aquinas counters the argument that man cannot know God

because he is beyond knowing since he is eternal. People who hold this argument state that

knowledge is only proportional to the knower, and therefore we could never know God because

He is beyond our understanding. Indeed, God is beyond our understanding. How could we ever

know God completely prior to the Beatific Vision of Him in Heaven? We cannot see Him in His

full glory. Truly, we would be knocked dead at first sight of Him were He to appear on earth as

He is in Heaven before our very eyes. Still, the human intellect can know God. Then how can

the created intellect see the essence of God? St. Thomas points to the nature of God to explain

this objection. He says that since actual things are knowable, then God, whose nature is pure

actuality, is therefore completely knowable to us. Due to His eternal nature, God is without

potentiality and is pure act. God has no beginning and no end. He is without cause. Pure act is

knowable by man.

Blessed John Duns Scotus (1266 A.D. - 1308 A. D.) This leads us briefly to the epistemology of Blessed John Duns Scotus who lived between

the years 1266 A.D. and 1308 A. D. He also spoke about the Being of God. In agreement with

St. Thomas Aquinas, he believed that God exists in a different mode of being than do humans. It

is true that I exist and God exists, but obviously God exists in a very different way than I do

because he has existed for an eternity before me. He also existed before the time when He

20

Blessed John Duns Scotus, “A Treatise on God as First Principle.” Eternal Word Television Network online document library. http://www.ewtn.com/library/THEOLOGY/GODASFIR.HTM. Accessed 11 August 2012.

http://www.ewtn.com/library/THEOLOGY/GODASFIR.HTM



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infused a soul into the first human being on earth, and breathed life into his nostrils. God exists

in a different mode of being than do you and I. The pure actuality of God is knowable by us.

The difference between our being and God’s Being is that the soul of God has been

actualized from all eternity. His Being, the Godhead Three in One, has existed from all eternity

in actual Being. Our souls, our beings, have been known from all eternity by the Most High, but

they are not actualized into physical human beings until the moment we were conceived in each

of our mothers’ wombs. That is the moment when we came into existence and had actual being.

While we are talking about Bl. John Duns Scotus’ thoughts on God, let’s enter into his

philosophy of how man can know both God and things in the physical world. The proper object

of the human intellect, the object to which our minds are naturally capable to understand, has

been assigned to different objects by different philosophers. Henry of Ghent said the proper

object of the intellect was God, while St. Thomas Aquinas said it was the material world which

our intellects are natural suited to understand. On the other hand, Bl. John Duns Scotus said it

could be neither of these object. He said God could not be the proper object because the human

person could never contain the magnificent Being of God in his intellect. Further Bl. John Scotus

said that because the material world does not contain all that the human intellect seeks to know,

things in the material world could not be the primary objects. The essence of material things also

could not be the primary object because human beings seek to know the cause of these things.

Humans seek to know the ultimate causes of things, and therefore our intellects have the capacity

to acquire knowledge of immaterial things. We have the ability to study things that are spiritual

and physical so the one univocal concept which is found in God and in the material world is

being itself. Thus Bl. John Scotus said that being was the proper object of the human intellect. It

is clear to see that being is a property of everything that is intelligible to us, thus non-being is



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incomprehensible. With being as our primary object we can grasp both God and material objects

since both God and material objects have being.

However, we can only grasp the being of God that we are capable of receiving in our

intellect. We could not contain His whole being. Some people say that Bl. John Duns Scotus’

teaching of univocity of being leads to pantheism, but this is not true. Those who jump to this

conclusion have failed to take into account the nature of God’s Being and see the difference

between His Being and ours. Remember earlier we discussed that God’s Being is eternal without

beginning and ours is not. His being has been actualized from all eternity, while our beings were

only actualized at conception. Therefore the teaching of Blessed John Duns Scotus does not

place humans on the same plane as God. Going back to St. Thomas Aquinas’ reply to how the

created intellect can know God we have seen that as actual things are knowable, then God, who

is pure actuality, is therefore knowable to us.

St. Thomas Aquinas also points out that some people will also say that God cannot be

comprehended because he is super-existence and therefore has no being. It is true, His existence

is completely different than ours, but some have said that He has no existence because he is over

all things. To further their claim that man cannot know God they say human intellects can only

know existing things. St. Thomas Aquinas refutes this argument by saying “God is His own

existence” thus He has existence, and thus man can know God because God exists in actuality.

St. Thomas Aquinas says that it makes no sense that God cannot be comprehended by any

means.



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III. Knowledge of God’s Divine Essence Now that we have discussed the fundamental ways in which God can be known through

the senses we will now turn our focus more towards how the natural human intellect can obtain

knowledge of God and if we can come to know his Divine Essence.

Article 3. Whether the essence of God can be seen with the bodily eye? St. Thomas

Aquinas says that we cannot see God by any of our five senses or imagination, but only by our

intellect which is incorporeal as God’s essence. He further says that the imagination is driven by

the senses and therefore one cannot have an image of God in their imagination. The act must be

proportionate to its nature it belongs to, and since imagination receives its input from the five

senses, then we cannot have a vision of imagination of God. Imagination is a faculty of sensitive

powers while the intellect is a faculty of thought which is not corporeal. Only the intellect can

see God.

On how created intellects can see God But how can the created intellect see God? St. Thomas Aquinas continues. Our intellects

which are created by God have the capability to see their Creator though not by their own natural

ability. Because we are bridging the gap between the corporeal world and the spiritual we need

to be assisted by divine grace to see God’s Essence. First let’s discuss the cognitive powers of

the soul. St. Thomas Aquinas taught that our souls have two cognitive powers. One power is by

way of a corporeal organ through which we sense things physically. The second is the intellect

which extracts the nature from a thing. Natural intellects like ours are naturally suited to know

natural things, not those with self-subsistent beings. God alone has a self-subsistent Being, and

only a knower with a subsistent nature like an Angel could know and see God’s essence.

Therefore, our natures which have being in matter, need divine grace from God for our intellects



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to be able to see the His Essence. As St. Thomas Aquinas says, “Therefore the created intellect

cannot see the essence of God, unless God by His grace unites Himself to the created intellect, as

an object made intelligible to it.”21

St. Thomas Aquinas describes the two necessary things for sensible and intellectual

vision. In both cases for sight, it is necessary to have the power of sight and the “union of the

thing seen with the sight.”22

The similitude of the object is in the eye of the beholder, not the

object itself. This union of the similitude of the object with sight makes the vision real. Well if

nothing can be produced having the similitude of the essence of God for us to grasp, then what

will take the place of His similitude? What could possibly be the similitude of which still retains

an Image of the Essence of God which unites our vision, our intellective vision to the Being of

God Himself…? [Next Slide] As St. Thomas Aquinas says, the only thing possible is the “light

of glory”, Divine Grace from God. For the natural powers of our intellect do not make us capable

of seeing the Divine Essence and no created thing can be a substitute for the similitude of God’s

essence, thus the similitude of God is the Divine light of Glory.

We have established that the human intellect has the faculty of seeing God because it has

the capacity to see its Maker and has the capacity to see God by way of seeing the Divine

similitude, the light of glory. However, the created intellect cannot fully comprehend God. St.

Thomas Aquinas says, “Everything is knowable according to its actuality.”23

Therefore God is

infinitely knowable, because His actuality is infinite, but how can man’s created intellect know

the essence of God whose actuality is infinite? Simply put, we cannot because as St. Thomas

says, the created intellect cannot receive an infinite amount of the light of glory because the

21

Aquinas, Article 2. 22

Ibid. 23

Ibid., Article8



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created intellect cannot contain that amount and so man cannot fully comprehend God, but we

can still come to know parts of His essence.

Article 5: Whether the created intellect needs any created light in order

to see the Essence of God?

St. Thomas Aquinas says that for man to see the essence of God, he needs assistance. When the

human intellect sees the essence of God, God’s essence logically “becomes the intelligible form

of the intellect,” but for this to happen the human intellect must be prepared by divine operation.

St. Thomas says that man’s intellect needs a created light. He makes it clear that this created

light is not “a medium in which God is seen, but as one by which He is seen.” The use of the

word ‘by’ signifies that this light assists us in seeing God’s Essence. It empowers the human

intellect to receive the light of glory, that divine similitude of God. By its own nature the human

intellect cannot see the Essence of God, and so it must be assisted. St. Thomas says that for

something to be raised up past its nature, it must be prepared by something beyond its nature.

Thus he says that the intellect must be illuminated. He calls this illumination of the intellect, the

“power of understanding” which is added to the intellect. This created light called the power of

understanding further sets us apart from animals and creatures. By this light imparted to human

intellect, we are made deiform, that is to say, in the Image and Likeness of God.

IV. Revelation, Grace, and Infused Knowledge Apart from knowledge gained through natural reasoning, philosophers have spoken of

knowledge that is supernaturally granted to man via divine illumination. This has been called

infused knowledge. Infused knowledge is not acquired by any personal effort or from other



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men, but is acquired through direct illumination of the mind by a divine source.24

God can speak

internally or could act directly on a person’s mind.25

Still an inner illumination of the intellect

would have to take place so that the person would know that God Himself was acting.

Article 11. Whether anyone in this life can see the essence of God?

In Article 11 St. Thomas Aquinas responds to the objection that humans are able to

directly see God’s Essence. He says that only when man is separated form earthly life will he be

able to see God’s Essence. Not on this earth is man capable of seeing the Divine Essence

because as St. Thomas established in Article Four, “the mode of knowledge follows the mode of

the nature of the knower.” In this life, says Aquinas, our soul has its being within bodily matter

and so the Divine Essence cannot be seen through material nature. The created similitude that

man is capable of seeing is not a vision of God’s Essence. St. Thomas Aquinas makes a point

that is important in our spiritual life: “The more our soul is abstracted from corporeal things, the

more it is capable of receiving abstract intelligible things” (Question 12, Article 11). As a result

of being less attached to this world, he says that “in dreams and alienations of the bodily senses,

divine revelations and foresight of future events are perceived more clearly;” however, human

intellects still cannot see God’s true Essence because human persons see and experience things

through a physical lens.

One may object and say that since we see things in God’s light and judge things

according to divine truth, then man is able to see God because he has communicated with the

Divine. On the contrary, St. Thomas Aquinas says that when we judge things with natural

reason we do not see the essence of God. This is unnecessary. For example he says a quote by

24

A. B. Wolter ,"Knowledge, Infused," New Catholic Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. Vol. 8. Detroit: Gale, 2003. 207-208. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 July 2012. 25

Ibid.



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St. Augustine that it is unnecessary to see the sun in order to see an intelligible object under the

sun. We do not need to see the source as it is to see its effects.

Article 13. Whether by grace a higher knowledge of God can be obtained than by

natural reason?

In Article 13 St. Thomas Aquinas answers the question, by what other means can man

obtain a higher knowledge of God than through natural reason. He answers that by grace the

human intellect can obtain a higher level of knowledge. To explain this St. Thomas Aquinas

gives characteristics of the knowledge humans obtain through natural reason. This type of

knowledge is characterized by two aspects: images that we derive from objects we experience

with our senses and it is also characterized by natural intelligible light which gives us the ability

to draw intelligible conceptions from them. In both characteristics, the natural light of the

intellect is augmented by an infusion of grace also called gratuitous light into the human intellect

in order to gain a higher knowledge of God.

St. Thomas Aquinas also says that this grace by divine operation may sometimes form

images in the imagination which would otherwise not be formed had it not been for the infusion

of grace. God grants this grace in order to divinely express things to us better than were we to

receive these concepts from sensible objects. God in His revelation of grace to man’s intellect is

not limited to divinely forming visions or voices or other things which we can perceive with our

senses when our intellects are fortified by divine light. Furthermore St. Thomas Aquinas says

that the stronger the intelligible light is in the intellect, the more excellent knowledge we have

and when divine light is infused an even greater knowledge is obtained.

To summarize facts we have discussed involving how man can obtain knowledge of God

let us begin by saying that yes man can obtain knowledge of God. He is able to grasp both



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material things and God because they both have being which Blessed John Duns Scotus says is

the proper object of the human intellect because it is a univocal concept. However, because of

our human intellects we cannot fully comprehend God’s Divine Essence, because the nature of

our intellects is not infinite like the Being of God is. We can understand and obtain knowledge of

God through experiencing his effects on earth as we discussed in St. Thomas Aquinas’ Five

Ways. Through these teachings and others which we discussed including Fr. Francisco Suárez,

we have shown that God is the Ultimate Reality, the Eternal Uncreated Being. Neither by sense

nor by our intellects, can we see the Divine Essence of God as it fully is. In order to see

something there has to be a union of our vision with an object. Though we cannot see God, we

can see His similitude, which is a likeness of his Divine Image in the form of the light of glory.

Through revelation grace, and infused knowledge, God can strengthen our human intellects in

order to raise our knowledge of him to a higher degree only possible through a divine operation,

but still accessible to our intellects and senses.



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Works Cited

Abel, Donald C. Fifty Readings in Philosophy. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, 2008.

Aquinas, St. Thomas. “Summa Theologica” First Part, Question 12, Articles 1-13. 2nd

and

Revised Edition. Tranlated by Fathers of the Dominican Province. Online Edition

Copyright byKevin Knight 2008. At New Advent.

http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1012.htm#4. 20 July 2012.

Cantens, Bernie. "Francisco Suárez." The History of Western Philosophy of Religion. Volume 3

Early Modern Philosophy. Edited by Graham Oppy and Nick Trakakis. Durham:

Acumen Publishing Limited, 2009, 75-87.,

http://www.berniephilosophy.com/files/45950558.pdf. Accessed 21 July 2012

Scotus, Blessed John Duns. “A Treatise on God as First Principle.” Eternal Word Television

Network online library. http://www.ewtn.com/library/THEOLOGY/GODASFIR.HTM.

Accessed 11 August 2012.

Wolter, A. B. "Knowledge, Infused." New Catholic Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. Vol. 8. Detroit: Gale,

2003. 207-208. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 21 July 2012.

http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1012.htm#4

http://www.berniephilosophy.com/files/45950558.pdf

http://www.berniephilosophy.com/files/45950558.pdf.%20Accessed%2021%20July%202012

http://www.ewtn.com/library/THEOLOGY/GODASFIR.HTM

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