EPRI - Renewable Energy Technology Guide 2012

2012 TECHNICAL REPORT

Electric Power Research Institute 3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA

800.313.3774 650.855.2121 [email protected] www.epri.com

Renewable Energy Technology Guide 2012

EPRI Project Manager C. Lyons

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE 3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA

800.313.3774 650.855.2121 [email protected] www.epri.com

Renewable Energy Technology Guide 2012

1023993

Final Report, December 2012

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:

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Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

NOTE

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Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHERSHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.

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This publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:

Renewable Energy Technology Guide: 2012. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2011. 1023993.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The following organization prepared this report:

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) 1300 West W. T. Harris Blvd. Charlotte, NC 28262

Principal Investigator C. Lyons

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

The following EPRI personnel are acknowledged for their contributions to this report:

L. Cerezo T. Coleman P. Jacobson C. Libby D. OConnor A. Tuohy

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PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

First published in 2000 as the Renewable Energy Technical Assessment GuideTAG-RE, the Electric Power Research Institutes (EPRIs) annual Renewable Energy Technology Guide provides a consistent basis for evaluating the economic feasibility of renewable generation technologies. These technologies include wind, solar photovoltaic (PV), solar thermal, biomass, municipal solid waste, geothermal, and emerging ocean energy conversion technologies.

Results and Findings Based on rated capacity, the leading worldwide sources of renewable energy at the end of 2011 were wind (238 GW), biomass (72 GW), solar PV (70 GW), geothermal (11.2 GW), and solar thermal (1.8 GW). Renewables generated an estimated 20.3% of global electricity by the end of 2011. In 2010, renewable energy supplied approximately 16.7% of global energy consumption.

Challenges and Objectives Because so many conflicting and overly optimistic claims are made about the performance and economic potential of all energy sourcesconventional fossil, nuclear, hydro, alternative fuel, and renewablesit is important to conduct careful, objective assessments of the status, performance, cost, environmental impacts, and other aspects of the technologies. The primary objective of this report is to provide timely and unbiased assessments of the status, performance, and cost of the renewable generation technologies.

Applications, Value, and Use The renewable generation technology data reported in the EPRI Renewable Energy Technology Guide are valuable to system planners and others who make decisions about whether renewable technology belongs in the generation portfolio and who develop long-term strategies for a sustainable generation portfolio.

An energy producer can use renewable energy to strengthen ties to the community, attract new customers, and diversify its portfolio. EPRI believes that companies that have not yet incorporated renewables into their generation mix should consider these technologies to determine which ones might benefit their generation strategy. The information summarized in this report encompasses more than three decades of EPRI research on renewable technologies. The Renewable Energy Technology Guide will continue to be updated on an annual basis to ensure that EPRI members have access to the most current information on the technical and economic status of renewable technologies.

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Approach Information and data from EPRI reports and a variety of outside sources, including U.S. government reports and other publicly available publications, were collected and analyzed. The informationwhich concerned the status, performance, cost, installed capacity, and markets for renewable energy generation technologieswas used to update Renewable Energy Technology Guide:2011 (EPRI report 1021795).

Keywords Biomass Geothermal Municipal solid waste Renewable energy Solar energy Wind energy

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ABSTRACT

The Renewable Energy Technology Guide: 2012 is a fundamental industry reference that informs the technical and economic assessment of renewable energy generation technologies. Design, cost, and performance information contained in this report will enable Electric Power Research Institute members to perform preliminary capital investment evaluations in a systematic and informed manner.

Renewable power technologies addressed in this report that are commercially available or on the threshold of commercialization include wind, biomass, municipal solid waste, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal, and geothermal. Other sections cover emerging renewable power technologies, such as ocean tidal, ocean wave, and river in-stream energy conversion. In addition, the report discusses the challenges of integrating renewable energy technologies with the grid and the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through renewables.

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CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1-11.1 Background ..................................................................................................................... 1-11.2 EPRIs Role ..................................................................................................................... 1-41.3 Objective ......................................................................................................................... 1-41.4 Definitions and Units ....................................................................................................... 1-51.5 Scope .............................................................................................................................. 1-51.6 References ...................................................................................................................... 1-6

2 ECONOMIC METHODOLOGY AND ASSUMPTIONS........................................................... 2-12.1 Regulated Utility Power Projects ..................................................................................... 2-1

2.1.1 Fixed Charge Rates ................................................................................................. 2-12.1.1.1 Annual Fixed Charge Rates ............................................................................. 2-12.1.1.2 Nominal Levelized Annual Charges and Nominal Levelized Fixed Charge Rates ............................................................................................................... 2-32.1.1.3 Real Levelized Annual Charges and Real Levelized Fixed Charge Rates ...... 2-3

2.1.2 Example of Annual Fixed Charge Rates for a 200-MW Wind Power Plant ............. 2-52.1.3 Other Capital ExpensesCapital Additions ............................................................ 2-52.1.4 Calculating Costs per Kilowatt-Hour ........................................................................ 2-5

2.1.4.1 Levelized Costs per Kilowatt-Hour ................................................................... 2-52.2 Non-Utility Generator Power Projects ............................................................................. 2-8

2.2.1 Types of Non-Utility Generators .............................................................................. 2-92.2.1.1 PURPA Cogenerators and Small Power Producers ...................................... 2-102.2.1.2 Exempt Wholesale Generators ...................................................................... 2-112.2.1.3 Merchant Power Plants .................................................................................. 2-11

2.2.2 Development of an Economic Pro Forma for a Merchant Plant ............................ 2-122.2.2.1 Differences Between Regulated Utility and Non-Utility Power Projects ......... 2-12

2.2.3 Conceptualizing the Analysis ................................................................................. 2-132.2.3.1 Total Capital Requirement ............................................................................. 2-14

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2.2.3.2 EPRI Capital Cost Definitions ........................................................................ 2-172.2.3.3 Income Statement .......................................................................................... 2-172.2.3.4 Income Taxes ................................................................................................ 2-212.2.3.5 Cash Flow Statement .................................................................................... 2-222.2.3.6 Economic Measures ...................................................................................... 2-242.2.3.7 Sensitivity Analysis ........................................................................................ 2-272.2.3.8 Project Risks and Financing .......................................................................... 2-29

2.2.4 Limitations of Examples ......................................................................................... 2-312.3 Guidelines for Economic Evaluation of Renewable Energy Projects ............................ 2-31

2.3.1 Design/Cost Estimate ............................................................................................ 2-312.3.2 Accuracy Ranges .................................................................................................. 2-322.3.3 Definitions of Economic Terms .............................................................................. 2-32

2.4 References .................................................................................................................... 2-34

3 WIND POWER ........................................................................................................................ 3-13.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 3-13.2 Installed Wind Capacity ................................................................................................... 3-23.3 Wind Energy Principles ................................................................................................... 3-93.4 Developments in Wind Turbine Technology .................................................................. 3-11

3.4.1 Generators and Power Electronics ........................................................................ 3-113.4.1.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Generator ................................................................ 3-123.4.1.2 Variable-Speed Turbine ................................................................................. 3-123.4.1.3 Power Electronics .......................................................................................... 3-133.4.1.4 Squirrel Cage Induction Generator with Full Power Conversion .................... 3-133.4.1.5 Doubly Fed Induction Generator .................................................................... 3-133.4.1.6 Synchronous Generator ................................................................................. 3-133.4.1.7 Direct-Drive Low-Speed Wound Rotor Generators ........................................ 3-143.4.1.8 Direct-Drive Low-Speed Permanent Magnet Generators .............................. 3-143.4.1.9 Superconducting Low-Speed Generators ...................................................... 3-15

3.4.2 Blades and Rotor ................................................................................................... 3-163.4.2.1 Passive Aerodynamic Control ........................................................................ 3-193.4.2.2 Active Aerodynamic Control........................................................................... 3-193.4.2.3 Stealth Rotor Blade ..................................................................................... 3-203.4.2.4 Smart Blades ............................................................................................... 3-203.4.2.5 Flatback Airfoils.............................................................................................. 3-20

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3.4.2.6 Blade Manufacturing Processes .................................................................... 3-213.4.2.7 Blade Transport and Shipping ....................................................................... 3-213.4.2.8 Blade Test Facilities ....................................................................................... 3-21

3.4.3 Yaw Systems ......................................................................................................... 3-213.4.4 Sensors ................................................................................................................. 3-22

3.4.4.1 Optical Strain Gages ...................................................................................... 3-223.4.4.2 Wind MeasurementsLIDAR ........................................................................ 3-233.4.4.3 Condition Monitoring ...................................................................................... 3-23

3.4.5 Controls ................................................................................................................. 3-243.4.6 SCADA Data Collection and Transmittal ............................................................... 3-253.4.7 Drive Train ............................................................................................................. 3-26

3.4.7.1 Drive Trains with Gearboxes .......................................................................... 3-263.4.7.2 Hydrodynamic Fluid Coupling ........................................................................ 3-273.4.7.3 Direct Drive Train without Gearbox ................................................................ 3-28

3.4.8 Foundation ............................................................................................................. 3-293.4.9 Tower ..................................................................................................................... 3-30

3.4.9.1 Conventional Steel Towers ............................................................................ 3-303.4.9.2 Concrete and Hybrid Towers ......................................................................... 3-303.4.9.3 Integrated Towers and Foundations .............................................................. 3-313.4.9.4 Tall Towers .................................................................................................... 3-313.4.9.5 Two-Bladed Rotors ........................................................................................ 3-323.4.9.6 Vertical Axis Rotors ....................................................................................... 3-34

3.4.10 Offshore Foundations .......................................................................................... 3-363.4.10.1 General Classifications ................................................................................ 3-363.4.10.2 Monopile Foundations.................................................................................. 3-403.4.10.3 Gravity-Based Foundations ......................................................................... 3-433.4.10.4 Tripod Foundations ...................................................................................... 3-443.4.10.5 Jacket Foundations ...................................................................................... 3-453.4.10.6 Suction Bucket Foundations ........................................................................ 3-463.4.10.7 Floating Foundations ................................................................................... 3-47

3.5 Trends in the Turbine Supply Market ............................................................................ 3-483.6 Trends in Wind Turbine and Plant Sizes ....................................................................... 3-533.7 Onshore Capital and O&M Cost Trends ........................................................................ 3-543.8 Developments in Offshore Wind Technology ................................................................ 3-57

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3.8.1 Trends in the Offshore Turbine Supply Market ...................................................... 3-583.8.2 Offshore Transmission Technology Status ............................................................ 3-593.8.3 Offshore Capital and O&M Cost Trends ................................................................ 3-59

3.8.3.1 Capital Costs ................................................................................................. 3-593.8.3.2 Wind Turbine Foundations ............................................................................. 3-603.8.3.3 Wind Turbine Generators ............................................................................... 3-603.8.3.4 Inner Array Grid ............................................................................................. 3-613.8.3.5 Offshore Substation (OSS) ............................................................................ 3-613.8.3.6 Export Cabling and Onshore Interconnection ................................................ 3-613.8.3.7 Installation Costs ........................................................................................... 3-623.8.3.8 Distribution of CAPEX by Category ............................................................... 3-633.8.3.9 O&M Costs..................................................................................................... 3-653.8.3.10 Preventive Maintenance .............................................................................. 3-673.8.3.11 Corrective Maintenance ............................................................................... 3-683.8.3.12 O&M Expenditures ....................................................................................... 3-70

3.8.4 Offshore Plant Performance .................................................................................. 3-733.8.5 Offshore Plant Cost Estimates .............................................................................. 3-74

3.8.5.1 Northeastern United States............................................................................ 3-743.8.5.2 Great Lakes ................................................................................................... 3-853.8.5.3 United Kingdom ............................................................................................. 3-96

3.9 On-Shore Technology Performance and Cost Tables ................................................ 3-1093.9.1 Site Assumptions ................................................................................................. 3-1093.9.2 Plant Performance ............................................................................................... 3-1113.9.3 Total Capital Requirement ................................................................................... 3-1123.9.4 Operation and Maintenance Cost ........................................................................ 3-1133.9.5 Levelized Cost of Electricity ................................................................................. 3-117

3.10 Grid Integration.......................................................................................................... 3-1333.10.1 Production Variability ......................................................................................... 3-1333.10.2 Ancillary Service Costs ...................................................................................... 3-1343.10.3 Wind Energy Forecasting and Scheduling ........................................................ 3-1353.10.4 Power Quality .................................................................................................... 3-136

3.11 Project Development Process and Market ................................................................ 3-1363.11.1 Buy or Build Considerations .............................................................................. 3-1363.11.2 Project Development Process ........................................................................... 3-137

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3.11.2.1 Pre-Development Activities ........................................................................ 3-1373.11.2.2 Engineering, Procurement, and Construction Activities ............................. 3-1403.11.2.3 Operation and Maintenance Activities ....................................................... 3-141

3.12 Environmental Issues ................................................................................................ 3-1423.12.1 Avian and Bat Issues ......................................................................................... 3-1433.12.2 Noise ................................................................................................................. 3-1443.12.3 Visual Impact ..................................................................................................... 3-1453.12.4 Shadow Flicker .................................................................................................. 3-1463.12.5 Radar Interference ............................................................................................. 3-147

3.13 Scouting New Potential Game-Changer Technologies ............................................. 3-1483.13.1 Multi-Copter Aerial Drones for Cost-Effective Wind Turbines, Blades, and Tower Inspection .......................................................................................................... 3-1483.13.2 Direct-Drive, Axial Gap, Air-Cooled Permanent Magnet Generator .................. 3-1493.13.3 Oversize Large Turbine Component Heavy-Lift Transportation Using Balloons ........................................................................................................................ 3-1493.13.4 Airborne Wind Turbines ..................................................................................... 3-1493.13.5 Ro-Birds of Prey to Scare Birds ......................................................................... 3-149

3.14 References ................................................................................................................ 3-1493.14.1 DOE-EPRI Wind Turbine Verification Program Reports .................................... 3-1523.14.2 Other Reports .................................................................................................... 3-153

4 BIOMASS ELECTRICITY GENERATION .............................................................................. 4-14.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 4-1

4.1.1 Basic Issues Associated with Biomass Fuel Utilization ........................................... 4-44.1.2 Technology Considerations for Using Biomass Fuels ............................................. 4-5

4.1.2.2 Goal Technologies ........................................................................................... 4-64.1.2.3 Prospectus ....................................................................................................... 4-7

4.2 Biomass Fuel Resources ................................................................................................ 4-74.2.1 Biofuels vs. Biomass Electricity ............................................................................. 4-104.2.2 Basic Properties of Solid Biomass Fuels ............................................................... 4-10

4.2.2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analyses of Biomass Fuels ..................................... 4-114.2.2.2 Structural Relationships and Heteroatoms .................................................... 4-134.2.2.3 Inorganic Constituents in Biomass ................................................................. 4-14

4.2.3 Performance Characteristics of Biomass Fuels ..................................................... 4-184.2.3.1 Biomass Fuel Volatility ................................................................................... 4-18

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4.2.3.2 Fuel Nitrogen Characteristics of Biomass Fuels ............................................ 4-194.2.3.3 Ash Reactivity, Slagging, and Fouling ........................................................... 4-27

4.3 Characteristics of Biomass Cofiring Technologies ........................................................ 4-304.3.1 Overview of Solid Biomass Fuel Cofiring Systems ................................................ 4-314.3.2 Cofiring in Cyclone Boilers .................................................................................... 4-31

4.3.2.1 Cofiring System Design for Cyclone Boilers .................................................. 4-334.3.2.2 Capital Costs of Cofiring Systems for Cyclone Boilers .................................. 4-374.3.2.3 Cofiring Impacts in Cyclone Boilers ............................................................... 4-39

4.3.3 Cofiring in Pulverized Coal (PC) Boilers ................................................................ 4-414.3.3.1 Cofiring System Designs for Pulverized Coal Boilers .................................... 4-414.3.3.2 Capital Costs of Separate Injection PC Cofiring Systems ............................. 4-434.3.3.3 Impacts of Cofiring Biomass in PC Boilers .................................................... 4-44

4.3.4 Cofiring Gaseous Biomass Fuels .......................................................................... 4-464.3.4.1 Biomass Pre-Treatments for Cofiring with Coal ............................................. 4-474.3.4.2 The Global Biomass Pellet Market ................................................................. 4-49

4.3.5 Conclusions Regarding Biomass Cofiring ............................................................. 4-504.4 Stand-Alone Biomass-Fired Systems ............................................................................ 4-50

4.4.1 Wood-Waste-Fired Boilers .................................................................................... 4-504.4.1.1 Typical Capacities of Wood-Waste-Fired Plants ............................................ 4-514.4.1.2 Wood-Waste-Fired System Design ................................................................ 4-514.4.1.3 Comparisons to Other Biomass-Fired Rankine-Cycle Designs ..................... 4-57

4.4.2 Repowering Existing Coal Units for Biomass Firing .............................................. 4-584.4.3 Ownership Models and Institutional Issues ........................................................... 4-594.4.4 Alternative Systems for Gaseous Biomass Fuels .................................................. 4-594.4.5 Near-Commercial Technologies ............................................................................ 4-60

4.4.5.1 Types of Gasifiers .......................................................................................... 4-604.4.5.2 Syngas Quality for Downstream Use ............................................................. 4-664.4.5.3 Wood Gasification for Power and District Heating in Gssing, Austria .......... 4-674.4.5.4 Wood Gasification at Harbore...................................................................... 4-684.4.5.5 Gasification of Wood Pellets at Skive ............................................................ 4-694.4.5.6 Cofiring Syngas at Ruien ............................................................................... 4-704.4.5.7 Wood Gasification at Kokemki ..................................................................... 4-71

4.4.6 Non-Commercial Technologies ............................................................................. 4-724.5 Cost and Performance Summary .................................................................................. 4-73

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4.5.1 100% Biomass Repowering of a Pulverized Coal Boiler ....................................... 4-734.5.1.1 Plant Design Assumptions ............................................................................. 4-744.5.1.2 Plant Performance Estimate .......................................................................... 4-754.5.1.3 Total Performance and Cost Estimates ......................................................... 4-754.5.1.4 Levelized Cost of Electricity Estimates .......................................................... 4-78

4.5.2 Biomass Cofiring with Coal in a Pulverized Coal Boiler ........................................ 4-794.5.2.1 Plant Design and Fuel Assumptions .............................................................. 4-794.5.2.2 Plant Performance Estimates ........................................................................ 4-804.5.2.3 Total Capital Requirement and Operation and Maintenance Cost Estimates ................................................................................................................... 4-82

4.5.3 Biomass-Fired Bubbling Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler Power Plants ............. 4-844.5.3.1 Plant Design Assumptions ............................................................................. 4-844.5.3.2 Plant Performance Estimate .......................................................................... 4-854.5.3.3 Total Capital Requirement and Operation and Maintenance Cost Estimates ................................................................................................................... 4-854.5.3.4 Levelized Cost of Electricity Estimates .......................................................... 4-87

4.5.4 Biomass-Fired Stoker Boiler Power Plants ............................................................ 4-894.5.4.1 Plant Design Assumptions ............................................................................. 4-894.5.4.2 Plant Performance Estimate .......................................................................... 4-894.5.4.3 Total Capital Requirement and Operation and Maintenance Cost Estimates ................................................................................................................... 4-904.5.4.4 Levelized Cost of Electricity Estimate ............................................................ 4-91

4.5.5 Biomass Gasification Power Plants ....................................................................... 4-924.5.5.1 Plant Design Assumptions ............................................................................. 4-924.5.5.2 Plant Performance Estimate .......................................................................... 4-934.5.5.3 Total Capital Requirement and Operation and Maintenance Cost Estimates ................................................................................................................... 4-944.5.3.4 Levelized Cost of Electricity Estimate ............................................................ 4-96

4.6 Biomass to Electricity RD&D Initiatives for the Future .................................................. 4-994.7 U.S. Technical Tax Code Modifications to Promote Further Use of Biomass ............. 4-1004.8 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 4-1004.9 References .................................................................................................................. 4-101

5 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE .................................................................................................. 5-15.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 5-15.2 Overview of the Regulatory and Legislative Environment ............................................... 5-3

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5.2.1 Permit Overview ...................................................................................................... 5-45.2.2 Air Emission Permits ............................................................................................... 5-45.2.3 Solid Waste Permits ................................................................................................ 5-7

5.3 Legislative Overview ....................................................................................................... 5-75.3.1 Renewable Fuel Standards (RFS) ........................................................................... 5-85.3.2 Renewable Portfolio Standard ............................................................................... 5-10

5.4 Technology Considerations for Using MSW .................................................................. 5-125.5 Commercially Available Technologies ........................................................................... 5-14

5.5.1 Mass Burn Technologies ....................................................................................... 5-145.5.1.1 Typical Mass Burn Technical Parameters ..................................................... 5-165.5.1.2 Mass Burn Experience and Vendors in the United States ............................. 5-165.5.1.3 Modular Starved Air Combustion Systems .................................................... 5-18

5.5.2 RDF Co-Firing Technologies ................................................................................. 5-205.5.2.1 RDF Dedicated Boiler .................................................................................... 5-215.5.2.2 RDF Fluidized Bed ......................................................................................... 5-245.5.2.3 RDF Experience and Vendors in the United States ....................................... 5-27

5.5.3 LFG Utilization Technologies ................................................................................. 5-275.3.3.1 LFG to Electricity............................................................................................ 5-295.5.3.2 LFG as Direct Heat Source ............................................................................ 5-315.5.3.3 LFG to Pipeline .............................................................................................. 5-33

5.5.4 Syngas Co-Firing and Hybrid Cycles ..................................................................... 5-345.5.5 Advanced Thermal Conversion Technologies ....................................................... 5-37

5.5.5.1 Pyrolysis ........................................................................................................ 5-375.5.5.2 Gasification .................................................................................................... 5-395.5.5.3 Plasma Arc .................................................................................................... 5-42

5.5.6 Aerobic Composting .............................................................................................. 5-435.5.7 Chemical Decomposition ....................................................................................... 5-475.5.8 Technology Summary ............................................................................................ 5-49

5.6 Evaluation of a 25-MW Mass Burn WTE Facility ........................................................... 5-495.6.1 The MSW Stream .................................................................................................. 5-505.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Waste-to-Energy Systems for MSW .............. 5-515.6.3 MSW Receipt and Storage .................................................................................... 5-545.6.4 Waste to Energy Technologies for Combustion .................................................... 5-555.6.5 Mass Burn of MSW ................................................................................................ 5-56

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5.6.6 Air Emissions Control ............................................................................................ 5-575.6.7 Energy Generation ................................................................................................ 5-585.6.8 Facility Sizing ......................................................................................................... 5-585.6.9 System Maintenance and Reliability ...................................................................... 5-585.6.10 Mass Burn Process ............................................................................................. 5-595.6.11 Capital and O&M Related Scope and Equipment ............................................... 5-61

5.6.11.1 MSW Fuel Costs .......................................................................................... 5-635.6.11.2 Cost Estimate Summary .............................................................................. 5-635.6.11.3 Levelized Cost of Electricity ......................................................................... 5-655.6.11.4 Levelized Fixed Charge Rate ....................................................................... 5-65

5.7 Evaluation of Cofiring of Coal with RDF ........................................................................ 5-665.7.1 RDF Processing and Features .............................................................................. 5-665.7.2 RDF Production Technologies ............................................................................... 5-675.7.3 Heating Value of RDF ............................................................................................ 5-685.7.4 SlaggingA Key Combustion Parameter ............................................................. 5-695.7.5 RDF Co-Fire Energy Generation and Feedstock .................................................. 5-705.7.6 RDF Co-Firing Advantages and Disadvantages .................................................... 5-715.7.7 RDF Co-Firing Strategy ......................................................................................... 5-725.7.8 Preliminary Design Parameters ............................................................................. 5-73

5.7.8.1 Material Handling ........................................................................................... 5-755.7.9 Performance Parameters ...................................................................................... 5-75

5.7.9.1 Impact of RDF Firing on Boiler Performance ................................................. 5-775.7.10 Coal and RDF Quality Summary ......................................................................... 5-785.7.11 Capital and O&M Related Scope and Equipment ............................................... 5-80

5.7.11.1 RDF Fuel Costs ........................................................................................... 5-845.7.11.2 Cost Estimate Summary .............................................................................. 5-845.7.11.3 Levelized Cost of Electricity ......................................................................... 5-855.7.11.4 Levelized Fixed Charge Rate ....................................................................... 5-86

5.8 Landfill Gas Evaluation ................................................................................................. 5-875.8.1 LFG Characteristics ............................................................................................... 5-875.8.2 LFG Treatment ...................................................................................................... 5-885.8.3 LFG Basic Design .................................................................................................. 5-88

5.8.3.1 System Maintenance and Reliability .............................................................. 5-895.8.4 LFG Issues ............................................................................................................ 5-89

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5.8.5 LFG Benefits .......................................................................................................... 5-895.8.6 LFG-to-Electricity ................................................................................................... 5-905.8.7 Landfill Gas to Direct Heat ..................................................................................... 5-915.8.8 Landfill Gas to Pipeline .......................................................................................... 5-925.8.9 Capital and O&M Related Scope and Equipment ................................................. 5-94

5.8.9.1 LFG Fuel Costs .............................................................................................. 5-985.8.9.2 Cost Estimate Summary ................................................................................ 5-985.8.9.3 Levelized Cost of Electricity ......................................................................... 5-1045.8.9.4 Levelized Fixed Charge Rate ....................................................................... 5-106

5.8.10 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 5-107

6 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS ................................................................................................... 6-16.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 6-16.2 Cost and Economic Issues .............................................................................................. 6-6

6.2.1 Japan ..................................................................................................................... 6-106.2.2 Germany ................................................................................................................ 6-116.2.3 Technology Performance and Cost Tables ........................................................... 6-12

6.2.3.1 Distributed PV Performance and Cost Estimates .......................................... 6-136.2.3.2 Utility-Scale PV Plant Performance and Cost Estimates ............................... 6-13

6.2.4 Performance and Cost History and Projections ..................................................... 6-246.2.5 PV Performance and Cost Estimate Model ........................................................... 6-25

6.2.5.1 Resource Estimates ....................................................................................... 6-256.2.5.2 Distributed PV Cost and Performance Estimates .......................................... 6-266.2.5.3 Hypothetical Case Studies ............................................................................. 6-286.2.5.4 Central Station PV Cost and Performance Methodology ............................... 6-32

6.3 Environmental Issues .................................................................................................... 6-376.4 Design and Deployment Issues ..................................................................................... 6-39

6.4.1 Utility-Scale Issues ................................................................................................ 6-406.4.2 Operating and Maintenance Labor Requirements ................................................. 6-406.4.3 Grid Connection ..................................................................................................... 6-42

6.5 Equipment Markets and Key Participants ..................................................................... 6-446.5.1 Equipment Markets ................................................................................................ 6-446.5.2 Key Participants ..................................................................................................... 6-466.5.3 Resources ............................................................................................................. 6-47

6.5.3.1 Internet Sites .................................................................................................. 6-47

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6.5.3.2 PV Manufacturers .......................................................................................... 6-496.5.4 Applicable Codes and Standards .......................................................................... 6-49

6.6 References .................................................................................................................... 6-50

7 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY ...................................................................................................... 7-17.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 7-17.2 Resources and Current Installed Capacity ...................................................................... 7-3

7.2.1 Hydrothermal Geothermal Resource Assessment .................................................. 7-37.2.1.1 Resource Temperature .................................................................................... 7-47.2.1.2 Depth ............................................................................................................... 7-77.2.1.3 Resource Permeability ..................................................................................... 7-7

7.2.2 Geo-Pressured Geothermal Resource Assessment ............................................... 7-87.2.3 Hot Dry Rock Resource Assessment ...................................................................... 7-87.2.4 Installed Geothermal Capacity .............................................................................. 7-11

7.3 Technology Description ................................................................................................. 7-137.3.1 Hydrothermal Power .............................................................................................. 7-14

7.3.1.1 Major Common System Components and Features ...................................... 7-157.3.1.2 Direct Steam .................................................................................................. 7-167.3.1.3 Flash Steam ................................................................................................... 7-177.3.1.4 Binary Power Plants....................................................................................... 7-197.3.1.5 Low Enthalpy/Reverse Air Conditioning Cycles ............................................. 7-21

7.3.2 Geo-Pressured ...................................................................................................... 7-217.3.3 Hot Dry Rock (Enhanced Geothermal Systems) ................................................... 7-21

7.3.3.1 Supercritical Cycles ....................................................................................... 7-237.3.4 Hot Sedimentary Aquifer (HSA) ............................................................................. 7-237.3.5 Down-Hole Closed-Loop Systems ......................................................................... 7-247.3.6 Geothermal Hybrid Plants ..................................................................................... 7-24

7.3.6.1 Geothermal-Solar Hybrid Cycles ................................................................... 7-257.3.6.2 Geothermal + Gas Peaker Cycles ................................................................. 7-267.3.6.3 Geothermal-Fossil Hybrid Cycles .................................................................. 7-277.3.6.4 Geothermal-Biomass Hybrid Cycles for Moderate-Low Enthalpy Sources ...................................................................................................................... 7-27

7.3.7 Non-Electric (Direct Use) Geothermal ................................................................. 7-277.4 Technology Status......................................................................................................... 7-28

7.4.1 Recent U.S. Developments ................................................................................... 7-29

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7.4.1.1 Alaska ............................................................................................................ 7-297.4.1.2 Arizona ........................................................................................................... 7-307.4.1.3 California ........................................................................................................ 7-307.4.1.4 Colorado ........................................................................................................ 7-307.4.1.5 Hawaii ............................................................................................................ 7-307.4.1.6 Idaho .............................................................................................................. 7-317.4.1.7 Louisiana ....................................................................................................... 7-317.4.1.8 Mississippi...................................................................................................... 7-317.4.1.9 Nevada .......................................................................................................... 7-317.4.1.10 New Mexico ................................................................................................. 7-317.4.1.11 North Dakota ................................................................................................ 7-317.4.1.12 Oregon ......................................................................................................... 7-31

7.4.1.13 Texas ........................................................................................................... 7-32

7.4.1.14 Utah ............................................................................................................. 7-327.4.1.15 Washington .................................................................................................. 7-327.4.1.16 Wyoming ...................................................................................................... 7-32

7.4.2 Hot Dry Rock Technology Status .......................................................................... 7-327.4.3 Geothermal Technologies for Electricity Production Deployment Curve (Grubb Curve) ................................................................................................................. 7-347.4.4 Geophysical Methods in Geothermal Exploration ................................................. 7-347.4.5 Geothermal Drilling Technology ............................................................................ 7-36

7.5 Cost and Economic Issues ............................................................................................ 7-377.5.1 Example Geothermal Project Costs ...................................................................... 7-397.5.2 Factors that Influence Geothermal Power Plant Costs .......................................... 7-407.5.3 Engineering and Economic Evaluation .................................................................. 7-40

7.6 Environmental Issues .................................................................................................... 7-437.6.1 Land Use ............................................................................................................... 7-437.6.2 Subsidence ............................................................................................................ 7-447.6.3 Emissions .............................................................................................................. 7-457.6.4 Thermal Discharge ................................................................................................ 7-477.6.5 Induced Seismicity ................................................................................................. 7-47

7.7 Design, Deployment, and O&M Issues ......................................................................... 7-487.7.1 Industry Trends ...................................................................................................... 7-487.7.2 Research Needs and Recommendations .............................................................. 7-49

7.8 Key Research Participants ............................................................................................ 7-50

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7.9 References .................................................................................................................... 7-52

8 SOLAR THERMAL ................................................................................................................. 8-18.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 8-1

8.1.1 Solar Thermal Technologies .................................................................................... 8-48.1.2 Hybridization ............................................................................................................ 8-6

8.2 Resources ....................................................................................................................... 8-78.3 Technology Description ................................................................................................. 8-10

8.3.1 Parabolic Trough ................................................................................................... 8-108.3.2 Central Receiver .................................................................................................... 8-128.3.3 Dish/Engine ........................................................................................................... 8-17

8.3.3.1 Concentrators ................................................................................................ 8-188.3.3.2 Engines .......................................................................................................... 8-19

8.3.4 Linear Fresnel Reflector ........................................................................................ 8-208.3.5 Solar Chimney ....................................................................................................... 8-21

8.4 Technology Status......................................................................................................... 8-228.4.1 Parabolic Trough ................................................................................................... 8-268.4.2 Central Receiver .................................................................................................... 8-288.4.3 Dish/Engine ........................................................................................................... 8-328.4.4 Linear Fresnel Reflector ........................................................................................ 8-34

8.5 Cost and Economic Issues ............................................................................................ 8-348.5.1 Engineering and Economic Evaluation .................................................................. 8-358.5.2 Parabolic Trough ................................................................................................... 8-378.5.3 Central Receiver .................................................................................................... 8-398.5.4 Dish/Engine ........................................................................................................... 8-40

8.6 Environmental Issues .................................................................................................... 8-408.6.1 Land Use ............................................................................................................... 8-418.6.2 Water Use .............................................................................................................. 8-428.6.3 Molten Salt for Central Receiver ............................................................................ 8-428.6.4 Oil for Heat Transfer in Trough Applications ......................................................... 8-428.6.5 Potential for Greenhouse Gas Reduction .............................................................. 8-42

8.7 Design, Deployment, and O&M Issues ......................................................................... 8-428.7.1 Parabolic Trough ................................................................................................... 8-438.7.2 Central Receiver .................................................................................................... 8-458.7.3 Dish/Engine ........................................................................................................... 8-48

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8.7.4 Linear Fresnel Reflector ........................................................................................ 8-488.8 Equipment Markets and Key Participants ..................................................................... 8-48

8.8.1 Internet Resources ................................................................................................ 8-528.9 References .................................................................................................................... 8-53

9 OCEAN TIDAL ENERGY ....................................................................................................... 9-19.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 9-19.2 U.S. Tidal In-Stream Energy Highlights: Late 2011 to Mid-2012 ..................................... 9-5

9.2.1 U.S. Federal Highlights ............................................................................................ 9-59.2.1.1 Federal Appropriations..................................................................................... 9-59.2.1.2 Funding Awards ............................................................................................... 9-69.2.1.3 Federal Regulations ......................................................................................... 9-8

9.2.2 U.S. State Highlights ............................................................................................... 9-89.2.2.1 Projects in Alaska ............................................................................................ 9-89.2.2.2 Projects in Washington .................................................................................... 9-99.2.2.3 Projects in California ...................................................................................... 9-109.2.2.4 Projects in New York...................................................................................... 9-119.2.2.5 Projects in Massachusetts ............................................................................. 9-129.2.2.6 Projects in Maine ........................................................................................... 9-129.2.2.7 Projects in New Hampshire ............................................................................ 9-149.2.2.8 Projects in New Jersey .................................................................................. 9-15

9.2.3 U.S. Developer and Project Deployment Highlights .............................................. 9-169.2.3.1 Verdant Power ............................................................................................... 9-169.2.3.2 Vortex Hydro Energy ..................................................................................... 9-179.2.3.3 Ocean Renewable Power Company .............................................................. 9-179.2.3.4 Free Flow Power ............................................................................................ 9-189.2.3.5 UEK Corporation ............................................................................................ 9-18

9.3 Worldwide Tidal In-Stream Energy Highlights: Late 2011 to Mid-2012 ......................... 9-189.3.1 Canada .................................................................................................................. 9-18

9.3.1.1 Fundy Ocean Research Centre for Energy Developments ............................ 9-189.3.1.2 The Canoe Pass Tidal Energy Corporation (CPTEC) .................................... 9-199.3.1.3 Ocean Renewable Power Company .............................................................. 9-19

9.3.2 United Kingdom (UK) ............................................................................................. 9-199.3.2.1 Marine Current Turbines (MCT) ..................................................................... 9-219.3.2.2 Pulse Tidal ..................................................................................................... 9-22

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9.3.2.3 Swanturbines ................................................................................................. 9-239.3.2.4 Tidal Generation Limited ................................................................................ 9-249.3.2.5 Atlantis Resources Corporation ..................................................................... 9-259.3.2.6 Hammerfest Strm......................................................................................... 9-259.3.2.7 Bluewater ....................................................................................................... 9-269.3.2.8 Kawasaki ....................................................................................................... 9-269.3.2.9 Voith Hydro .................................................................................................... 9-269.3.2.10 Flumill .......................................................................................................... 9-269.3.2.11 Scotrenewables ........................................................................................... 9-26

9.3.3 Ireland .................................................................................................................... 9-279.3.3.1 OpenHydro .................................................................................................... 9-27

9.3.4 France ................................................................................................................... 9-289.3.5 Australia ................................................................................................................. 9-299.3.6 New Zealand ......................................................................................................... 9-299.3.7 India ....................................................................................................................... 9-299.3.8 Africa ..................................................................................................................... 9-309.3.9 Japan ..................................................................................................................... 9-30

9.4 Tidal Power and Energy Resources .............................................................................. 9-309.4.1 Data Sources ......................................................................................................... 9-309.4.2 Tidal Power Flux and Average Annual Energy ...................................................... 9-319.4.3 Extractable Tidal Power and Energy ..................................................................... 9-339.4.4 Tidal Power Forecasting ........................................................................................ 9-34

9.5 TISEC Research and Development .............................................................................. 9-349.5.1 Harnessing Tidal Energy ....................................................................................... 9-349.5.2 TISEC System Developers .................................................................................... 9-369.5.3 Survival in Storms and Hostile Marine Environments ............................................ 9-399.5.4 Effect of Tidal Power Plants on the Environment .................................................. 9-399.5.5 Permits for Tidal Power Plants .............................................................................. 9-409.5.6 Overview of Regulatory Status for Tidal Power Plants .......................................... 9-42

9.5.6.1 FERC Pilot Project License ............................................................................ 9-429.6 Design, Performance, Cost, and Economic Feasibility ................................................. 9-42

9.6.1 TISEC Sites ........................................................................................................... 9-429.6.2 TISEC Device Assessments .................................................................................. 9-43

9.6.2.1 Assessment for Selected Tidal Power Plants in Maine and Washington ....... 9-44

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9.6.2.2 Assessment for Typical TISEC Device Installed in Washington State ........... 9-469.6.3 TISEC Economic Feasibility .................................................................................. 9-49

9.7 Environmental Impact Issues ........................................................................................ 9-519.8 Installed Capacity and Estimated Growth ..................................................................... 9-539.9 Research Focus ............................................................................................................ 9-539.10 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 9-559.11 Internet Resources ...................................................................................................... 9-559.12 References .................................................................................................................. 9-55

10 OCEAN WAVE ENERGY ................................................................................................... 10-110.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 10-110.2 U.S. Wave Energy Highlights: Late 2011 to Mid-2012 ................................................ 10-6

10.2.1 U.S. Federal Highlights ........................................................................................ 10-610.2.1.1 Federal Appropriations................................................................................. 10-610.2.1.2 Funding Awards ........................................................................................... 10-710.2.1.3 Federal Regulations ................................................................................... 10-10

10.2.2 State Highlights ................................................................................................. 10-1010.2.2.1 Projects in Hawaii ...................................................................................... 10-1010.2.2.2 Projects in Oregon ..................................................................................... 10-1210.2.2.3 Projects in California .................................................................................. 10-15

10.2.3 U.S. Developer and Project Deployment Highlights .......................................... 10-1810.2.3.1 Ocean Power Technologies ....................................................................... 10-18

10.3 Worldwide Wave Energy Highlights: Late 2011 to Mid-2012 .................................... 10-1910.3.1 United Kingdom and Ireland .............................................................................. 10-19

10.3.1.1 Wave Energy Developers .......................................................................... 10-1910.3.1.2 Wave Energy Test Centers ........................................................................ 10-21

10.3.2 Portugal and Spain ............................................................................................ 10-2410.3.2.1 Developments in Portugal .......................................................................... 10-2410.3.2.1 Developments in Spain .............................................................................. 10-25

10.3.3 Denmark, Norway and Sweden ......................................................................... 10-2510.3.4 Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania ............................................................. 10-26

10.3.4.1 BioPower Systems Pty Ltd. ........................................................................ 10-2710.3.4.2 Oceanlinx Limited ...................................................................................... 10-2710.3.4.3 Aotearoa Wave and Tidal Energy Association (AWATEA) of New Zealand .................................................................................................................... 10-28

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10.4 Wave Power and Energy Resources ........................................................................ 10-2810.4.1 Measurement Data Sources .............................................................................. 10-3310.4.2 Wind-Wave Model Data Sources ...................................................................... 10-3310.4.3 Wave Power Forecasting .................................................................................. 10-34

10.5 Wave Energy Conversion (WEC) Technology Description ....................................... 10-3510.5.1 Harnessing Wave Energy .................................................................................. 10-3510.5.2 WEC System Developers .................................................................................. 10-3710.5.3 Survival in Storms and Hostile Marine Environments ........................................ 10-4510.5.4 Effect of Wave Power Plants on the Environment ............................................. 10-45

10.5.4.1 Report to Congress: Potential Environmental Effects of Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Technologies .......................................................................... 10-45

10.5.5 Permits for Offshore Wave Power Plants .......................................................... 10-4710.5.6 Overview of Regulatory Status for Offshore Wave Power Plants ...................... 10-4710.5.7 WEC Power Plant Footprints ............................................................................. 10-48

10.6 Design, Performance, Cost, and Economic Feasibility Issues .................................. 10-4910.6.1 WEC Sites ......................................................................................................... 10-4910.6.2 WEC Design, Performance, and Cost ............................................................... 10-50

10.6.2.1 Assessment for Linear Absorber Devices in Massachusetts and Oregon ..................................................................................................................... 10-5110.6.2.2 Assessment for Typical Wave Power Device Installed in Northern California .................................................................................................................. 10-53

10.6.3 WEC Economic Feasibility ................................................................................ 10-5610.7 Installed Capacity and Estimated Growth ................................................................. 10-5910.8 Research Focus ........................................................................................................ 10-5910.9 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 10-6010.10 Internet Resources .................................................................................................. 10-6110.11 References .............................................................................................................. 10-61

11 RIVER IN-STREAM ENERGY ............................................................................................ 11-111.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 11-1

11.1.1 Main Components of River Hydrokinetic Resource ............................................. 11-311.1.2 The Conversion of River In-Stream Hydrokinetic Energy to Electricity ............... 11-4

11.2 U.S. In-Stream River Energy Highlights: Late 2011 to Mid-2012 ................................ 11-611.2.1 U.S. Federal Highlights ........................................................................................ 11-6

11.2.1.1 Federal Appropriations................................................................................. 11-611.2.1.2 Funding Awards ........................................................................................... 11-7

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11.2.1.3 Federal Regulations ..................................................................................... 11-811.2.2 State and Regional Highlights ............................................................................. 11-9

11.2.2.1 Developments in Alaska .............................................................................. 11-911.2.2.3 Mississippi River Projects .......................................................................... 11-1111.2.2.4 Detroit River Projects ................................................................................. 11-14

11.3 Canadian River In-Stream Energy Highlights: Late 2011 toMid-2012 ....................... 11-1511.4 River In-Stream Power and Energy Resources ........................................................ 11-1711.5 River In-Stream Energy Conversion Development ................................................... 11-20

11.5.1 Harnessing In-Stream River Energy .................................................................. 11-2111.5.2 RISEC Technology Developers ......................................................................... 11-22

11.5.2.1 Aero Hydro Research and Technology Associates ................................... 11-2311.5.2.2 Free Flow Power ........................................................................................ 11-2411.5.2.3 Hydro Green .............................................................................................. 11-2511.5.2.4 Lucid Energy Technologies ........................................................................ 11-2611.5.2.5 New Energy Corp. ..................................................................................... 11-2711.5.2.6 Ocean Renewable Power Corp. ................................................................ 11-2811.5.2.7 UEK Corp. .................................................................................................. 11-2911.5.2.8 Verdant Power ........................................................................................... 11-2911.5.2.9 Vortex Hydro .............................................................................................. 11-3111.5.2.10 Whitestone Power & Communications ..................................................... 11-31

11.5.3 Survival in Hostile River Environments .............................................................. 11-3211.5.4 Environmental Impacts of In-Stream River Power Plants .................................. 11-3311.5.5 Permits for In-Stream River Power Plants ......................................................... 11-3311.5.6 Overview of Regulatory Status for River In-Stream Energy Conversion Projects ......................................................................................................................... 11-33

11.6 Design, Performance, Cost, and Economic Feasibility ............................................. 11-3411.6.1 RISEC Sites ....................................................................................................... 11-3411.6.2 RISEC Devices Studied ..................................................................................... 11-3411.6.3 RISEC Design, Performance, and Cost ............................................................ 11-37

11.6.3.1 EPRI Methodology ..................................................................................... 11-3711.6.3.2 Kilowatt-Scale Assessment: Alaska ........................................................... 11-3911.6.3.3 Megawatt-Scale Assessment: Mississippi River, Louisiana ...................... 11-41

11.6.4 RISEC Economic Feasibility .............................................................................. 11-4311.7 Environmental Issues ................................................................................................ 11-4511.8 Installed Capacity and Estimated Growth ................................................................. 11-46

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11.9 Research Focus ........................................................................................................ 11-4711.10 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 11-4811.11 Internet Resources .................................................................................................. 11-4811.12 References .............................................................................................................. 11-48

12 GRID INTEGRATION CHALLENGES AND TECHNOLOGIES ......................................... 12-112.1 Basics of Power System Operation and Planning ....................................................... 12-1

12.1.1 Functions of System Generation ......................................................................... 12-112.1.2 Expectations Based on Traditional Generator Performance ............................... 12-212.1.3 Typical Power System Operations and Planning ................................................ 12-4

12.1.3.1 Resource Adequacy and Transmission Planning ........................................ 12-5

12.1.3.2 Unit Commitment ......................................................................................... 12-612.1.3.3 Economic Dispatch ...................................................................................... 12-612.1.3.4 Role of Ancillary Services ............................................................................ 12-712.1.3.5 Voltage Control .......................................................................................... 12-1112.1.3.6 Frequency Response ................................................................................. 12-11

12.2 Characteristics of Variable Generation and Experience to Date ............................... 12-1212.2.1 Variability ........................................................................................................... 12-1412.2.2 Uncertainty ........................................................................................................ 12-1712.2.3 Non-Synchronous Nature of the Resource ........................................................ 12-1712.2.4 Distributed Nature of the Generation ................................................................. 12-1812.2.5 Remote Location of Some Renewable Resources ............................................ 12-1812.2.6 Experience of Integration of Wind Power .......................................................... 12-1812.2.7 Experience of Integration of Solar Power .......................................................... 12-19

12.3 Variable Generation Integration Impacts ................................................................... 12-2112.3.1 Transmission Connected Generation Impacts .................................................. 12-2112.3.2 Distribution Connected Generation Impacts ...................................................... 12-25

12.4 Integration Technologies and Strategies for Transmission-Connected Renewable Generation...................................................................................................... 12-30

12.4.1 Variable Generator Interface to Maintain System Stability ................................ 12-3012.4.2 Variable Energy Forecasting Tools ................................................................... 12-3112.4.3 Increased Diversity through Increased Transmission and BA Cooperation ...... 12-3312.4.4 Flexibility from Conventional (Non-Variable Generation) Plant ......................... 12-3412.4.5 Flexibility from Storage and Demand Side Resources ...................................... 12-3512.4.6 Grid Planning and Operating Tools ................................................................... 12-36

xxviii

12.5 Integration Technologies and Strategies for Distribution-Connected Renewable Generation ........................................................................................................................ 12-3712.6 References ................................................................................................................ 12-43

12.6.1 In-Text Citations ................................................................................................ 12-4312.6.2 General .............................................................................................................. 12-4512.6.3 Renewable Generation Grid Impacts and Integration ....................................... 12-45

13 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS CONTROL .................................................................. 13-113.1 Greenhouse Gases ..................................................................................................... 13-113.2 Role of Renewable Energy Technology ...................................................................... 13-113.3 Fossil Carbon Intensity of Fuels .................................................................................. 13-213.4 CO2 Emissions Offsets ................................................................................................ 13-3

13.4.1 Factors Affecting CO2 Emissions Offset .............................................................. 13-313.4.1.1 Wind ............................................................................................................. 13-413.4.1.2 Solar PV and Thermal .................................................................................. 13-413.4.1.3 Biomass, Geothermal, and Hydro ................................................................ 13-413.4.1.4 Planting Trees and Other Fast-Growing Crops ............................................ 13-4

13.4.2 Levelized CO2 Emissions Offsets ........................................................................ 13-513.5 Factors Affecting Generation Cost of Renewable Technologies ................................. 13-7

13.5.1 Wind .................................................................................................................... 13-713.5.2 Biomass ............................................................................................................. 13-1013.5.3 Solar Photovoltaics ............................................................................................ 13-1113.5.4 Geothermal ........................................................................................................ 13-1313.5.5 Solar Thermal .................................................................................................... 13-15

13.6 References ................................................................................................................ 13-17

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 Renewable energy as share of U.S. total primary energy consumption, 2011 ......... 1-2Figure 1-2 U.S. renewable energy consumption by source, 2011 ............................................. 1-3Figure 1-3 U.S. non-hydroelectric renewable power sources, 19892011 ................................ 1-3Figure 2-1 Day-ahead prices for the California Power Exchange ............................................ 2-19Figure 2-2 Example price duration curve ................................................................................. 2-20Figure 2-3 Components of busbar cost for example 200-MW wind generation plant .............. 2-24Figure 3-1 Historical (2011) and projected (20122016) installed wind generation

capacity in the United States, Europe, and remainder of the world ................................... 3-3Figure 3-2 End-of-year operating wind capacity by country and region: 20082011 ................. 3-6Figure 3-3 Wind capacity and forecast: 19902021 .................................................................. 3-7Figure 3-4 Installed wind generation capacity in the United States by state as of 3Q 2012 ...... 3-8Figure 3-5 Rayleigh probability density function for wind speed .............................................. 3-10Figure 3-6 Coefficient of performance (Cp) vs. tip speed/wind speed ratio ............................. 3-10Figure 3-7 Components of a typical wind turbine ..................................................................... 3-11Figure 3-8 Schematic of Enercon direct drive turbine .............................................................. 3-14Figure 3-9 Direct-drive 1.5-MW generator under testing at NRELs National Wind

Technology Center ........................................................................................................... 3-15Figure 3-10 Example of an eight-pole, air-cooled superconducting generator ........................ 3-16Figure 3-11 Cross section of wind turbine blade Source: DNV-GEC ....................................... 3-17Figure 3-12 Bend-twist coupling achieved by fiber orientation ................................................ 3-18Figure 3-13 Vortex generators (counter-rotating array) ........................................................... 3-19Figure 3-14 Gearbox internal schematic showing one planetary and two parallel-shaft

stages ............................................................................................................................... 3-27Figure 3-15 Cross section of hydrodynamic drive system for a wind turbine ........................... 3-28Figure 3-16 Electrical diagram of a typical direct-drive turbine ................................................ 3-29Figure 3-17 Example hybrid steel/concrete and concrete towers ............................................ 3-31Figure 3-18 Artists rendering of the 2-B 6-MW wind turbine ..........................

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EPRI - Renewable Energy Technology Guide 2012

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