Equilibrium and Kinetics
Chapter 2
In the last lecture we used the mechanicalAnalogy to understand the concept ofStability and metastability
Recap
metastable
unstable
stable
Activation barrier
Fig. 2.2Recap
P.E
Configuration
Mechanical push to overcome activation barrier
System automaticallyattains the stable state
Recap
If we want to transform the Local Minimum - METASTABLE to Global Minimum - Most STABLE then we have to overcome the activation barrier (could be by mechanical push, thermal activation)
Thermodynamic functions
U = internal energy
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At constant pressure
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This expression can also be expressed as: U = Uo + dtCt
o
v
Sum of internal energy and external energy
For solids and liquid the PV term is negligible
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dtCt
o
pThe above expression can also be expressed as: H = Ho +
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P
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Entropy
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How do you measure the entropy?
Gibbs Free Energy
TSHG
Condition for equilibrium
≡ minimization of G
Local minimum ≡ metastable equilibrium
Global minimum ≡ stable equilibrium
(2.6)
G = GfinalGinitial
G = 0 reversible change
G < 0 irreversible or spontaneous change
G > 0 impossible
(2.7)
(2.8)
The variation of G with temperature
Atomic
or
statistical
interpretation of entropy
The entropy of a system can be defined by two components:
Thermal:
Configurational: WkS ln
Entropy
Boltzmann’s Epitaph
WkS lnW is the number of microstates corresponding to a given macrostate
(2.5)
N=16, n=8, W=12,870
)!(!
!
nNn
NCW n
N
(2.9)
Stirling’s Approximation
nnnn ln!ln(2.11)
If n>>>1
WkS ln
)!(!
!ln
nNn
Nk
)]ln()(lnln[ nNnNnnNNk
(2.10)
(2.12)
KINETICS: Arrhenius equationSvante Augustus
Arrhenius
1859-1927
Nobel 1903
RT
QArate exp
(2.15)
Rate of a chemical reaction varies with temperature
R
Qslope
RT
QArate exp
ln (rate)
T
1
Fig. 2.4
Arrhenius plot
Thermal energy
Average thermal energy per atom per mode of oscillation is kT
Average thermal energy per mole of atoms per mode of oscillation is NkT=RT
(2.13)
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
kT
E
N
nexp
Fraction of atoms having an energy E
at temperature T
(2.14)