ERIC - Education Resources Information Center · 2014-05-19 · ship development. At NCREL's...

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 414 363 UD 032 022

AUTHOR Hallinger, Philip; Bridges, Edwin

TITLE Problem-Based Learning. Resources for Urban School

Leadership Training.

INSTITUTION North Central Regional Educational Lab., Oak Brook, IL.;Milwaukee Public Schools, WI.; Ohio State Dept. ofEducation, Columbus.

PUB DATE 1997-00-00

NOTE 121p.

PUB TYPE Guides - Non-Classroom (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS *Administrator Education; Competence; Cooperative Learning;Elementary Secondary Education; *Instructional Leadership;*Leadership Training; *Principals; Problem Solving;Professional Development; *Urban Schools

IDENTIFIERS *Problem Based Learning

ABSTRACTThis comprehensive guide explores Problem-Based Learning

(PBL), an innovative approach to leadership training. PBL has been adapted

from its original use in medical school training into a tool for

administrator preparation. In PBL, a real-life scenario with an open-ended

problem or question for which there is no single right solution is presented.

Teams of participants work together to develop a solution. This guide

explains PBL and contains resources to help urban school leaders develop

through PBL. Chapter 1, "Urban Leadership Development: Five CoreCompetencies" by Lynn Stinnette, Robin LaSota, and Robin Fleming identifies

competencies critical for school leadership. Chapter 2, "Using Problem-Based

Learning in the Professional Development of Urban School Principals:

Curricular and Classroom Issues" by Philip Hallinger and Edwin M. Bridges,

describes a PBL training session for urban principals. Chapter 3,"The NCREL

Experience: Lessons Learned and Recommendations" by Robin LaSota, Ann Freel,

and Mark Hawkes, describes a pilot use of the PBL project. Chapter 4, "PBL

Projects and Selected Resources," contains the following resources: (1) "Did

You Make the Team?" (Bill Andrekopoulos); (2) "The Disgruntled Counselor"

(Rogers Onick and Philip Hallinger); (3) "Leadership in the Urban High

School: Meeting the Challenges of the 21st Century" (Clark Lovell); (4)

"Spare the Rod" (Deborah Bell); (5) "For the Children's Sake: Collaborate!"

(Yvonne Hopgood); and (6) "Save Our School" (Helen Harris). Each section

contains key resources, and an appendix contains training institute agendas,

sample overheads, and PBL problems. (SLD)

********************************************************************************* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *

* from the original document. *

********************************************************************************

rellesiff

U.S. DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATIONDeice of Educational Research and Improvement

.^. DUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

(1 This document

RESOURCES

has been reproduced aseceived from the person or organization

originating it.CI Minor changes have been made to Improve

reproduction Quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this docu-ment do not necessarily represent officialOERI position or policy.

-my

a-II PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND

DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIALHAS BEEN GRANTED BY

M roej er-Ai CR EL-

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

Resources or Ur an Sc oolLeadership Training

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory

with Philip Hallinger and Edwin Bridges

It

2SST COPY AVAILABLE

Problem-Based Learning:Resources for Urban School

Leadership Training

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory

with Philip Hal linger and Edwin Bridges

What's Inside:0 The challenges facing urban school leaders

0 How to use PBL in comprehensive, ongoing, professionaldevelopment for principals and school teams

cr4r,3 Sample PBL projects for use in leadershipdevelopment institutes

5r,P,3 Lessons learned about using PBL in leadershipdevelopment institutes

C ora t en t s

Foreword

Acknowledgments

About the Project Staff and Authors

Introduction

Chapter 1: Urban Leadership Development: Five Core Competencies

by Lynn J. Stinnette with Robin LaSota and Robin Fleming

Chapter 2: Using Problem-Based Learning in the Professional Development of Urban School

Principals: Curricular and Classroom Issues

by Philip Hal linger and Edwin M. Bridges

Chapter 3: The NCREL Experience: Lessons Learned and Recommendations

by Robin LaSota and Ann Freel with Mark Hawkes

Chapter 4: PBL Projects and Selected Resources

Did You Make the Team?by Bill Andrekopoulos

The Disgruntled Counselorby Rogers Onick and Philip Hal linger

Leadership in the Urban High School: Meeting the Challengesof the 21st Centuryby Clark Lovell

Spare the Rodby Deborah Bell

For the Children's Sake: Collaborate!by Yvonne Hopgood

Save Our, Schoolby Helen Harris

Appendix

FOREWORD

IF or e w or ci.

e are pleased to present you with aunique set of resources to supportleadership development in urban

schools and districts. Developed through acollaboration among the North Central RegionalEducational Laboratory (NCREL); the MilwaukeePublic Schools; the Ohio Department ofEducation; Philip Hallinger, Professor of EducationalLeadership at Vanderbilt University and ChiangMai University in Thailand; and Edwin M. Bridges,Director, Prospective Principals' Program, StanfordUniversity, this collection of materials is designedto help you develop leadership knowledge. Itpresents resources to assist you in applyingproblem-based learning (PBL) in your leadershipdevelopment initiatives.

Problem-based learning offers a promisingstrategy for professional development amongpracticing and aspiring principals, assistant prin-cipals, teacher leaders, and others working toimprove education. PBL replicates real-life situa-tions by giving participants a relevant problem,

resources that relate to potential solutions to theproblem, a small group of peers within which towork, and an opportunity to develop and demon-strate a solution to the problem. By analyzingauthentic problems, school leaders can acquireimportant skills and content knowledge andaddress gaps in their professional preparation.PBL is particularly effective in helping educatorsapply research and practical expertise in problemsolving and in facilitating teamwork.

For more than a decade, PBL has been used toprepare doctors and other professionals and, inrecent years, educational administrators for thesituations they will confront in their daily worklives. Across the country, the number of universityprofessors in educational administration usingproblem-based learning continues to grow. PBLhas also been used on a smaller scale in professionaldevelopment institutes for principals. Both NCRELand Vanderbilt University have piloted PBL pro-jects in leadership development institutes, and itis from this experience that this book is written.

5

FOREWORD

Based on a review of the research and bestpractice in educational leadership, NCREL hasdesigned a leadership development model thatseeks to build leadership skills and capacities infive fundamental areas: (1) building a collectivevision, (2) developing professional community,(3) creating high-achieving learning environments,(4) managing change and improvement, and(5) forging collaboration and partnerships.

NCREL advanced an earlier conceptualizationof this model in its 1992 concept paper,Reinventing Leadership Training for UrbanSchools, and has since refined the frameworkthrough partnerships with the Milwaukee PublicSchools and the Ohio Department of Education.The leadership development model builds on thepractice-proven leadership development strategiesused in NCREL's 1992-93 Academy for UrbanSchool Leaders, the 1994-95 MilwaukeePrincipals Institute, and the 1995-96 Ohio UrbanLeadership Academy. Using problem-basedlearning activities, NCREL's leadership develop-ment model seeks to develop leadership capacityat multiple levels across school systems: at theschool site, at the central office, and within thecommunity.

Using this model, NCREL's Urban EducationProgram and the Milwaukee Public Schools (MPS)

joined forces to launch a leadership academy inJuly 1994 for Milwaukee's principals and assis-tant principals. Supported by a grant from theJoyce Foundation, the Milwaukee PrincipalsInstitute engaged 71 principals and assistant prin-cipals in ongoing professional development overthe 1994-95 school year. The institute involvedparticipation in a four-day, residential summerinstitute and three follow-up workshops.

In a pioneering effort to strengthen leadershipcapacities in the district, NCREL and MPS pilotedproblem-based learning in the 1994 summer insti-tute. NCREL partnered with five Milwaukeeprincipals and one assistant principal to developsix PBL projects that are applicable to the urbaneducation experience. Philip Hal linger, an interna-tional expert on PBL and coauthor of this vol-ume, guided the authors and Milwaukee's centraloffice staff developers through an intensive, two-day training institute in problem-based learningfor educational leadership. The institute includeda PBL project designed to immerse participants inthe philosophy of PBL. (See the appendix for the"Because Wisdom Cannot Be Told" project.) Italso included training for the authors on PBLproject development. We piloted one of the sixresulting projects ("Did You Make the Team?")at the 1994 Milwaukee Principals Institute.

THE KEY GOALS OF THIS FRAMEWORK ARE TO IELP EDUCATIONAL LEADERS DEVELOP THE SKILLS TO

EFFECTIVELY LAUNCH AND MANAGE:

o A clear, strong, collectively held educational vision that is focused on learning.

o Professional community.

o High-achieving learning environments and sustained professional development that supportsincreased learning.

o Strategies for leading and sustaining change.

o Successful partnerships with parents, health and human service agencies, and other communityinstitutions.

FOREWORD

The success of the PBL experience at theMilwaukee Principals Institute contributed toanother partnership that further extended ourapplication of problem-based learning in leader-ship development. At NCREL's invitation, JimJilek of the Ohio Department of Education par-ticipated in the 1994 Milwaukee PrincipalsInstitute. This experience inspired him to inviteNCREL's partnership to launch an Ohio UrbanLeadership Academy in July 1995 usingproblem-based learning as a primary professionaldevelopment strategy. Together, staff from theOhio Department of Education and NCRELdesigned a yearlong leadership developmentinitiative that targeted school and central officeteams from the eight largest urban school districtsin Ohio.

More than 150 administrators in schools andschool districts participated in the 1995-96academy, which included a four-day, residentialinstitute and three follow-up workshops. NCRELand the Ohio Department of Education(using arevised version of the PBL project from the 1994Milwaukee Principals Instituterefined the useof problem-based learning during the academy.

As a result of our experiences in Milwaukeeand Ohio, we developed this book as a guide toother professional developers interested in imple-menting PBL in leadership development institutes.Whether you are a staff development coordinatorfor a school district, a state department adminis-trator running leadership development programs,an education program officer for a foundation, ora university professor, this book offers tools tohelp you experiment with adapting problem-based learning to your programs and professionaldevelopment activities. The six PBL projectsdeveloped with Milwaukee administrators areincluded in this volume, along with an overviewof PBL, strategies to use when implementing PBL,and common pitfalls to avoid based on NCREL'sevaluation data and experiences.

We invite you to join us in pioneering the useof problem-based learning in professional devel-opment for urban school leaders. It is a new andchallenging experience, and it offers many advan-tages for building the essential leadership skillsand capacities critically needed in urban schools.PBL provides a crucial opportunity for educatorsto apply research and practical knowledge inaddressing the everyday problems faced in urbanschools.

Lynn J. StinnetteDirector, Center for School and CommunityDevelopmentNCREL

Philip HallingerProfessor, Vanderbilt Universityand Chiang Mai University

Robert CSuperintendentMilwaukee Public Schools

Ck/s/v)..

J fees L. JilekAssistant DirectorTeacher Education, Certification, andProfessional DevelopmentOhio Department of Education

Edwin M. Bridges, DirectorProspective Principals' ProgramStanford University

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Ackn. o w lie

41Ihis book could not have been producedwithout the assistance of Philip Hallingerand Edwin Bridges. Hallinger and

Bridges adapted problem-based learning from itsoriginal use in medical training into an innovativeapproach to training in leadership development.The two have written a number of books on thetopic and cowrote the second chapter of thisbook. Without their work this book would nothave been possible.

Additionally, NCREL has worked closely withDr. Hallinger to facilitate the implementation ofPBL in its' leadership development programs.Dr. Hallinger led the training of PBL projectdevelopers and provided ongoing critical reviewof PBL projects over several drafts. His vastknowledge of educational resources for PBLprojects contributed greatly to their scope anddepth. In addition to feedback and partnershipin the development of PBL projects, Dr. Hallingerprovided advice in the design for leadership insti-tutes employing PBL in Milwaukee and Ohio.

It has been a unique opportunity to partnerwith the Milwaukee Public Schools to create acomprehensive leadership development program,to produce PBL projects, and to pilot their use.NCREL is grateful for the efforts of the sixMilwaukee administrators who devoted theirtime, creativity, and writing skills toward thedevelopment of PBL projects. Their stories, expe-riences, and educational philosophies provided arich foundation for the PBL projects in this vol-ume. Our thanks to Bill Andrekopoulos, DeborahBell, Helen Harris, Yvonne Hopgood, Clark Lovell,and Rogers Onick. Our partnership would nothave been successful without the creative vision,deep commitment, and pioneering spirit of

mentsMilwaukee's central administration. I extend myprofound appreciation to former SuperintendentHoward Fuller, Superintendent Robert Jasna,Cynthia Ellwood, Steve Baruch, Derek Brewer,Jocklyn Smith, C. Edward Lawrence, andChuck Go bel.

We are deeply grateful to the Joyce Foundationfor supporting the Milwaukee LeadershipAcademy. Our special thanks goes to WarrenChapman, Program Officer at the JoyceFoundation, for investing in this unique partner-ship between NCREL and the Milwaukee PublicSchools.

NCREL's appreciation also extends to the OhioDepartment of Education and, in particular, toGene Harris, Chief Program Officer; RobertMoore, Assistant Superintendent of PublicInstruction; and Jim Jilek, Assistant Director forTeacher Education, Certification, and ProfessionalDevelopment. NCREL's partnership with the OhioDepartment of Education would not have beenpossible without their commitment to urban schoolleadership development. Through this partner-ship, NCREL was able to learn additional lessonsabout PBL implementation and to refine its use.

Our thanks also goes to institute participantsin Milwaukee and Ohio who patiently and thor-oughly engaged in the PBL process, offering con-structive feedback all the way. The success ofPBL was greatly dependent on outstanding insti-tute faculty who offered wisdom, guidance, andsupport, and who helped make connectionsbetween PBL and the real school settings of insti-tute participants. Our deepest thanks go to KentPeterson, Enid Lee, Barbara Sizemore, JerryBamburg, and Roland Barth.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the institute context, PBL would not workwithout the valuable assistance of PBL Guides.NCREL expresses its gratitude for the time andcommitment of the staff of Milwaukee PublicSchools' Department of Leadership and SupportServices, headed by C. Edward Lawrence; staff ofthe Ohio Department of Education; staff fromthe Cleveland Education Fund; and faculty fromthe University of Toledo, Cleveland StateUniversity, Youngstown State University, andthe University of Akron.

I am particularly grateful for the hard work ofmy staff in putting this volume together. Specialthanks to Robin LaSota, Robin Fleming, AnnFreel, Sara Corbett, Mark Hawkes, LenayaRaack, and Mary Rowitz. Sara Corbett's creativewriting and literary skills contributed volumestowards the flow of PBL projects in a highly

engaging, clearly written style. Mark's methodi-cal and insightful approach to evaluation greatlycontributed to our understanding of the impactof PBL and further refinements of its use. LenayaRaack's patient and diligent attention to editorialdetail was invaluable, as was the contribution ofNCREL's entire publication team who have beenkey in finalizing this publication: MelissaChapko, with her invaluable graphic design anddesktop publishing skills, and Stephanie Blaser,our publication coordinator who pulls all thepieces together. My warmest thanks to everyonewho made this publication possible.

Lynn J. StinnetteDirector, Center for School and CommunityDevelopment, NCREL

ABOUT THE PROJECT STAFF AND AUTHORS

About -Elie Ilroect Staff and Amur

Project Staff /Authors

Philip Hallinger is an Associate Professor of Educational

Leadership at Vanderbilt University and at

the Center for Leadership Research and

Development at Chiang Mai University in

Thailand. He has written extensively on

principal leadership, school improvement, and

leadership development. He has served as thedirector of several leadership development

centers and currently directs Vanderbilt

University's International Institute for Principals.

Dr. Hallinger's current interests focus on

international issues in school improvement

and on problem-based leadership develop-

ment. His recent publications include

Implementing Problem Based Learning in

Leadership Development and Problem based

Learning for Administrators, both coauthored

with Edwin Bridges of Stanford University. In

addition to preparing Chapter 2 of this book"Using Problem-Based Learning in the

Professional Development of Urban School

Principals: Curricular and Classroom

Issues"Dr. Hal linger served as editorialadvisor in the development of PBL projects.

Edwin M. Bridges is Professor of Education and

Director of the Prospective Principals' Program

at Stanford University. Prior to joining thefaculty, Bridges held academic appointments

at the University of California, Santa Barbara;

the University of Chicago; and Washington

University, St. Louis. He is former Vice

President of the American Educational Research

Association. His current interests are teacher

evaluation and problem-based learning.

KITS

Sara Corbett is a freelance writer and course instructor.After receiving her master's of fine arts degree

in fiction from the University of Michigan inMay 1992, she launched her freelance career,

which has included work for a diverse number

of publications. Ms. Corbett served as theeditorial advisor for PBL projects and worked

closely with each of the writers to create lively,

narrative text that conveyed the problems and

issues in the school case presented.

Lynn J. Stinnette directs the Center for School and

Community Development at NCREL.

Formerly, Ms. Stinnette was a teacher, cur-

riculum administrator, and award-winning

principal. Under her leadership, NCREL's

Urban Education Program launched a numberof products and services designed to strength-

en the capacity of urban school leaders to

effectively serve urban children and youth.Over the past three years, she has forged

partnerships with the region's urban districts,foundations, universities, state departments,and other key educational organizations toserve the region's urban schools and districts.Lynn provided the inspiration and leadership

for the development of this volume, and pro-vided editorial guidance throughout.

Robin LaSota is working part-time as a Policy Analystfor NCREL's Evaluation and Policy

Information Center and part-time with theIllinois Governor's Task Force. In the past,she has served as Program Coordinator forthe Urban Education Program at NCREL.She has coordinated the day-to-day opera-

tions of NCREL's Urban Education Program,

including product development, and the

10


coordination of leadership academies,

educational conferences, and summer

institutes. Ms. LaSota has also coordinatedthe development of each of the components

of this volume and has served as a primary

writer of this book. Ms. LaSota has amaster's degree in educational policy

analysis from Stanford University.

Robin Fleming serves as Program Specialist for the

Center for School and CommunityDevelopment at NCREL. For the past threeyears, she has coordinated the development

of a number of products and services, partic-

ularly NCREL's urban audio journal series

and multicultural education products. Aspart of this work, Ms. Fleming authored a

resources booklet on school-linked, integrated

services, an annotated bibliography of

research on multicultural education, and abooklet of promising programs and practices

in multicultural education. She has alsohelped to develop, coordinate, and evaluate

NCREL's Urban Leadership Academies in

Milwaukee and Ohio. Ms. Fleming hasassisted in the selection of resources for the

PBL projects and the final production of this

volume.

Ann Fred is a Program Specialist with the Center for

School and Community Development atNCREL. Previously, she was a consultant

with a firm serving nonprofit organizations

nationwide in fields including education,

community development, and youth services.

Ms. Freel's work focused on strategic plan-

ning, community and corporate partnerships,

fund-raising, marketing, and leadership devel-

opment. At NCREL, she has helped to devel-

op, coordinate, and evaluate the Ohio Urban

Leadership Academy. Ms. Freel is also the

NCREL Development Coordinator and the

Managing Editor of CITYSCHOOLS,

NCREL's research magazine about and for

urban schools and communities. She coordi-nated the selection of resources for the PBL

project and the final production of this vol-

ume, and served as a secondary writer.

Mark Hawkes serves as a Research and Evaluation

Specialist at NCREL. He has been theprimary evaluator for each of the UrbanLeadership Academies sponsored by NCREL

over the past two years. At NCREL,Mr. Hawkes draws on strong methodological

training in both quantitative and qualitativeareas. Besides participating in and directing

both small- and large-scale studies, his profes-

sional interest is in applying mixed-method

approaches to the evaluation of promising

educational initiatives and studying educa-

tional telecommunications technologies.

Mr. Hawkes has presented and published

research nationally and internationally and is

listed in Who's Who in American Education.

He was the primary evaluator for both the

1994-95 Milwaukee Principals Institute and

the 1995-96 Ohio Urban Leadership Academy.

PBL Authors

Bill Andrekopoulos has been the Principal of Fritsche

Middle School in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, for

the past eight years. During that time, Fritsche

has attained a great deal of recognition for its

exemplary programs. It received the PTSA

School of the Year Award for three of the last

four years (1994, 1993, and 1991), the 1994

Wisconsin School of Excellence Blue Ribbon


Award, and the 1994 Racial Justice Award

from the Greater Milwaukee YMCA. Fritsche

Middle School's philosophy and programs

are based on principles and strategies of totalquality management in education. Nationallyrecognized programming at the school includes

a peer mediation program, a school-to-work

program, and a global studies telecommuni-cations program.

Fritsche has also implemented Copernican

Style Block Scheduling (replacing the

Carnegie unit structure with two- to three-hour time blocks for classes). Fritsche uses

rigorous data analysis to document its gainsin achievement, attendance, and parent

involvement and its reduction of disciplinereferrals and tardiness. MPS has grantedFritsche autonomous status in the district,which entitles the school to local school gov-ernance and higher per-pupil allocations.

In addition to his work at Fritsche, Mr.

Andrekopoulos has served as an instructor ofeducational leadership at Cardinal StritchCollege for the past five years.

Deborah Bell is currently the Assistant Principal of

Milwaukee Education Center Accelerated

Middle School, located near downtown

Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Ms. Bell has been amember of the administrative team at MEC

from the first day it opened its doors inSeptember 1992. At MEC, all students areencouraged to achieve to the best of theirabilities and respect themselves and others

within a safe and disciplined learning envi-

ronment. All students are given the opportu-nity to develop critical thinking skills, prob-

lem-solving strategies, and an understandingof technology. Milwaukee Education Center

is an innovative school where all studentsexperience the personal attention needed forsuccess today and for continued success inpursuing their future educational goals.

Helen Harris is in her sixth year as Principal of Lloyd

Street Elementary School in Milwaukee,

Wisconsin. Her vision for the school is to"successfully educate all children, not just thechildren from advantaged families." Thefocus of Lloyd Street Elementary School is on

. global education so that students can learnabout their own culture and the many cul-tures of the world in preparation for the 21stcentury. Lloyd Street's academic programs

emphasize the development of literacy, artis-

tic, and musical skills and a well-rounded

approach to academic development. LloydStreet offers after-school tutoring and enrich-

ment programs, and currently seeks toincrease access to technology to supportclassroom instruction. In an effort to reachchildren who respond to different learning

styles, many teachers have implemented the

instructional approaches of the Cunningham

Program from the University of North

Carolina, which advocates a combination ofdirected reading, directed writing, and openwriting and reading time.

Ms. Harris and several of her colleagues at

Lloyd Street attended the five-week South

Africa Today Program sponsored by the

Stokes-Phelps Foundation. Lloyd Street

teachers plan to use what they learned aboutthe new South Africa in classroom instruction.

12


Yvonne Hopgood has been Principal of Carleton

Elementary School for six years. Prior tothat time, she taught children in grades K-12,

and students at Marquette University and theUniversity of Wisconsin-Oshkosh. She alsohas experience working with adolescent boys

in a group home setting, and had been asupervising teacher prior to becoming thePrincipal of Carleton.

Her vision for Carleton, a preK-5 school, isto prepare her students for the 21st centuryby teaching them social and academic skills.

Hallmarks of Carleton's programs include a

range of social services, integration of computer

technologies in instruction, outreach to thecommunity, and innovative instruction across

the content areas through attention todifferent learning styles.

Carleton offers individual/group counseling

facilitated by a full-time counselor, peer

mediation, and violence prevention programs.

Outreach to the community includes a part-nership with a suburban church that providesvolunteers for one-on-one tutoring; collabo-

ration with a private social service agency

and Cardinal Stritch College's communitynursing program to assist with health andsocial needs of children; and the services of a

parent involvement coordinator who orga-nizes programs for parents in computer tech-

nology, GED instruction, and so forth.

Carleton recently acquired a state-of-the-art

computer lab and currently trains both teach-ers and students in using programs. Teacherswork together in planning teams. They haveadopted instructional approaches to activate

various learning styles across content areainstruction as a result of training from the

National Reading Styles Institute in Syosset,

New York. The physical learning environment

includes places with couches, bean bags, study

centers, and computers for children to use.

Carleton recently implemented a full inclu-

sion kindergarten and will move towards full

inclusion in primary grades. Carleton staffnow plan to gear up school-to-work initiatives

and have paired fifth graders with mentors in

various careers.

Clark Lovell is in his eighth year as Principal of

Hamilton High School in Milwaukee,

Wisconsin. Mr. Lovell has also served as ascience teacher, guidance director, and assis-

tant principal for the Milwaukee Public

Schools.

Guided by Mr. Lovell's vision of education to

meet the needs of students in the 21st century,

Hamilton High School's mission is to forge

partnerships with family and community that

guarantee a quality education and celebratediversity through recognition and support of

all students.

The school is currently involved in restructur-

ing efforts designed to transform the organi-

zational structure of the school to createeffective learning environments and is work-

ing to put into place processes that facilitate

shared leadership and decision making.

Hamilton has four career clusters (arts andsciences, business and finance, health and

human services, and communication technol-

ogy) and is in the process of establishing a

core curriculum within the career clusters,

educating staff in the use of technology and

new methods of instruction and assessment,

redesigning the physical structure of the tra-

13


ditional classroom, and implementing a 4 x 4block schedule in order to facilitate school-

to-career transformation for all students.

Rogers Onick is currently the Principal of Samuel

Morse Middle School, a sixth- to eighth-

grade school serving gifted and talented

students. Formerly, Mr. Onick served asmoderator for the K-12 MulticulturalCurriculum Public Forum and has previouslyserved in a number of capacities for the

Milwaukee Public Schools including assistant

principal, curriculum coordinator, and chair-man of the Department of English.

Additionally, Mr. Onick has authored numer-

ous publications, including the Milwaukee

Public Schools' Transition to Middle Schools

document. Mr. Onick is an active member ofmany committees and professional organiza-tions, including the Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development,

the National Association for Secondary

School Principals, and the MetropolitanMilwaukee Association of Black School

Administrators.

The philosophy of Samuel Morse's staff is toafford each student the quality of instruction,

materials, and resources necessary to develophis or her maximum potential. To realizethis goal, the school offers a wide range of

curriculum, including foreign language foreach student, fine arts and education courses,

and laboratory experiences in math, science,computers, language arts, Junior Great Books,family and consumer education, and technicaleducation. The school has won numerousawards: nationally as a blue ribbon NationalSchool of Excellence and locally as a Milwaukee

High Achieving School, Highest Attendance

(1994-1995), Highest Percent of EighthGraders Passing 9th Grade Algebra, andHighest Grade Point Average.

BEST COPY MAILABLE

4

INTRODUCTION

IIntr oduct

leadership is an essential component ofschool improvement. Without visionaryleadership that inspires the school commu-

nity to engage in school improvement and assumecollective responsibility for achieving a sharededucational purpose, schools will fail to educatethe great majority of children.

In urban areas, there is a greater need for effec-tive educational leadership. Conditions of poverty,violence, and joblessness; fiscal constraints; ateaching force that often feels ill-equipped tomeet the needs of today's diverse population; andpersistent low achievement are the norm in urbanschools and communities. Faced with multiplechallenges, urban schools need leaders who canskillfully assume many roles: change agent,instructional leader, facilitator, advocate, politicalorganizer, fund-raiser, and lead learner.Achievement gaps between poor minority chil-dren and their peers, curriculum flatness and rep-etition, and an increasingly diverse student popu-

ion

Faced with multiple challenges,urban schools need leaders who

can skillfully assume many roles:change agent, instructionalleader, facilitator, advocate,

political organizer, fund-raiser,and lead learner.

lation require principals to be highly knowledge-able about effective teaching and learning strate-gies that will maximize achievement for the mostchallenged students. Fiscal constraints prevailingin urban school systems demand that principalsbe skillful managers as well as community orga-nizers and visionary entrepreneurs. Finally, intro-ducing and sustaining change and improvementin an environment of diverse stakeholdersrequires leaders who are politically astute andwho are able to navigate turbulent circumstances.

a i 5

CHAPTER 1: URBAN LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

C lapter 11 o Urharn Leaderszn

Core Competencies

NCREL has identified five critical competenciesfor leadership development based on focus groupswith urban school administrators and currentresearch on leadership and school improvement.

Effective urban school leaders possess the ability to:

Launch and manage a clear, collectively-held educational vision.

Develop and support a committedprofessional community.

Create and support rigorous, challenginglearning and sustained professional devel-opment that increases teachers' knowledgeof pedagogy and content.

O Effectively initiate, manage, and sustainchange.

O Build lasting partnerships with parents,health and human service agencies, andother community institutions.

1. BUILDING A COLLECTIVE VISION

A school with a vigorous soaring vision

of what it might become is more likely

to become that; without a vision, a

school is unlikely to improve.

(Barth, 1993, p. 6)

Many schools do not have a clear educationalvision. As a result, programs become fragmentedand improvement efforts grow disjointed.Effective school leaders work with staff and

p Develloprnent

parents to build a collective vision that is clear,shared, and focused on teaching and learning.Substantive change occurs in schools when effectiveleaders generate collective action by inspiring,mobilizing, and empowering key stakeholders toundertake important changes to improve learningand achievement. A clear, shared vision inspireseveryone in the school community to work ener-getically towards common goals.

2. DEVELOPING A PROFESSIONAL COMMUNITY

In low achieving elementary schools,

teachers do not share a professional

commitment to advance student learn-

ing, are not especially interested in

teaching in these schools and trying

to improve them, and do not trust each

other. In short . . . there is a larger

problem with the faculty culture that

may significantly impede future

improvement efforts."(Bryk, 1996, p. 69)

When teachers, administrators, and other edu-cational stakeholders work together, the level ofcommitment, energy, and motivation is likely tobe higher and change efforts more easily imple-mented. Research in school improvement hasdemonstrated that collegial and team-supportedschools generate greater productivity in schoolimprovement efforts (Oja & Pine, 1984;Rosenholtz, 1989; Smylie, 1988). Collegialityand collaboration among staff increases capacityfor change and improvement due to the powerfulsources of stimulation, motivation, and new ideasprovided in teams (Lieberman & Miller, 1990;McLaughlin & Yee, 1988; Rosenholtz, 1989;Stallings, 1987).

16


Recent research on restructuring points to pro-fessional community as a critical feature of effec-tive schools. When teachers "deprivatize theirpractices, work together in curriculum planning,share common values about student learning, andtalk frequently about their norms and practices, astrong school-based professional communityemerges. The elements of professional communityinclude reflective dialogue, sharing practices,focus on student learning, collaboration on cur-riculum, and shared norms and values" (Kruse,Louis, & Bryk, 1994).

Professional community is a crucial componentof sustained school improvement because it fos-ters and bolsters teachers' efforts to improve stu-dent learning. Research on the improvement ofurban schools illustrates the importance of a pos-itive school culture that supports student engage-ment and achievement (Bryk & Sebring, 1996;Corner, 1988; Levine & Lezotte, 1990). If pro-fessional communities are to grow, they must benurtured by support from within the school.Principals can foster professional community byensuring that important structural conditions aremet, such as time to meet and talk, physicalproximity, interdependent teaching roles, andteacher empowerment to make decisions aboutcurriculum and instruction.

Another important element of professionalcommunity is captured in the word passion (theengagement of heart and soul with our work).Current research on organizational growth andeffectiveness reveals the power of the spiritual,symbolic aspect of leadership and change (Deal& Bolman, 1995; Sergiovanni, 1996). Terry Dealand Lee Bolman illuminate this aspect of leadership.In Leading with Soul, they advise, "Leadership isa relationship rooted in community. . . . Itsessence is not giving things or even providingvisions. It is offering ones self and ones spirit"(p. 102). Leaders who genuinely attend to thecultural and spiritual dimensions of their schools,

16 1'

as well as the structural and political needs, arelikely to be successful in moving their schoolstowards heightened achievement (Bolman &Deal, 1993; Sergiovanni, 1996).

3. CREATING HIGH-ACHIEVING LEARNING

ENVIRONMENTS

Leading education researchers have

been calling for a new kind of instruc-

tion for at-risk students. This new

thrust rejects the prevailing hierarchical

concept of skills that places advanced

skills at the end of a continuum and

requires mastery of all basic skills first.

It proposes, instead, an integration of

basic and advanced skills, providing

opportunities for students to apply

skills to novel and complex tasks at all

stages of their education." (Means,

Chelemer, & Knapp, 1991, p. xii)

Effective urban principals help their teacherscreate classroom environments for learning thatsupport all students in acquiring knowledge andskills needed for participation in an advancedinformation-technology society. In effective class-rooms, students engage in challenging learningexperiences, and teachers are constantly learningand improving their practices to reflect advancedcurriculum and instructional techniques. Theselearning environments go beyond the basic skillsand engage students in problem solving andexploration of ideas and draw on their experiencesand knowledge. In such classrooms, students acquireknowledge in core content areas while they buildtheir capacity to think, construct meaning, anddevelop habits of inquiry and lifelong learning(Means, Chelemer, & Knapp, 1991; Knapp, 1995).High-achieving learning environments for students

17


are more likely to occur when teachers are engagedin continuous professional development that enhancestheir content knowledge and instructional practices.

This aspect of leadership development providesschool leaders with the knowledge and tools tochallenge the deficit perspective of urban children,and to replace this perspective with high expecta-tions and with teaching practices that promotesuccess for all children. Additionally, this aspectof leadership development guides school leadersin helping teachers design classrooms that areresponsive to an increasingly diverse population. Insuch classrooms, students' prior knowledge, language,and culture are foundations for learning, and stu-dents learn about diverse cultures and the contri-butions of many groups (Lee, 1992; Banks, 1991-1992; Gay, 1988; Barrera, 1992; Tharp, 1989).

4. LEADING AND SUSTAINING CHANGE

AND ORliPROVERI ENT

Avoidance of real problems is the

enemy of productive change because

it is these problems that must be

confronted for breakthroughs to occur.

(Fullan, 1993, p. 26)

Effective school leaders understand the com-plexities of change and possess the skills to initi-ate and manage organizational change. Thisaspect of leadership development emphasizes theskills and capacities needed to lead school changefrom a systemic perspective. This perspectivesees effective school improvement occurring with-in the broader context of institutions surroundingthe schoolthe family and home, the community,health and social service agencies, and state andfederal governmentsand with the support andownership of the school community's stakehold-ers (Banathy, 1991). Skillful change agentsunderstand the stages of change and its nonlinearnature, loaded with uncertainty; it is a journey,

not a blueprint (Fullan & Miles, 1992).Moreover, skillful change agents view changethrough multiple frames or lenses: structural,human resource, political, and symbolic. Byattending to these four dimensions, leaders cansuccessfully overcome resistance to change andavoid typical pitfalls (Bolman & Deal, 1993).

5. FORGING COLLABORATION AND PARTNERSHIPS

Despite real progress . . . there are

still too many schools in which

educators do not understand the

families of their students; in which

families do not understand their

children's schools; and in which

communities do not understand or

assist the schools, families, or

students. (Epstein, 1995, p. 711)

Effective urban school leaders possess the know-ledge and skills to create and sustain partnerships.They have the communication, interpersonal, andpolitical acumen for forging alliances across orga-nizations in the community. Such partnershipsstrengthen the school's ability to successfully edu-cate children by aligning the efforts of the homeand the school, thus ensuring many more chancesfor successful learning and social development(Corner, 1988; Ascher, 1990; Nettles, 1991).

This aspect of leadership development buildscapacity for creating home-school partnershipsand for mobilizing and organizing parents, com-munity members, and social service agencies tocollaborate on behalf of children and their fami-lies. Literature in the education and policy arenaviews leadership from an integrative perspectiveand urges leaders from multiple systems (such aseducation, health, and social services) to join forcesand create an integrated, seamless service programfor children and families (Jehl & Kirst, 1992).


Systemic Approach toLeadership Development

To meet the educational challenges of urbanschool systems, leadership capacity should growconcurrently at many levels of the educationalsystem. New demands of site-based managementand expanded local decision making require leadersat the school site, central office, and communitylevel who understand the needs of urban chil-dren, their families, and communities. Theseleaders must possess the knowledge and skill tocatalyze and sustain improvements.

With the spread of site-based management andthe devolution of decision making to local levels,successful school leaders fill many roles: manager,lead learner, facilitator, coach, keeper of thevision, fiscal agent, and community organizer.Local school leaders, along with teachers andcommunity members, need knowledge, skill, andsupport to make sound, research-based, data-driven decisions that result in high levels ofachievement for all students. With authority anddecision making devolving to the local level, centraladministration leaders must enhance their serviceand support capacities and redesign professionaldevelopment programs and accountability systemsto support new roles at the school site.

NCREL's urban leadership development acade-mies have addressed the leadership needs at boththe school and the central administration levels.In the 1995-96 Milwaukee Leadership Academy,NCREL and Milwaukee Public Schools providedsummer institutes and follow-up workshops for100 district principals and assistant principals,central office administrators, and 15 school-basedteams, each composed of ten participants: princi-pals, teachers, assistant principals, and teachers.In the 1995-96 Ohio Urban Leadership Academy,NCREL and the Ohio Department of Educationprovided a leadership institute for school-basedand central office teams from the state's eight

largest urban school systems. Additionally, localuniversities joined in planning the academy and infacilitating academy activities.

Problem-Based Learning:Tools for Developing Leadership

NCREL's leadership academies used problem-based learning as a core method for helpingparticipants apply their knowledge to variouscontexts. Problem-based learning (PBL) projectspresented real-life problems that reflected thecore challenges of urban schools; participantsthen drew on research-based resources to generateand defend sound solutions. In problem-basedlearning, students identify and solve problemsand acquire new content knowledge as they makedecisions within a group context. PBL thusacquaints participants with critical knowledgethat relates to high-impact problems they arelikely to face in real-school situations and, at thesame time, strengthens an array of affective,interpersonal skills. Research shows that PBLleads to higher retention rates, increased motiva-tion, and better understanding of content (Bridgeswith Hal linger, 1992). The end result is schoolleaders who are knowledgeable about high-impact issues, skillful problem solvers, and ablefacilitators in the collaborative workplace.

In the next chapter, Philip Hal linger outlinesthe ways in which PBL functions as a profession-al development tool and explains in detail theprocess of PBL instruction in an inservice learn-ing environment. We follow with a descriptionof NCREL's experiences with implementing PBLin urban school districts.

As you peruse this volume, reflect on yourschool(s) and district(s) and consider the waysthat PBL might be adapted to provide leadershipdevelopment that is tailored to your needs.

19

REFERENCES

RefeTerncesAscher, C. (1990). Linking schools with human

service agencies. Digest: ERIC Clearinghouseon Urban Education, 62, 23-30.

Banathy, B. H. (1991). New horizons throughsystems design. Educational Horizons,69(2), 83-89.

Banks, J. A. (1991). Multicultural education: Forfreedom's sake. Educational Leadership,49(4), 32-36.

Barrera, R. (1992). The cultural gap in literature-based literacy instruction. Education andUrban Society, 24(2), 227-243.

Barth, R. (1993). Coming to a vision. Journal ofStaff Development, 14(1), 6-10.

Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1993). The pathto school leadership: A portable mentor.Newbury Park, CA: Corwin Press.

Bridges, E., with Hallinger, P. (1992). Problembased learning for administrators. Eugene,OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on EducationalManagement.

Bryk, A. S. (1996). A closer look at low-achievingelementary schools. Charting reform inChicago: The students speak (Report).Chicago, IL: The Consortium on ChicagoSchool Research.

Bryk, A. S., & Sebring, P. (1996). Chartingreform in Chicago: The students speak(Survey). Chicago, IL: The Consortiumon Chicago School Research.

Corner, J. P. (1988). Educating poor minority chil-dren. Scientific American, 259(5), 42-48.

Deal, T. E., & Bolman, L. G. (1995). Leadingwith soul: An uncommon journey of spir-it. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/family/communitypartnerships: Caring for the children weshare. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(9),701-712.

Fullan, M. G. (1993). Change forces: Probing thedepths of educational reform. Bristol, PA:Taylor and Francis.

Fullan, M. G., & Miles, M. B. (1992). Gettingreform right: What works and what doesn't.Phi Delta Kappan, 73(10), 744-752.

Gay, G. (1988). Designing relevant curricula fordiverse learners. Education and UrbanSociety, 20(4), 327-340.

Jehl, J., & Kirst, M. (1992). Getting ready toprovide school-linked, integrated services:What schools must do. The Future ofChildren, 2(1), 95-106.

Kruse, S., Louis, K. S., & Bryk, A. (1994).Building professional community inschools. (Issues, No. 6, pp. 3-6). Madison,WI: Center on Organization andRestructuring of Schools.

Knapp, M. S. (1995). Teaching for meaning inhigh-poverty classrooms. New York:Teachers College Press.

Lee, C. (1992). Literacy, cultural diversity, andinstruction. Education and Urban Society,24(20), 279-291.

Levine, D. U., & Lezotte, L. W. (1990).Unusually effective schools: A review andanalysis of research and practice.Madison, WI: National Center forEffective Schools Research andDevelopment.

Lieberman, A., & Miller, L. (1990). Teacherdevelopment in professional practice andschool. Teachers College Record, 92(10),105-122.

McLaughlin, M. W., & Yee, S. M. (1988). Schoolas a place to have a career. In A.Lieberman (Ed.), Building a professionalculture in schools (pp. 23-44). New York:Teachers College Press.

20

REFERENCES

Means, B., Chelemer, C., & Knapp, M. S. (1991).Teaching advanced skills to at-risk stu-dents. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-BassPublishers.

Nettles, S. M. (1991). Community contributionsto school outcomes of African-Americanstudents. Education and Urban Society,24(1), 132-147.

Oja, S. N., & Pine, G. J. (1984). Collabprativeaction research: A two-year study ofteachers' stages of development andschool contexts (Executive Summary).Durham, NH: New HampshireUniversity. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 167 512)

Rosenholtz, S. (1989). Teachers' workplace: Thesocial organization of schools. New York:Longman Publishers.

Sergiovanni, T. J. (1996). Leadership for theschoolhouse: How is it different? Why isit important? San Francisco: Jossey-BassPublishers.

Smylie, M. A. (1988). The enhancement functionof staff development: Organizational andpsychological antecedent to individualteacher change. American EducationalResearch Journal, 25(10), 1-30.

Stallings, J. (1987). What students should learn inschools: An issue for staff development.NASSP Bulletin, 71(498), 67-70, 72-76.

Tharp, R. G. (1989). Psychological variables andconstants: Effects on teaching and learn-ing in schools. American Psychologist,44(2), 349-359.

Research shows that P ;I, leads to higher retention rates, increased motiva-tion, and better understanding of content (tridges & Hallinger, 1992).The end result is school leaders who are knowledgeable about high-impactissues, skillful problem solvers, and ble facilitators in the collaborativeworkplace.

21

CHAPTER 2: USING PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING IN THE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF URBAN SCHOOL PRINCIPALS: CURRICULAR AND CLASSROOM ISSUES

Ciapter 2 o Using robllem-Mased Learnint, trofessionall Devellopment of Urban Schooll

Curricullar and Cliassroom Essues

byPhilip HallingerandEdwin M. Bridges

n 1994, we conducted a training program forstaff developers who planned to use problem-based learning in Milwaukee's professional

development institute for urban principals. Onthe first morning, the participants engaged in aproblem-based learning project, "BecauseWisdom Cannot Be Told," designed to introducethem to PBL. Through this problem-based learningactivity they learned what problem-based learningis, its rationale in theory and research, and how itoperates in the classroom.

During the four-hour session, participantssolved a realistic problem involving a trainingdepartment facing imminent budget cuts due toits inability to attract and retain students. Theparticipants assumed the role of departmentmembers serving on a subcommittee charged withexploring problem-based learning as one of severalalternatives for improving the department's cur-riculum. They worked in groups of six, largelyindependent of the instructor, using a set of rele-vant text and video resources on PBL. The PBLproject culminated with each group delivering areport that included its proposed recommenda-tion for resolving the problem facing the depart-ment (see appendix, "Because Wisdom Cannot BeTold").

In the debriefing that followed the project,one staff developer reflected on the instruc-tor's classroom role during the PBL project:

I know you were doing a lot during

the actual PBL session, eventhough it wasn't necessarilyobvious to us. In thinking back, Irecall that you sat in on my groupperiodically, but made only a fewcomments. You also interruptedthe large group several times to

give us additional directions, notethe time remaining, and to clarifythe tasks. However, this waspretty minimal given that weworked in our teams for four hours.

Still, I'm sure you were actuallydoing many things that facilitatedour ability to learn so much in

such a short period of time. Muchof your decision making as the

teacher, however, was hiddenfrom our view. What were youwere thinking and doing, both

before and during the project inyour role as the teacher? Weneed to understand this if we'regoing to use PBL successfully inour institute.

-IP 22


On the one hand, it was refreshing to hear apotentially critical audience draw the conclusionthat our inactivity during the PBL project wasonly an illusion! On the other hand, his queryforced us to stop and reflect on our role: Whatwere we doing that someone would need to knowin order to use problem-based learning in a pro-fessional development institute?

We seek to answer this question in this intro-ductory chapter. This chapter cannot serve as acomplete introduction to problem-based learning.For that we refer readers to other sources in botheducational administration (Bridges withHal linger, 1992; Bridges & Hal linger, 1995) andmedical education (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Schmidt, Lipkin, de Vries, & Greep, 1989).Instead, the purpose of this chapter is to highlightkey curricular and instructional issues of immedi-ate concern to those who wish to use problem-based learning in a professional developmentinstitute. In addressing these issues, we firstexamine some of the curricular implications ofadopting a problem-based learning approach.Then we provide a detailed answer to the ques-tion posed by the staff developer in our PBLtraining program: "What were you were think-ing and doing, both before and during the projectin your role as the teacher?"

Experience in both medical andleadership education to datesuggests that a problem-basedcurriculum has the potential toprevent at least some of thediscontinuities that typicallyarise in graduate preparation.

Curricular Issues in Problem-Based Professional Development

In an earlier paper, Bridges (1977) noted thepotentially dysfunctional consequences that arisefrom the discontinuities between graduate prepa-ration in educational administration and the typi-cal roles and responsibilities that administrativepositions in education demand. Experience inboth medical and leadership education to datesuggests that a problem-based curriculum has thepotential to prevent at least some of the disconti-nuities that typically arise in graduate preparation.The functional appropriateness of using PBL forleadership education results from both the broadergoals inherent in problem-based curricula andspecific instructional design features. We firstconsider the goals of PBL-oriented curricula.

Most educational administration preparationprograms focus almost exclusively on the cogni-tive dimensions of administrative work (Bridges,1977). While professional development pro-grams sometimes branch out into skill develop-ment (Hal linger & Wimpelberg, 1992), bothtypes of programs often ignore important dimen-sions of administrative work. According to Engel(1991), in the field of medical education, a prob-lem-based curriculum is designed to help students:

Adapt to and participate in change.

O Deal with complex, swampy problemsand make reasoned decisions in unfamiliarsituations.

O Reason critically and creatively.

O Adopt a more universal or holistic outlook.

O Practice empathyappreciate others'points of view.

O Collaborate productively in groups or teams.

O Identify personal strengths and weaknessesand undertake appropriate remediation.(pp. 45-46)

V 23


We view these needs as highly salient to theneeds of future school leaders. Indeed, the listincludes most of the reformulated goals includedin recommendations for improving administratorpreparation in education (Griffiths, Stout, &Forsyth, 1987; Hal linger & Murphy, 1992;Murphy, 1992). As reflected by this list of com-petencies, a PBL curriculum addresses a broaderrange of capacities than most traditional prepara-tion programs that focus almost exclusively onthe acquisition of knowledge. We briefly reviewthe primary goals of a problem-based curriculumand then consider explicit features in the designof PBL curriculum that foster their attainment.

CURRICULAR GOALS

Curricula oriented around problem-basedlearning share some common goals:

1. Acquisition of knowledge

2. Formation of lifelong learning skills

3. Enhancement of problem-solving skills

4. Development of affective capacities forsuccessful professional practice

1. Knowledge Acquisition

A PBL curriculum is primarily concerned withthe acquisition of knowledge. Some critics areconcerned that PBL may devalue the content ofthe educational program in favor of promotingprocess skills (e.g., problem solving, communica-tion, decision making) that are more difficult toassess. They fear that graduates of PBL educa-tion programs will possess less of the contentknowledge professors believe to be important inthe field.

While we understand how such questions mayarise, we would suggest that PBL holds studentsto an even higher standard of knowledge acquisi-tion than traditional preparation programs. InPBL, from the initial moment of learning throughthe entire learning process, students are asked toconsider how the content of the curriculum mightbe applied in their field of study. The assessmenttechniques used in PBL reflect this higher stan-dard by relying on performance-based assess-ments in addition to tests of recall and compre-hension. In our view, this elevates the status ofthe curricular content by demonstrating itsimportance to the role of the administrator.

At the same time, we acknowledge that PBLcurricula do sacrifice content coverage. Researchin medical education indicates that a PBL curricu-lum covers about 80 percent of the contentaddressed by a traditional curriculum. Thisassessment seems consistent with our own experi-ence in educational administration. Thus, thereis a content coverage tradeoff in moving to aproblem-based curriculum.

In P from the initial momentof learning through the entirelearning process, students areasked to consider how the contentof the curriculum might beapplied in their field of study.

Are the benefits gained from a PBL approachworth the sacrifice in content coverage? Inresponse to this question, PBL proponents assertthat students learn 80 percent of the content thatis addressed in the curriculum in greater depth.They are not simply "covering the curriculum"

24


but are learning for understanding. Bransford andhis colleagues (1989) stress:

[T]he argument is not that people are

unable to learn from being shown or

told. Clearly, we can remind people of

important sets of information and they

can often tell it back to us. However,

this provides no guarantee that people

will develop the kinds of sensitivities

necessary to use relevant information

in new situations. (p. 470)

Problem-based curricula are explicitly designedto teach content in a functional context. Cognitivelearning theory, as well as empirical results fromresearch in general and medical education, lendsupport to the notion that PBL leads to betterretention and more meaningful understanding ofthe content that is covered (Bransford, Sherwood,Vye, & Rieser, 1986; Bransford, Franks, Vye, &Sherwood, 1989; Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, &Campione, 1983; Bridges & Hal linger, 1993).

2 Lifelong Learning Skills

Another factor in considering the tradeoff incontent coverage when using a PBL curriculum isthat students become more proficient in self-directed learning. PBL proponents view self-directed learning with such importance that itreceives attention as an explicit curricular goal.The development of self-directed learning skillsenables students to learn not only the content ofthe program, but also the content they will needthroughout their careers. As Engel (1991) hasobserved with respect to medical education:

Those who embark on higher educa-

tion now will still be active in profes-

sional practice well towards the middle

of the next century. They will practice

during a period of accelerating and

massive change. Change, as it

relates to their profession, will make

self-directed learning throughout their

life a sine qua non . . . How then are

institutions of higher education to meet

their challenge of creating capable citi-

zens for the next century? (pp. 23-24)

Is this characterization also applicable to edu-cational administration? We believe so. Perhapsit is surprising to observe that the knowledgebase, as well as the focal problems that concerneducational administrators, really do change overtime. Twenty-five years ago, for instance, topicssuch as instructional leadership, multiculturaleducation, instructional supervision, special edu-cation, change implementation, educational law,educational equity, effective instruction, andbilingual education received quite different treat-ment, both in terms of priority and content in theeducational administration curriculum.

30 Problem-Solving Skills

The third goal of a problem-based curriculumis the development of problem-solving skills.These include capacities for problem finding aswell as for problem solving. Problem-based cur-ricula approach the teaching of problem solvingsystematically. They provide multiple opportuni-ties for students to practice these skills and todevelop confidence in their ability to tackle com-plex problems.

25


While problem solving receives attention as aspecific goal in a PBL curriculum, we do notapproach problem solving as a skill separate fromthe content of the curriculum. That is, studentslearn problem-solving skills in the context of andfor the purpose of solving administrative prob-lems. Problem solving therefore represents avehicle for integrating content knowledge salientto the work role of the educational administrator.

In a related fashion, problem-based learningrequires students to adopt explicitly a problem-solving approach in defining and solving theproblem. This approach finds support fromPrawat (1989), who claims:

The focus in such an approach would

not be on problem-solving per se, but

on providing a rationale for a particular

interpretation of the problem and a jus-

tification for various proposed solu-

tions. The advantage of such an

approach is that students become

much more aware of how the knowl-

edge they are acquiring can be put to

use. Adopting a problem-solving men-

tality, even when it is marginally appro-

priate, reinforces the notion that the

knowledge being acquired is useful for

achieving particular goals. Students

are not being asked to just store infor-

mation away; they see how it works in

certain situations which increases the

accessibility. (p. 18)

4 Development of Affective Capacitiesfor Successful Professional Practice

One of our persistent frustrations as professorsis that we typically do little to prepare studentsfor the affective demands of the leader's role.The curriculum we offer to students emphasizesthe cognitive dimensions associated with leader-ship in organizations. Yet the role of the admin-istrator is fundamentally affective, as the techni-cal side of the job is constantly mediated by con-cerns for human relationships and reactions(Bridges, 1977). In PBL, the development of stu-dents' capacities to work effectively with andthrough other people is a distinct curricular goal.This goal is of particular importance in profes-sional development programs for practicingadministrators since they tend to conduct anongoing litmus test to the reality of curriculumcontent.

Both the process of PBLworking throughcooperative learning teamsand the learningobjectives that typically compose the curriculumreflect ongoing attention to the affective dimen-sions of leadership development. We havedesigned PBL so that the process of team learningleads to high levels of student engagement andemotional intensity. Students experience a widerange of emotionsfrustration, excitement, anxiety,joy, anger, satisfactionin relation to the work ofthe group. Based on our own observations aswell as feedback from students, the emotionalrange mirrors, to a surprisingly high degree, theaffective spectrum experienced by administratorsin the workplace.

The emotional reactions of individuals quitenaturally lead to the serious consideration ofaffective issues in group leadership. The fact thateach project has a meaningful, concrete, knowl-edge-related outcome that students must producefurther personalizes the PBL process and pushesstudents to consider issues of applicability. The

26


emphases on self-reflection and peer assessmentfurther press students to systematically examinetheir personal responses during each project andthe development of their affective capacities forgroup leadership over time. The nature of theaffective objectives varies and may include:

Development of a commitment to the imple-mentation of a belief (e.g., equity).

O Clarification of personal values concerningeducation, leadership, or particular issues.

Definition of personal goals or vision.

O Development of self-confidence in relationto a particular skill, knowledge domain, orrole function.

These four types of curricular goals characterizeproblem-based curricula both in medical educationand as we have adapted the model for the educationof school leaders. These goals reveal ambitiousaims, both in scope and depth. How are theseachieved through the actual design of the curricu-lum? We consider a few of the key design fea-tures of a PBL curriculum in the next section.

Curricular Design for ProfessionalDevelopment Institutes

Problem-based learning has been implementedin a variety of instructional settings (see Bridges& Hallinger, 1995; Schmidt et al., 1989). Whilethe bulk of experimentation with PBL has takenplace in universities, this learning method is alsowell suited for professional development programsthat take place in field settings. Implementationof PBL outside of the context of a university cur-riculum does, however, require some adaptation.Here we consider some of the issues that we havefaced in using PBL in professional developmentprograms.

Leadership academies have become a mainstayof the inservice professional development of edu-cational leaders in many states (Hallinger, 1992;Hallinger & Wimpelberg, 1992). In these staffdevelopment contexts, there is sometimes acurriculum which is consciously staged and thatseeks integration across particular instructionalprograms (Hallinger & Anast, 1992). The possi-bility of coherent programmatic implementationleverages the staff development program's capacity

for integrating learning over time. It has thepotential to increase the power of learning byproviding multiple opportunities for practice andfeedback for a range of selected knowledge andskills. To the extent that these academies targetknowledge and skill development in a fairlysystematic fashion, they provide a potentiallyhospitable environment for implementing PBL.

Another common staff development alternativeis short-term training institutes. An institute maybe offered in a one- or two-week format or foronly a few days. These programs often representa stand-alone curriculum. In these cases, the cur-riculum designer cannot make too many assump-tions about either the prior knowledge and skilllevel of participants or forms of curriculum sup-port for implementation of program content.While this represents a significant constraint interms of curriculum design, this is one of themost common forms of administrative staff devel-opment. Our focus in this volume will be onhow PBL can be integrated into the professionaldevelopment institute. For readers interested inbroader curricular issues in problem-based learn-ing, we suggest alternative resources (see

Barrows, 1985; Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Boud & Feletti, 1991; Bridges with Hallinger,1992, 1995; Schmidt et al., 1989).

27


Designing Learning Goals for the Institute

As we have noted in this chapter, PBL lendsitself quite naturally to a range of cognitive,affective, and skill objectives. In considering thelearning objectives for a staff development insti-tute, we would encourage instructors to attend toeach of these domains explicitly. For example, indesigning an institute for school principals, weselected the following mix of curricular objectivesthat would be attained primarily through prob-lem-based learning:

Participants will gain the capacity to:

Apply the results of emerging researchon administrator thinking, problem solving,and school improvement to a problem ofdeclining school achievement.

o Use individual and group problem-solvingskills to manage/resolve complex, value-laden problems.

o Incorporate constructivist theories of teach-ing and learning into the design of a planfor school improvement.

o Increase their self-confidence in performingthe leader's role in a shared decision-making context.

o Identify personal obstacles to change con-cerning the shifting role requirements of theprincipal in school-based decision making.

These goals reflect a range of learning objec-tives that are important to the work of principalsand obtainable through PBL. In the followingsection, we consider how to organize the contentof an institute to maximize the effectiveness ofproblem-based learning.

nL

Selecting Problem-Based Materialsfor the Institute

Once the goals for the institute have beenestablished, the designer must determine howPBL can be used to achieve those goals. Thisprocess involves first selecting the content appro-priate to the topic of the institute. In most cases,this will involve the selection of one or more pre-existing PBL projects rather than the developmentof new PBL materials. The development of newPBL materials is certainly possible, but it doesrequire training, resources, and time (see Bridges& Hal linger, 1995).

Whether the instructor intends to use PBLprojects developed elsewhere or self-authoredprojects, he or she must first consider the contentfor the course or professional development pro-gram. The instructor, therefore, reviews a rangeof projects in light of his or her curricular goals.When reviewing projects for selection, it is usefulto pay attention to six features: (1) learningobjectives, (2) relevance of the problem to theintended audience, (3) problem context, (4)primary role of participants in the project, (5)prerequisite skills and knowledge, and (6) timeconstraints.

The nature of the problem, therole of the primary actor, and thecontext in which the problem ispresented shape the participants'perceptions of the project'simportance.

28


Learning Objectives

In reviewing PBL materials, the first of theinstructor's considerations is whether the learningobjectives are appropriate to the institute's goals.A review of the stated learning objectives in thePBL project specifications can quickly clarify therange of knowledge sought in a given PBL project.

Since the problem is such an essential part ofPBL, students must also perceive the situationsrepresented in the selected projects as highly rele-vant to their work role. The nature of the problem,the role of the primary actor, and the context inwhich the problem is presented shape the partici-pants' perceptions of the project's importance.For example, pertinence of the project "InEnglish Please" (see appendix) may vary depend-ing upon the degree of ethnic and linguistic diver-sity in the communities where administratorswork. Knowledge of what constitutes importantproblems for students may at times require evaluationof participants' needs by the institute developers.

Problem Context

We have found that the context in which theproblem is presented is important to the audi-ence, but less so than the nature of the problem.When the problems presented are sufficientlybroad in impact and common in occurrence,school administrators at a variety of levels gener-ally feel highly engaged by the project. Thus,high school administrators do not appear to beoverly distracted by projects that involve an ele-mentary school context when the problems aresimilar in nature.

Primary Role of Participants in Problems

Most of the PBL projects we have developed todate place participants in the role of a schoolprincipal. To the extent that the nature of theinstitute includes participants with different man-agerial roles, the instructor may wish to vary pro-jects to incorporate a range of these roles. Our

,}*

experience with mixed groups has been that it isof primary importance that students view theproblems presented in the project as related tothe content of their work. If the problems pre-sented are salient, and the forms of managerialresolution of the problem are realistic, studentsdo not tend to be distracted by the role-playing.Of course, there may also be limits in terms ofapplicability of the project when the managerialposition differs too dramatically from the currentor future position of the participants.

Prerequisite Skills and Knowledge

It is also useful to consider whether partici-pants lack any of the prerequisite knowledge orskills explicitly indicated by the project author,or implicit in the project specifications. If so, theinstitute developers must identify ways of sup-porting students in their completion of theproject. This issue is particularly applicable inprofessional development settings where a PBLproject may be used in a stand-alone fashion.

For example, we have developed a high level ofrespect for the utility of the Interaction Method(Doyle & Straus, 1986) as a tool to assist ourstudents in managing their group work. Whenwe have used PBL in the context of a full courseor curriculum, we devote considerable time toPBL projects that prepare students with groupmanagement and problem-solving skills (seeBridges with Hal linger, 1992). In an institute set-ting, we have found it worthwhile to provide aone-page overview of meeting management roles.Even when groups choose not to fully implementthe model, it provides some support to facilitatethe group process (see appendix, p. 1, "BecauseWisdom Cannot Be Told"). Similarly, a PBLproject may require students to write a memo,role-play a supervisory conference, or make anoral presentation. If they haven't already learnedthese "implementation skills," we often addsupplementary learning objectives and resourcesto the project.

29


Time Contraints

Finally, the instructor must consider timeconstraints relevant to curriculum implementation.These constraints commonly take two forms. First,there is a recommended duration for each project.Institute developers must allocate time during theinstitute for the selected projects. Particularly atthe beginning, we have found it a good policy toerr on the side of giving too much rather than toolittle time to a project.

The second type of time constraint concernsthe format of the course or training institute. Ourexperience suggests that certain time formats aremore effective than others. We find that studentswork most productively when a project is scheduledfor substantial blocks of time (e.g., two to threehours per session) over a period of time. Shortertime blocks limit or complicate efforts to conductthe extended simulations that are part of certainprojects. Longer sessions over a very short periodof time (e.g., a weekend) offer time for extendedactivities, but limit students' capacities to integrateconcepts from readings into their understandingof the problem in as coherent a fashion. Few ofthese constraints are insurmountable. Successfulimplementation does, however, require institutedevelopers to plan for the specific constraints thatare associated with the different time formats.

It is a tenet of Plti, that learningmust start with a problem similarto the type faced by the targetaudience in their work. Thatmeans that the problem must beintroduced to participants beforethe content- or skill-relatedknowledge.

Obtaining PBL Projects

Six PBL projects are available in this volume.Additional projects may be obtained through theERIC Clearinghouse for Educational Managementand through the author of this chapter. The topicscovered by preexisting projects vary widely(see Bridges & Hallinger, 1995).

Organizing Content for the Institute

This discussion will proceed on the assumptionthat PBL materials to be used during the institutehave been selected.

When turning our attention to the overalldesign of the institute, we find that perhaps themost pressing constraint on implementation ofPBL is time. The institute coordinator will needto examine carefully the time requirements andconstraints associated with a given PBL project,particularly if it requires a certain block of timefor a simulation. In addition, institute developersmust consider how the project will unfold duringthe institute and plan accordingly.

It is a tenet of PBL that learning must startwith a problem similar to the type faced by thetarget audience in their work. That means thatthe problem must be introduced to participantsbefore the content- or skill-related knowledge.Only after participants have become familiar withthe problematic situation contained in the PBLproject materials (see sample projects in this vol-ume) and considered key issues do we offer relatedlearning resources. One curricular implication ofthis learning process is that time during the insti-tute must be structured in an iterative fashion.Learners should have multiple, iterative opportu-nities to review the project issues individually,discuss them with colleagues in the cooperativeworking group, explore learning resources, andapply knowledge from the resources to theproblems. This process encourages a thoughtful

30


consideration and application of both curriculumcontent and participants' prior personal knowledgein light of the problems presented in the PBL project.

While this may appear to be a small point, infact it cannot be overlooked in the design of aPBL-oriented institute. The time and logisticalconstraints under which such institutes take place(e.g., schedules of guest speakers, room availability,transportation, outside commitments of participants)often represent key decision-making criteria ratherthan instructional needs. Consequently, we caneasily imagine such logistical constraints (as wellas the mistaken notion that the PBL project is likea case) leading institute coordinators to conceive ofthe project primarily as an opportunity for partic-ipants to apply the content presented by speakers.

While participants will naturally draw uponthe content of related presentations during theirwork on the PBL project, we must emphasize theneed for participants to be exposed to the prob-lem before they hear the speakers. Prior consid-eration of the problem places the content present-ed by speakers and included in text and videoresources in a different light.

When using PBL in a five- or ten-day staffdevelopment institute, we normally present the PBLproject early in the program. As suggested above,the PBL sessions involve participants working incooperative groups on the project. We complementPBL with other forms of instructionsimulations,cases, private reading time, teacher-directedinstructionthat we select as salient to the con-tent issues of the PBL project. We typically usethese other forms of instruction in the morningsand the PBL project in the afternoons. On apractical level, PBL tends to engage participantsvery actively, so it is an ideal instructional strategyto stimulate participants during the normal after-noon downtime. In addition, by scheduling thePBL project meetings for the afternoon, we havefound that participants often choose to continuetheir meetings following the conclusion of theday's formal program.

In a five-day institute, we introduce the PBLproject on the first afternoon (see appendix forsample agendas) and explain that they will beexpected to produce a product that is due on thefinal day (see the Product Specifications descrip-tions for the PBL projects in this volume). Teamsformed by the instructor begin their meetings onthe first afternoon of the institute. Although thePBL project specifications (but not the readings)may have been distributed in advance of the insti-tute, we have learned not to assume that every-one has read them in advance. Thus, time mustbe allocated for participants to review the materialseither during or prior to opening their first teammeetings.

In a two-week institute, we usually wait untilthe third day before forming teams, though wemay distribute the project specifications on daytwo. Limited time is then blocked out periodicallyfor group work during the regular institute sessions.We also set the expectation that participants willwork on the PBL project outside regular classhours. On the eighth day of the institute, eachgroup is responsible for delivering their product(e.g., presentation to a superintendent's cabinet).

While the PBL project is designed as a stimulusfor new learning, it also provides an opportunityfor principals to test the usefulness of the ideasbeing presented during the institute. This inte-grative function is critical to the transfer of learn-ing and critical to working with practicingadministrators. A second important functionserved by the PBL project is affective in nature:participants can engage in sustained participationwith colleagues in a task-focused group. Thisopportunity provides a context in which principalsexperience the affective side of group problemsolving. Frustration, anger, disappointment,satisfaction, validation, and celebration character-ize the work of these groups.

31


At the conclusion of one

institute, a veteran urban

principal noted:

When I came to the Institute,

I wanted to learn more about

school-based management

since my district is moving in

that direction. What I learned

wasn't what I expected. I found

out that if I'm going to be suc-

cessful using school-based

management, I've got a lot of

work to do on myself, because

I had a of a time working

effectively in my PBL group. I'm

simply not used to working that

way, you know, not having the

final say. This was the source of

my greatest frustration during

the Institute, as my colleagues

here will attest, but it was also

the source of what's probably

been the most important

personal learning for me.

This commentary is indicative of the type of affectiveoutcome that PBL can foster among participants during thecourse of a weeklong program.

These are a few of the considerations staff developersshould keep in mind when designing PBL for use in aninstitute setting. Other curriculum implications will also bediscussed in the following section as we turn our attentionto instructional issues involved in the implementation ofPBL in a staff development institute.

Instructional Issues in ImplementingPBL in an Institute Setting

In this section, we discuss the instructional decisionmaking and behaviors of the instructor as he or sheimplements PBL in the institute setting.

The Instructor or Institute Developer'sRole in Problem-Based Learning:Before the Institute

The use of PBL requires a significant front-loading oftime and attention on the part of the instructor, even if theinstitute program draws upon preexisting PBL materials.Front-loading involves a variety of tasks including review-ing, selecting, and preparing project materials and readings;preparing staff for the institute; and preparing participantsfor the PBL project.

Review and Preparation of PBLProject Materials and Logistics

For the purposes of this section, we assume that institutedevelopers have already decided which PBL projects to usein the institute. The next step involves the review of the

32


resources and mechanics of the project. Here theinstructor must consider how to conduct the pro-ject within the constraints of the particular set-ting. He or she must carefully review the recom-mended time frame for the project and thesequence of activities involved in the project (e.g.,introduction of the project, simulation if applica-ble, group meetings, product performance), andconsider how the PBL project will be integratedinto the overall institute program.

In preparing for the PBL project, institutedevelopers must

1. Select readings and other resources(old and new ones).

2. Arrange for the provision of humanresources.

3. Prepare materials.

4. Prepare the physical environment.

5. Obtain any required equipment.

Planning for these details well in advance ofthe institute session is critical to the smooth func-tioning of a PBL project and to student success.

As instructors, we find it imperative to readall of the resource materials before using a PBLproject. We can then understand the content ofthe project as conceived by the author. Since it islikely that the project will relate to an area of theinstructor's expertise, this process often leads tothe selection of additional readings and/orreplacement of suggested readings. If time con-straints are particularly severe, the instructor canreduce the reading load by identifying certainreadings as optional and others as required.

We do, however, caution instructors againsttrying to include too many readings in the limitedtime under which most institutes operate. It hasbeen our experience that providing participantswith all of the potentially relevant readings onthe topics involved in a PBL project is a surefire

way to overwhelm them. The unintended conse-quence may be to actually decrease their atten-tion to the most important resources.

We typically engage two types of humanresources in PBL projects. First, we solicit theassistance of practitioners for role-plays associat-ed with the products of various projects. Forexample, one project, "Present Your Case!," hasparticipants make a presentation to school boardmembers concerning selection of an AIDS educa-tion program. In this and other projects, we askcommunity members to play themselves in theproject performances. For example, we askschool board members to play school boardmembers. We send them a copy of the projectspecifications ahead of time along with instruc-tions concerning our expectations for their partin the role-play. We have found that practitionersare eager to assist in this fashion, but successfulparticipation requires clear communication of ourexpectations and scheduling well in advance.

A second way in which we engage a range ofhuman resources in PBL is through the appoint-ment of expert consultants. These may be profes-sors or practitioners who have particular exper-tise with respect to the issues presented in theproject. In an institute setting this may meanthat presenters are also available for consultation.We send them a copy of the project specificationsand include brief guidelines on how to conductthemselves in response to student questions.Students are given the consultants' names, con-tact information, and areas of expertise.

For the purposes of an institute, it is mosteffective to actually schedule the consultants intothe sequence of the institute's activities. Forexample, the instructor might inform participantsthat the two consulting experts will be availablefor meetings during the Wednesday afternoon ses-sion. When using consultants, students must ini-tiate the contact and prepare specific questionsahead of their appointment. We generally ask

33


that students limit their consultations to 30 min-utes. This procedure saves our consultants' timeand forces students to sharpen their thinking andquestions beforehand.

We have experimented with a variation on theuse of consultants through videotape. We havedeveloped videotapes for two projects in whichexpert consultants share their thinking about theproblems in the project. Again, we recruit willingexperts and send them a copy of the project spec-ifications. Then, during a videotaped session, weask them to think aloud from their perspectivesas researchers or practitioners. The consultantsdiscuss which problems seem most salient tothem and how their points of view would shapetheir approaches to solving the problem. For theproject "Something Old, Something New and thePrincipal's Blues," we produced a videotape thatincorporates expert thinking from several differ-ent disciplines (organizational culture, adultdevelopment, change implementation, schooleffectiveness, staff development, and problemsolving) that bear on the project problems.

Such videotapes can be provided to studentseither during the unit as an instructional resourceor at the conclusion of a project to supplementthe instructor's debriefing. When providingstudents with the videotape as a learning resource,the instructor should, however, caution them tofollow the same guidelines as with other resources.They should explore the nature of the problem(s)as a group before examining the videotape.

Once the instructor is familiar with the project'sspecifications and mechanics, he or she must pre-pare the actual learning materials for students.With the readings, project specifications, and var-ious other handouts, the paper managementinvolved in PBL can become complex. We havefound through trial and error that loose-leafbinders work well for storing PBL materials sincethey allow for the easy insertion of photocopiedreadings and the additional resources that stu-dents accumulate during a project.

Since projects draw from an interdisciplinaryset of resources, it is simply not feasible to workfrom a text. This situation matters since theinstructor is forced to draw on materials thatrequire copyright permission. We allot extra timefor this process when working with campus orcommercial copy centers.

We cannot overstate the importance of design-ing a physical learning environment conducive forPBL. The instructor must attend to both roomassignment and classroom preparation. Theclassroom environment must facilitate the con-duct of group meetings and problem-solving ses-sions. A room with tables and chairs that can berearranged for small group work is optimal.Depending upon the size of the group, theinstructor may also want to provide breakoutrooms for meetings since classrooms are oftennoisy with three or more groups meeting simulta-neously (though we have done this with someregularity).

The equipment needs for PBL projects vary. Inmost instances, however, butcher paper or padswith easels, marking pens, masking tape, and avideotape player are needed. Some projects mayalso require a camcorder for videotaping or acomputer lab.

We tell our classes that as admin-istrators, you must learn to workwith a variety of individuals andyou do not always have the optionof picking who will participatewith you on a project team.

34


Preparing Staff for the Institute

We usually work with relatively small numbersof students. Typically, we have between 10 and35 participants in our sessions and work eitheralone or with one trained colleague to assist dur-ing the session.

We are aware, however, that many institutesmust serve significantly larger numbers ofparticipants. In such instances, it is necessary toidentify and orient a number of guides who canwork with groups during the institute. The useof PBL guides who are familiar with the projectspecifications and procedures for its use duringthe institute allows the task groups to make amore efficient use of the limited time they willhave for the project. The guide is not a lecturer,but a resource, or "guide by the side" (see Chapter4 for additional detail on guides' roles).

While the guides need not be content expertsin the knowledge domains covered by the project,they should be familiar with the project materialsprior to the institute. Institute organizers shouldhold several orientation sessions with guides toreview role expectations, examine the PBL projectcontent, review product expectations, and discusshow the project will unfold over the course of theinstitute. Institute organizers may even wish tohold a half-day workshop for their guides inwhich they use the "Because Wisdom Cannot beTold" (see appendix) project to introduce PBL.

During the institute sessions, the role of theguides is similar to the role of the instructor out-lined later in this chapter. During the institute,the coordinator should schedule daily meetingswith the guides to review progress and problemsolve on issues that arise in the groups. Followingthe project, the guides will provide feedback toparticipants.

.*

Preparing the Participants for thePBL Project

The third type of preparation prior to the actualimplementation of a PBL project is thinkingthrough issues relative to preparing participantsto make effective use of PBL. One issue involvesthe assignment of students to PBL groups (alsoreferred to as project teams). The instructorforms teams that work independently for theduration of a single PBL project. The unit ofinstruction in our version of problem-based learn-ing is the project. Like project task forces in theworkplace, the project teams come together for asingle PBL project and then disband.

The composition of the groups is,in and of itself, a potentially use-ful vehicle for student learning inthe area of group dynamics. Asour students have commented, thevery process of problem-basedlearning fords future leaders anopportunity to learn from thedynamics th t arise Piiturally asstudents tackle a problem.

The instructor assigns students to their groupsunless groups are comprised of single-schoolteams. In some institutes, groups may be com-prised of several school or district teams. Weactively resist student entreaties to let them formtheir own groups or to continue in the samegroups over several projects. We believe this setsup unhealthy dynamics within the class for stu-dents who aren't actively sought out by others or

35


who may have been unhappy with their groups.We tell our classes that as administrators, youmust learn to work with a variety of individualsand you do not always have the option of pickingwho will participate with you on a project team.

Though we have worked with groups as smallas four and as large as ten, we try to keep thegroup size to between five and seven people.Our experience suggests that this range allowsfor optimal levels of student participation in theproject. This guideline is partly influenced bythe type of group process we seek to create.

The composition of the groups is, in and ofitself, a potentially useful vehicle for studentlearning in the area of group dynamics. As ourstudents have commented, the very process ofproblem-based learning affords future leaders anopportunity to learn from the dynamics that arisenaturally as students tackle a problem. As oneof our students observed, "An analysis of groupprocesses is necessary for a real understandingof leadership and group dynamics. I learned themost from my groups' discussions of how weworked together."

The instructor may choose to place particularstress on this aspect of the students' learning.At times we have used "personality type" as aframework for understanding individual andgroup behavior. We have students completeone of a number of personality inventories.Subsequently, we ask students to identify theirpersonality-type designators within their groupsand to maintain an awareness of these over theduration of a course or program. This under-standing of different personality tendencies canlead to useful learning about the ways differenttypes of people interact in groups.

Several professors who participated in our PBLtraining institutes have suggested various toolsfor assessing personality or leadership styles thatcould be used for similar purposes. With orwithout such a framework, the dynamics of team

participation represent an important opportunityfor student growth in both cognitive and affectivedomains. Therefore, in order to optimize learning,we urge institute developers to pay attention toissues of group formation prior to implementation.

We encourage our students to use theInteraction Method (Doyle Sc Straus, 1986) as ameans of organizing and managing their teammeetings. This technique places three groupmembers in specialized roles: leader, recorder,facilitator (see Chapter 4 for a detailed descrip-tion of these roles). At least five people are nec-essary to have a group that can fully use themethod. Larger teams allow full use of theInteraction Method. However, we find that stu-dents' opportunities for individual participationin the team's learning activities begin to fallappreciably when the group size exceeds seven.

Group size is an important consideration inPBL since the goals differ from those of a projecttask force in the workplace. A task force is pri-marily concerned with overseeing a project. InPBL we intend for the project team to produce aproduct and to optimize individuals' learningduring the process. Unless properly managed, wefind that large teams provide a less conducivelearning environment for our students.

Whether to use a particular method of manag-ing the group's process is a consideration thatinstitute developers must address for the purposeof a single institute. The issue is whether toinvest time at the front end of the institute topromote the group's learning effectiveness duringthe PBL project. In the course of a single insti-tute program, particularly one that lasts less thantwo weeks, it is difficult to fully prepare studentswith the skills for managing their group work.We have experimented with a limited use of theInteraction Method (see instructions for the pro-ject "Because Wisdom Cannot Be Told" in theappendix) with varying degrees of success. Theuse of facilitators, as we have discussed, can alle-viate some of the problems that arise.

36


Summary

The successful implementation of PBL requiresconsiderable, advance attention to materialsreview, selection, and preparation as well as tologistical planning and support. Institute devel-opers' attention to the aforementioned aspects ofinstructional design contribute to the creation ofa learning environment that supports students inPBL. Our version of PBL draws explicitly on thepower of cooperative group learning.Cooperative learning does, however, require awell-designed learning environment. Inadequateattention to development of the learning environ-ment decreases both the efficiency and effective-ness of student learning in PBL. This focus ondeveloping a proper learning environment rein-forces the importance of paying explicit attentionto the process of the groups' teamwork andlearning.

The successful implementation ofPlti, requires considerable,advance ai iention to materialsreview, selection, and prepar Lionas well as to logistical planningand support. Institute developers'attention to the aforementionedaspects of instructional designcontribute to the creation of alearning environment that sup-ports students in P

We find that organizations vary widely in theirability to provide the logistical support and flexi-bility that is absolutely necessary for the success-ful implementation of PBL. Particularly at theinitial stages of classroom implementation, theinstructor must expect to budget considerablymore time for planning. Time must be budgetednot only for materials preparation, but also forlearning how to manage the organization toarrange for the necessary resources (e.g., class-room space, photocopying of text resources,camcorder).

Advance preparation, however, is a key pieceof the answer to the question posed by the staffdeveloper at the outset of this chapter. It isthrough careful attention to these aspects offront-loading that the instructor is able to achievea seamless unfolding of a PBL project. In thenext section, we discuss the type of instructionaldecision making that characterizes the teacher'srole during the actual sessions that compose aPBL project.

The Instructor's RoleDuring a PBL Project

In considering the role of the instructor duringa PBL project, we assume that the instructor andinstitute planners have already selected the pro-ject, materials have been prepared, team member-ship has been determined, and the class is readyto proceed. Thus, the focus of this discussion ison the instructor's (or in larger institutes, theguides') decision making during a typical PBLproject.

37

4ct


Introducing Participants to PBL

We have found student responsiveness to prob-lem-based learning is heightened by some intro-duction to the method, how it works, and therationale for its use. We developed a PBL pro-ject, "Because Wisdom Cannot Be Told," (seeappendix) for this specific purpose. The timeconstraints of an institute may, however, precludeusing this three- to four-hour project as a methodof introducing participants to PBL.

Orientation to PBL can be accomplishedthrough any one of several other less time-con-suming means (see also Bridges & Hal linger,1995). The instructor may simply choose to dis-cuss and describe PBL as it has been developedand used in leadership education. Written mate-rials such as an overview of PBL may be distrib-uted for review. In addition, participants may begiven the opportunity to view a videotape, CanWe Make a Better Doctor? (Nova, 1989), whichdescribes the development and implementation ofproblem-based learning at Harvard UniversityMedical School.

Introducing the PBL Project

The logistical arrangements of a given instituteprogram shape how a PBL project is actuallyintroduced to students. As noted above, at theoutset of a project, institute developers mustinform participants of their assignments to pro-ject teams and of their team roles. If not alreadydistributed, we then distribute the project materialssuch as the specifications, readings, videotapes,and consultant contact information.

Then we generally provide a brief overview(about 15 minutes) of the project specificationsbefore releasing the teams to begin their work.The overview states why the project problem isimportant to the work of administrators, reiter-

ates the desired learning objectives, clarifies thenature of the performance product(s) the studentswill develop, and outlines the time constraintsunder which the class will complete the project.Following this overview, we signal teams to begintheir first project meeting.

We keep several things in mind that bear onthe logistics of introducing a PBL project. First,we make our introduction brief, providing simplyan overview and clarification of expectations.The goal is to give students the essential informa-tion and then let them get started to work ontheir own.

Second, whenever possible, we do not distrib-ute readings in advance of the project specifica-tions. As we noted earlier, in problem-basedlearning the problem comes first. The problemacts as a stimulus for the subsequent learning ofconcepts and skills. Instructors, therefore, needto resist the temptation to have participants get ahead start on the readings. Participants' reviewof the readings and other resources should comeafter they have examined the problems(s) con-tained in the PBL project.

Finally, we suggest that instructors introducethe PBL project in a fashion that facilitates pro-ject planning. First, the instructor should explic-itly state the expectation that team leaders willformulate and turn in a copy of their projectplan. Second, the instructor should provide atime structure that facilitates planning at the out-set of the project. He or she may accomplish thisby distributing the project specifications to thegroup leaders first with the request that theydevelop a preliminary project plan for the group'sfirst meeting (when the rest of the group receivesthe materials). The team leaders then worktowards developing and distributing project plansfor discussion in the subsequent group meeting.Sometimes we also provide an optional planningform. Participants can use this form or developtheir own model.

38


Developing Group Norms That SupportProblem-Based Learning

While it is a central tenet of PBL that studentswill make mistakes as they engage in problemsolving, it is important that the planners andinstructor create a learning environment in whichstudents develop habits that foster learning fromtheir mistakes. Therefore, much of the instruc-tor's (and/or guides') effort in creating the PBLenvironment is bent towards providing studentswith the tools they need to function as productivelearners in the absence of teacher-directed instruc-tion. The front-loading of time and attention tomaterials selection and preparation and logisticalsupport is designed to provide a framework forlearning that supports student success. In addi-tion to these structural components, however,there are several classroom norms that instructorscan foster to support effective learning.

When students work in a PBL environment,they become acutely aware of how much (or little)time is available, alternatives for using it produc-tively, and how it is running out. Once studentsbecome responsible for their learning, we findthat they approach time as a scarce and valuableresource. The instructor should emphasize thatstudents are responsible for deciding how theywill use their time within the duration of the pro-ject. Thus, within the overall time frame of theinstitute sessions, participants will plan the meansby which they will engage the problem.

In PBL the instructor must also assist studentsin becoming problem focused in their learning.In our experience, this does not always come nat-urally. We, therefore, explicitly cue students toexamine all learning resources in light of theproblems presented in the PBL project. Thisapproach contrasts sharply with the more typicalbook report mentality with which students typi-cally cover their readings. A problem-focusedexploitation of readings, videotapes, and consul-

tations raises issues of application in the minds ofstudents during the course of their learning.Students are sensitized to the impact of contexton the application of knowledge.

While it is a central tenet of Pthat students will make mistakesas they engage in problem solving,it is important that the plannersand instructor create a learningenvironment in which studentsdevelop habits that foster learningfrom their mistakes.

It is often the case, for example, that studentsjigsaw readings to divide the labor for a PBLproject: the students will each select certainresources for review and then report back to thegroup. When this cooperative learning techniqueis used, we remind students that their note takingand reports should highlight how the reading illu-minates issues raised in the problematic situation.Typically, the instructor or guide must verballycue students to this several times before theybegin to develop this as a positive habit.

A second norm we encourage is for students topersonalize their learning by identifying personallearning objectives in relation to PBL projects.This, again, is a habit that the instructor muststimulate and then reinforce. The instructor orguide should, therefore, ask students to focus onthis at the beginning of a project.

Another norm that enhances effective learningin a PBL classroom is resourcefulness in learning.The emphasis on self-directed learning requires


students to become more active seekers of infor-mation. Even structured forms of PBL that pro-vide students with most of the necessary learningresources for a project encourage their resource-fulness as learners.

In conventional instruction, students oftentreat knowledge as if it were bounded by theresources provided by the instructor. Studentsplace themselves in a very passive role in relationto the subject matter. Teachers reinforce this per-spective by admonishing students against sharinginformation with each other or seeking informa-tion from people outside the classroom whomight have the answers. A curriculum is oftensaid to have been covered when the students havebeen exposed to the readings selected andapproved by the instructor.

In PBL, we prompt students to seek out usefulinformation wherever it may be found. Thisexploration begins in their learning teams. Oneof the characteristics of high-performing teams istheir capacity for exploiting the knowledge andskills of team members. We, therefore, encouragestudents to identify the team's resources as a rou-tine step in their problem-solving process.

We also invite students to use people in theworkplace who may have expertise concerningthe issues that arise in a PBL project. Thus, theexpectation that students use human as well asprint resources and approach knowledge in aproblem-focused manner encourages students touse knowledge as a tool for problem solving. Webelieve that helping students to become resource-ful learners during a professional developmentevent is a critical step to preparing students tobecome resourceful leaders on the job.

Finally, students need to develop the ability tomonitor themselves individually and collectively.At the conclusion of a PBL project, we ask learn-ers to write an integrative essay that is designedto assist them in individual reflection. We alsouse peer feedback as a vehicle for the groups to

monitor their process. During each team meetingstudents provide each other with specific, con-crete, nonjudgmental feedback. We ask our stu-dents to save five minutes at the end of eachmeeting for a debriefing. At this time team mem-bers identify what went well during the meeting,how they performed in their roles, and what theycan do to improve team performance in futuremeetings.

One of the characteristics of high-performing teams is their capacityfor exploiting the knowledge andskills of team members. We,therefore, encourage students toidentify the team's resources as aroutine step in their problem-solving process.

These learning norms are mutually reinforcing.Together they foster students' capacity for work-ing successfully in a cooperative group learningenvironment. As Hall (1994) observed in herstudy of a PBL class, these norms begin to exert apowerful influence on students' engagement intheir learning:

This self-monitoring element became a

habit for them and they saw the valueof it in other areas of their lives aswell. The various facets of the moni-toring process further instilled the

recognition that the [teacher's] desiredgoal was for them to learn how to

40


learn, not just make a grade or only

recall specific outcomes from a project

for a test. . . . This inspired and

required continual reflection by the

students individually and also stimulat-

ed communication among the group

members.

Teacher-Learner InteractionDuring the Project

In a PBL setting, the teacher or staff developerlives in the background for more than 90 percentof the project's duration. This isolation repre-sents one of the hardest transitions for instruc-tors. In PBL, instructors convey their expertisethrough selection of the project materials andlearning resources, through limited interventionsduring class, and through their feedback to stu-dents after the project. Instructors and guidesmust develop both a reservoir of self-disciplineand a repertoire of new instructional skills thatfoster students' learning. Although the instruc-tor/guide lives both physically and metaphoricallyin the background of PBL sessions, they still ful-fill a number of tasks during a PBL project.

The instructor or guide acts as a resource togroups as they grapple with the problem and thecontent of the resources. It is, however, interest-ing to note that although we make ourselvesavailable to students during a project, studentsare often reluctant to draw on the instructor'sknowledge. We, therefore, explicitly remindthem that they may seek our input on the prob-lem. When doing so, however, they must followthe same guidelines as we specify for their use ofconsultants. They must prepare specific ques-tions. As consultants, our job is to help clarifyissues, not provide answers as to what theyshould or should not do.

This type of interaction is particularly sensitivein that students have a finely honed instinct inhunting for right answers. Given years of class-room experience, they assume that there is a rightanswer hidden in the instructor's mind. Thus,when the instructor/guide responds in these inter-actions, it is useful to use a Socratic styleaskingquestions, directing students to other resources,and raising alternative points of viewratherthan offering prescriptions.

The instructor also acts as a process observerof the project teams. Typically, we rotate amonggroups, spending some time with each to get asense of how they are proceeding. When insti-tutes are large and guides are used, the guidestypically stay with one group for the duration ofthe project. The instructor circulates amonggroups and spends time debriefing with the guides.Occasionally a group may be bogged down dueto problems in the process of the group's work.At these times, an intervention by either the guideor the instructor may be appropriate.

Before intervening with a group, however, weforce ourselves to stop and ask, Is the content ofmy intervention critical either to the group'slearning how to deal with this process problem ortheir understanding of the problem? Will theyovercome the current obstacle without my inter-vention? As instructors we have found it neces-sary to cultivate personal strategies such as this inorder to maintain the self-discipline needed tostay within our own role during class sessions.Now we are more likely to take notes and shareour thoughts with students concerning the prob-lems they encountered either verbally or in writ-ing after the project has been completed, or whenstudents seek our assistance during a project.

During the project, the instructor/guide mayalso need to clarify student roles or project-spe-cific issues. When using the meeting managementtechniques, it is often necessary to clarify theresponsibilities of the different roles in practice.

41


At times, the instructor may also need to clarify aparticular component of the project; for example,the nature of the product specifications orassumptions concerning the problem.

Individual learners may request time to meetwith the instructor or a guide individually duringthe course of a project. We encourage this asmuch as possible. In some situations, we haveeven found it useful to require group leaders toschedule meetings with the instructor during theproject to review progress and issues that havearisen. These meetings can be helpful to the par-ticipants, who may otherwise hesitate to seek theteacher's input, as well as to the instructor, whomay otherwise be taken by surprise by events thatoccur with the groups.

During the project the instructor must alsomonitor the time flow and communicate with theteams on this issue. The teacher must assesswhether and how to modify the time allocatedfor the project. This assessment tends to be mostimportant the first time that an instructor uses aproject. However, some projects have specificrole-playing activities that have been scheduledwith outside resource persons. In such cases theinstructor must monitor the progress of groups tomaintain the overall schedule for the project.

The last task is debriefing the group at the con-clusion of the project. As with other features ofPBL implementation, time constraints may dictatewhen the final debriefing is held. If the projectconcludes with a public performance, such as apresentation to a school board or a supervisoryconference held with a teacher, the instructor maydebrief with the group immediately after the per-formance. If the product is a written plan ormemo that the instructor must first review, thismay not be possible. In these cases, we hold thedebriefing during the subsequent session.

There is a tension here between the instructor'sdesire to take time to review and reflect on thestudents' products and a need to provide fresh

feedback to students. PBL generates a great dealof individual and group investment in the stu-dents' final products. Instructors should capital-ize on this by providing feedback as soon as pos-sible following the conclusion of the projects.This feedback helps students obtain closure, pro-motes their sense of satisfaction, and allows themto incorporate the feedback into their reflectionsfor the integrative essay they will write.

The group debriefing should refer students backto the learning objectives and recast the completedproject in terms of the administrative role that isbeing performed. In the debriefing, students willwant a reaction from the instructor concerningtheir performance. Again, we have found itimportant to avoid the right-answer syndrome.

The instructor should emphasize the positiveaspects of students' performance and raise possibleconsequences of the proposed actions. Theinstructor may focus students' attention oncontent issues that still need clarification, as wellas on aspects of the problem and points of viewtowards the solution that may not have beenconsidered. Project debriefings should also solicitquestions and unresolved issues from students.

The Instructor's RoleDuring the Project

During the course of a PBL project, theinstructor and/or guide must learn to live com-fortably in the background. To counter the fairlypredictable feelings of anxiety concerning theapparent lack of an active role, we recommendtwo strategies. First, we suggest that the instruc-tor remember the amount of work that went intothe creation of the PBL environment in whichthe students are working. Although this strategyis not action oriented, it may relieve some of theunproductive self-doubt on the part of theinstructor that can emerge during class.

42


The instructor can also use the observations ofgroups as an opportunity to gather data on theteam performance. We incorporate these datainto the formative feedback that we provide tostudents following completion of the project (see"Student Assessment" chapter, Bridges &Hal linger, 1995). Students frequently view theinstructor's new role as at least as informative asthe old one when they receive concrete, usefulfeedback on their work during a PBL project.This, in turn, builds the instructor's confidence inthe legitimacy of a way of teaching that changesthe public role of the teacher so dramatically.

The Instructor's RoleAfter the Project

The instructor/guide must perform two impor-tant tasks after students complete the project:review and provide feedback on participant prod-ucts and review student feedback on the project.

Review of Student Products

Many PBL projects incorporate integrativeessays in addition to the project-specific products.Integrative elements serve to stimulate metacogni-tive processing of the individual student's experi-ence and refocus his or her learning from the pro-ject. The depth of participants' reflections inthese integrative essays is often startling to theinstructor.

Within an institute context, however, this typeof writing faces certain normative and practicalhurdles. Since administrators do not expect towrite even short essays during a workshop session,staff developers are often reluctant to assign sucha task. They view it as a supplemental ratherthan a core activity in relation to the project.

While we acknowledge this attitude, we do notconcur in the conclusion. Our experience is thatadministrators will complete the task faithfully ifthe expectation is explicit and time is providedfor writing. The issue then becomes planning forthe writing during the context of the institute'sprogram and activitiesthe practical hurdle.

In response to these effoits by the students, weapproach our feedback as part of an extendedconversation with students that unfolds over thecourse of the term or institute. Normally wereturn the essays to participants with commentsand questions for their further consideration.Providing feedback on the essay enables theinstructor to reframe issues for future learning.

Project products (see sample products as out-lined in the project specifications contained inthis volume) are also reviewed by the instructorand returned to students with comments. Wegenerally provide written feedback to each groupon their group product (e.g., a group's presenta-tion or plan) and to individuals for individualproducts (e.g., individually written memos).However, when a PBL project calls for an individ-ual productfor example, a written memo to thesupervisorwe may also write a memo to thewhole class discussing issues that arose in theclass's products as a whole. Consistent with ourprevious comments, we maintain a positive andconstructive approach to providing students withfeedback.

Student Feedback to the Instructor

The explicit solicitation and incorporation offeedback from students is part of the process ofcontinuous improvement that we seek to modelfor students. We solicit written feedback on theproject from the teams during project debriefingas well as through the Talkback Sheets (seeappendix, "Because Wisdom Cannot Be Told"

43


project) and integrative essays. We already notedthe function of the two-page integrative essaysfor students. These essays also provide theinstructor with insight into the students' personalexperiences with the project. These insights areinvaluable in understanding how to adjust theproject's use in the future.

The Talkback Sheets (see appendix) provide asecond source of directed feedback for theinstructor concerning the project. We ask stu-dents to answer these questions anonymously.These sheets solicit data concerning the extent towhich students feel the project achieved its objec-tives and ways in which it can be improved. Weoften type the students' comments from theTalkback Sheets in summary form and distributethem to the class so they can see how othersresponded; we may discuss these comments withthe class. In addition to the practical value ofthese data for project revision, the act of solicit-ing and sharing the information indicates to stu-dents that the instructor values their input.

After reviewing the content of the integrativeessays and the Talkback Sheets, the instructorbegins to consider modifications to the project.We find it useful to record notes about neededmodifications for future use as soon as possibleafter the project so they don't become blurred bythe next project's activities.

Conclusion

In this chapter we have outlined some of thekey issues for staff developers who are consider-ing using PBL as a primary form of instruction ina professional development institute. The contentof this chapter complements the PBL projectsincluded in this volume.

We have included one project in the appendix,"Because Wisdom Cannot Be Told," that mightbe used to introduce staff developers to problem-based learning. This project engages the learnersin the process of PBL as a means of teaching itskey components.

We have found that both noviceand veteran administrators, fromall levels of schools, are able towork in a mutually beneficialfashion in the context of aproblem-based learning project.

Is it possible for staff developers to use thecontents of this book without formalized classroomtraining in the use of problem-based learning?Although the results of such experimentation willvary considerably, we believe the answer to thisquestion is yes. Our personal experience hasinvolved using PBL with the full gamut of prac-ticing administrators. We have found that bothnovice and veteran administrators, from all levelsof schools, are able to work in a mutually benefi-cial fashion in the context of a problem-basedlearning project. Consistent with research oncooperative learning, we find that PBL enablesheterogeneously grouped learners to draw themost from their varying levels of knowledge.

The philosophy that underlies PBL is also con-sistent with theories of adult learning. For example,adult learning theory stresses the importance ofcreating learning environments that allow adultsto draw on prior knowledge and actively test thisin light of new information. It also stresses the

44


importance of giving adults control over theirlearning environment and connecting new learn-ing to current problems. These are the hallmarksof PBL.

We would further note that not all of ourexperience with PBL has been with administra-tors attending programs at elite institutions likeStanford and Vanderbilt universities. We haveused PBL in both urban and rural areas wherethe norms do not typically support student-cen-tered, reflective learning approaches like PBL.We have also used PBL in countries such asMalaysia and Thailand, where both tradition andlogistical constraints make implementing PBLconsiderably more difficult. As the followingchapter attests, NCREL's experience with imple-menting PBL in urban school systems on a cityand state level has resulted in positive feedbackand real learning.

Our evidence of the effects of PBL in leader-ship education is primarily based on anecdotalexperience and corollary research from the fieldof medical education. While participant responseand the quality of learning products varied acrossour trials, both have been very positive overall.We recommend that staff developers experimentwith PBL in their work with practicing educa-tional leaders.

While we are not blind to the challenges ofimplementing problem-based learning, we believethe results warrant the effort to integrate thisform of instruction into a portion of some staffdevelopment institutes. Moreover, if our ownexperience holds true for others, the responsefrom participating learners will lead staff devel-opers to delve more deeply into this approach toleadership development.

45

REFERENCES

e f er enc esBarrows, H. (1985). How to design a problem-based

curriculum for the pre-clinical years. NewYork: Springer.

Barrows, H., & Tamblyn, R. (1980). Problem-basedlearning. New York: Springer.

Boud, D., & Feletti, G. (Eds.). (1991). Thechallenge of problem-based learning.New York: St. Martin's Press.

Bransford, J., Franks, J., Vye, N., & Sherwood, R.(1989). New approaches to instruction:Because wisdom can't be told. In S.Vosniadou, & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similaritiesand analogical reasoning (pp. 470-497). NewYork: Cambridge University Press.

Bransford, J., Sherwood, R., Vye, N., & Rieser, J.(October, 1986). Teaching thinking andproblem-solving. American Psychologist,41(10), 1078-1089.

Bridges, E. (1977). The nature of leadership. In L.Cunningham, W. Hack, & R. Nystrand (Eds.),Educational administration: The developingdecades (pp. 202-230). Berkeley, CA:McCutchan.

Bridges, E., with Hal linger, P. (1992). Problem basedlearning for administrators. Eugene, OR: ERICClearinghouse on Educational Management.

Bridges, E., & Hal linger, P. (1993). Problem-basedlearning in medical and managerial education.In P. Hal linger, K. Leithwood, & J. Murphy(Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on educationalleadership. (pp. 253-267). New York:Teachers College Press.

Bridges, E., & Hallinger, P. (1995). Implementingproblem based learning in leadership develop-ment. Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse onEducational Management.

Brown, A., Bransford, J., Ferrara, R., & Campione, J.(1983). Learning, remembering and under-standing. In J. Flavell, & E. Markman (Eds.),Carmichael's manual of child psychology (Vol. I.,pp. 77-166). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Ift

Doyle, M., & Straus, D. (1986). How to makemeetings work. New York: Jove Publications.

Engel, C. (1991). Not just a method, but a way oflearning. In D. Boud, & G. Feletti (Eds.),The challenge of problem-based learning(pp. 23-33). New York: St. Martin's Press.

Griffiths, D., Stout, R., & Forsyth, P. (1987). Leadersfor America's schools. Tempe, AZ: UniversityCouncil for Educational Administration.

Hall, M. (1994). Constructivist educational theory inpractice: An analysis of problem-based learn-ing in the classroom. Unpublished paper.Peabody College of Education, VanderbiltUniversity, Nashville, Tennessee.

Hallinger, P. (1992). School leadership development:Evaluating a decade of reform. Education andUrban Society, 24(3), 300-316.

Hallinger, P., & Anast, L. (1992). The IndianaPrincipals' Leadership Academy: Schoolreform for principals. Education and UrbanSociety, 24(3), 410-430.

Hallinger, P., & Murphy, J. (1992). The principalshipin an era of transformation. Journal ofEducational Administration, 30(3), 77-78.

Hallinger, P., & Wimpelberg, R. (1992). New settingsand changing norms for principal development.Urban Review, 24(1), 121.

Murphy, J. (1992). The landscape of leadership prepa-ration: Reframing the education of schooladministrators. Newbury Park, CA: CorwinPress.

Nova. (1989). Can we make a better doctor? [Video]Deerfield, IL: Coronet/MTI Film & Video;C/O Simon & Schuster Film & Videos.

Prawat, R. (1989). Promoting access to knowledge,strategies, and disposition in students: Aresearch synthesis. Review of EducationalResearch, 59(1), 141.

Schmidt, H., Lipkin, M., de Vries, M., & Greep, J.(1989). New directions for medical education:Problem-based learning and communityoriented medical education. New York:Springer-Verlag.

46

CHAPTER 3: THE NCREL EXPERIENCE: LESSONS LEARNED AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Ciapter 3: le NCRELLessons Learned and Recommendations

Background

CREL piloted the use of the PBL project"Did You Make the Team?" in the 1994summer institute of the Milwaukee

Leadership Academy and in the 1995 summerinstitute of the Ohio Urban Leadership Academy.Each institute spanned four full days andoccurred in a residential setting (see appendix forinstitute agendas). The institutes combined largegroup presentations, interactive activities bynationally recognized scholars, and blocks of timeto work in PBL groups. On the last day of eachinstitute, PBL groups presented their solutions tothe problems in the PBL scenario to one othergroup that assumed the roles of teachers, staff,community members, and so forth.

In Milwaukee, principals and assistant principalsvoluntarily submitted applications, and a total of71 people participated in institute activities.Institute participants were divided into eight pro-ject groups of approximately seven to nine peo-ple. PBL groups included a mixture of principals

and assistant principals from all school levels:elementary, middle, and high school.

In Ohio, central office teams from the eightlargest urban districts (Akron, Canton,Cleveland, Cincinnati, Columbus, Dayton,Toledo, and Youngstown) selected up to sixschool teams (one of which could be a centraloffice team) to participate in the academy.

Various political factors influenced the selection

of teams, and selection strategies varied by dis-trict. Three-person school teams were primarilycomposed.of the principal and two teachers;however, there were a few parent/community

leaders among school teams. School teams werekept intact in PBL groups of approximately eightto ten members; PBL groups were divided by

school level. Central office representatives fromall districts attended the institute throughout theweek, and a special planning forum for centraloffice staff was held at the end of the institute.

47


Evaluation Summary

Evaluations of both the 1994 MilwaukeePrincipals Institute and 1995 Ohio UrbanLeadership Academy offered enthusiastic reviewsof the professional development experiences, cou-pled with useful feedback for planning futureacademies (Hawkes, 1994; Hawkes, 1995). Ouraudiences in both Milwaukee and Ohio were gen-erally positive about PBL, and the majority com-mented on its applicability to their own schoolcontext. The success of both co-developed insti-tutes in general was attributed largely to out-standing faculty presentations; a good mix ofactivities and themes; high-quality, creative mate-rials; networking opportunities; and good atten-tion to logistical details.

Quantitative and qualitative data revealed thatparticipants experienced PBL's critical dimensionsin specific, transferable ways. They felt theystrengthened their cooperative, affective capacities,time management skills, problem-solving skills,knowledge acquisition, and self-directed learningskills. The PBL project's usefulness for partici-pants at both institutes was strengthened by theirsense that the project was realistic and paralleledtheir own school situations in critical ways. Finally,participants at both institutes felt that the overallinstitute agendas provided the knowledge base theyneeded to successfully address the PBL project.

The PBL project used in Milwaukee and Ohio("Did You Make the Team?") was considered byparticipants to be so relevant to their schoolexperiences that many reported feeling as thoughthey had "been to this school." PBL groupsworked in teams to develop a vision and actionplan for an urban, public middle school facedwith poor student achievement and attendance;discipline problems; administrative turnover; staffapathy and disunity; and racial tension amongstudents, staff, and parents. One Milwaukeeparticipant commented:

Quantitative and qualitative datarevealed that participants experi-enced P Itils critical dimensions inspecific, transferable ways. Theyfelt they strengthened their cooper-ative, affective capacities, timemanagement skills, problem-solv-ing skills, knowledge acquisition,and self-directed learning skills.

I think that the George Washington

Middle School (PBL pseudonym]

problem outlines some commonthreads that run through most urban

schools. I saw my school and many

other middle schools in that problem.

It gave me the time to reflect on mystaff and critique, which, if any of

those issues, needed to be addressed

[in my own school]. The dialoguegave me different perspectives on

how to resolve those kinds of issues.

In both Milwaukee and Ohio, however, someparticipants, particularly more experiencedadministrators, wanted to spend time working ontheir own school issues rather than on a fictionalschool's issues. In each case, perhaps 15 to 20percent of the participants wanted to reduce thetime spent on PBL and increase the time spent onindividual school planning and networking. Inorganizing institutes of this kind, it is extremelyimportant to pay close attention to the balance oftime allocated for working on your own school'sissues and for PBL.

4 S


Participants in both Milwaukee and Ohiogave positive overall rankings to doing the PBLprojects, with Ohio rating PBL 3.27 on a 4.0-point scale and Milwaukee responding similarly.

General Perceptions About PBLin Milwaukee and Ohio

In both Milwaukee and Ohio, participantsvalued PBL for its usefulness in developing team-work strategies, teaching group dynamics, and insharing school improvement strategies/ideas. Asone Ohio participant described:

Within the group we had people who

had very strong roles that were readyto just jump right out; we had those

who were kind of quiet, laid-backkind of the followers; [and] we had

those who were maybe just a little bitready to lead but were not real sureand would take that second-in-com-

mand attitude . . .

This individual pointed out that the differencesamong team members, and the way theyapproached their PBL assignment together, chal-lenged group members to solicit everyone's input,build confidence in the process of problem solvingand in the efficacy of the ideas presented, andpull together as a team. This same individualsummarized the PBL experience by concluding:

That was the challenging part, going

through it together. And as we learnedmore about the strengths and weak-

nesses of each other, then we were

able to support each other.

Some participants, however, while convincedthat problem-based learning strategies helpedthem deal with school and community issues,were somewhat critical of the experience:

I believe in the kind of process we're

having, but to me, an artificial problem

is very difficult to work with. I couldn't

get invested and motivated to work on

a project that didn't mean anything.

To me, it was a fake situation and it

didn't bother me to sit there in that

group and say, "I don't care what you

put up there, it really doesn't make a

difference to me."

In general, though, most participants inter-viewed as a part of the evaluation process appre-ciated the opportunity PBL offered to exploreissues similar to their schools. Wrestling with dif-ficult issues was important to them not only forcoming up with useful alternatives, but for theexperience of having been a part of the process.This Ohio participant's comment was reflectiveof the overall group sentiment:

I don't know any other way to do it; it

may seem pretended, but we need

that game situation with lower stakes.

From both interviews and survey responses inMilwaukee and Ohio, participants reported thatproblem-based learning activities simulated theirown school experience. PBL scored high marksfor its authenticity and similarity to the realproblems faced by urban school leaders.

Lessons Learned About PBL

Many of the points outlined here have alreadybeen addressed in detail in Philip Hallinger'sprevious chapter. These comments will highlightand summarize some key recommendations stem-ming particularly from NCREL's experience inimplementing PBL in short-term institute settings.

49


0 DEFINE YOUR EXPECTATIONS FROM

THE BEGINNING

When incorporating PBL in a professionaldevelopment institute for practicing educators,it is very important to shape participants'expectations regarding the PBL experience.PBL is a new way of learning for most edu-cation professionals, who often sit in lecturepresentations or attend one-shot, "passivelearning" conferences.

You will need to ensure that the PBLinstructors, team guides, and institute mate-rials consistently and clearly communicatenot only product specifications, but alsoPBL's underlying philosophy and rationaleand how the PBL process will parallel theirown school improvement efforts.Informational materials received prior to theinstitute give participants the chance toabsorb the PBL concept at their own pace.

O PROVIDE SUFFICIENT TIME AND OPPORTUNITY

TO HELP PARTICIPANTS CONNECT PC3L. TO

THEIR OWN SCHOOL EXPERIENCE

In professional development, educators wantactivities to be applicable to their schools.PBL offers a number of applications inschoolwide professional development and inclassroom instruction, so it is important toallow time for participants to reflect on thelinks between the PBL experience and theirown school experience. As mentioned earlier,it is also important to allow time for indi-vidual school improvement planning andinterschool discussion time to sharecommon problems and solutions.

O BALANCE ACTIVITIES

It is important to structure the instituteagenda to provide balanced opportunitiesfor faculty presentations, PBL, networking,school improvement planning, and social time.

O PREPARE PSIL MATERIALS WELLIN ADVANCE

When preparing PBL resources, it is impor-tant to make sure that you have selected amanageable number of items to read, view,and so forth, so that using, accessing, andapplying the information from resourcesdoes not become cumbersome to partici-pants. In our resources, we have worked tokeep the selection as refined as possible. Weencourage you to make further refinements,being careful not to sacrifice quality or com-prehensiveness.

Notebook materials should relate directly tothe themes in the problem. Remember thatthe majority of materials require reprint per-mission in writing, and some require fees forreprint permission. Often, companies andpublishers require two to three weeks orlonger to grant reprint permission, so startearly.

O REVIEW AND REFINE THE PBL, PRODUCT TO

50

ENSURE Di MEETS YOUR DNSTITUTE'S NEEDS

It is important to review the product specifi-cations carefully, making sure that they are:

Appropriate and useful for your audience.

O Aligned with your professional developmentgoals.

0 Manageable given the time allowed tocomplete products/presentations.

Clear and understandable.


It would be helpful early on to solicit feed-back from potential institute participantsregarding the usefulness, clarity, and man-ageability of PBL products.

0 ATTEND TO LOGISTICAL DETAILS FOR Pli3L

ACTIVITIES Vv/ELL IN ADVANCE

Once you have determined the PBL projectyou would like to use, decide upon the beststructure for helping participants completeproduct specifications. This may involvepairing groups so that they present theirproducts to each other. You may want toask faculty members or school district per-sonnel to attend PBL presentations and role-play parents, community members, or otherschool members in order to provide realisticfeedback. Be sure to have enough space andpresentation materials available to all teams.

Decide whether you will divide up PBLteams by school level (separating elementary,middle, and high school) or whether youwill create mixed-level teams. In NCREL'sexperience, both kinds of groups have beensuccessful. When forming groups, think ofyour overall goals for developing teamworkand collaboration. Form groups accordingto which people you feel most need to talkand share ideas/solutions together. Keepteams fairly small; six to ten people pergroup is an acceptable range.

0 USE PISL GUIDES TO HELP GROUP

PROCESS/DECISION MAKING RUN SMOOTHLY

In a large institute setting (more than 50participants), it is important to assign PBLguides to each PBL group. As described inChapter 2, "guides by the side" play unob-trusive yet important support roles whenPBL is used in professional developmentinstitutes.

Who Should the Guides Be?

NCREL has used district administrators,professional development specialists, anduniversity professors as PBL guides, andthey have done outstanding jobs. Instituteleaders, coordinators, and instructors shouldnot be PBL guides. It is important to leaveat least two people free to manage and over-see the entire institute process.

What Should PBL Guides Do?

As stated in Chapter 2, the role of a PBLguide is largely a reflective one. The guideserves as a supplemental instructor who sup-ports the group's progress without becomingactively involved in their problem solving.At the first PBL team meeting, it may bemore important for the guide to providedirection in getting started, but after initialgroup leadership roles have been formed(see Chapter 4 for a description of theseroles), PBL guides should then take a backseat, serving more as a resource person toobtain materials, guide participants toresources, and act as a process observer.

The PBL guide may play a valuable role inhelping to mediate conflict and promotegroup and individual reflection. Within PBLteams, a number of issues may generate con-flict. In one of our PBL groups, there wasan instance of racial conflict where a blackwoman (then the only black person presentin the group) did not see her ideas beingrecorded by the group recorder (who waswhite). This issue evolved to a point wherethe focus of group discussion was uponracial tension in the district, the impact ofracial stereotypes, and so forth. Mediatingsuch racial conflict and tension became avery important goal for this group, and the

51


role of expert guides, facilitators, and facultymembers in this situation intensified.

In the compressed time frame of one-weekPBL institutes, guides may provide addition-al support by debriefing with team membersat the end of each day. Guides can facilitate(not direct!) reflective sharing about the keyissues, problems, and accomplishments ofthe group's work together, and assist indeveloping strategies to address emergentconcerns in the next day's work. At thistime, guides may also wish to prompt theirteam to review what they have accomplishedwithin the product specifications and whatthey still need to do.

Refer to the appendix for a detailed descrip-tion of the PBL group's facilitator, leader,and recorder roles.

Advance Preparation for PBL Guides

We recommend inviting the participation ofPBL guides at least one month in advance ofthe event. Distribute the PBL project andoverview materials to guides approximatelytwo weeks prior to the event. Hold a prein-stitute meeting with guides the day beforethe event. With less experienced facilitators,more preparation time may be required.Emphasize that PBL guides should:

O Clearly understand the product specificationsfor the PBL project.

Believe in and understand the underlyinginstructional philosophy of PBL.

Let go of taking charge of the group andstay as a "guide on the side."

Be familiar with the institute schedule,where meeting rooms are, where instituteresources are, who is available to assistthem, and so forth.

0 Communicate with other PBL guides aboutthe progress and issues of your PBL group.

PBL Guides as Resources to Groups

Group members should be encouraged toseek the advice of all PBL guides at the insti-tute as consultants. It may be helpful to dis-tribute a sheet of paper with the respectiveexpertise of each PBL guide, so that allgroups can feel free to set up appointments/interviews with PBL guides in an effort touse all of the resources available to them.

Coordination Among PBLGuides During Institute

It is essential to include daily debriefingsamong PBL guides and institute coordina-tors. These debriefings ensure that daily,evaluative feedback can be addressed in acentralized, coordinated fashion. Perhapsthe most important function of dailydebriefings is to provide a forum that allowsyou to respond to emerging needs and sug-gestions of institute participants as they arise.

0 PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES FOR INSTITUTE

PARTICIPANTS TO CONNECT WITH FACULTY

One of the best resources reported by PBLgroups, along with print materials, is theexpertise of institute faculty. Inform partici-pants that faculty are available to serve asconsultants to PBL groups and provide thetimes they are available for appointments.In large institute settings, where there areten or more groups, appointments are critical.Time is always the biggest constraint, so

52452


encourage groups to prepare questions forfaculty in advance (while considering thatnew questions may emerge duringconsultations).

In addition, pay close attention to the timingof faculty presentations in relation to timefor PBL groups to meet, school teams tomeet, and so forth. We have found that itworks well to have faculty presentations andactivities in the mornings and to leave theafternoons for work on PBL, school improve-ment planning, and networking activities.

2 EVALUATE THE PROCESS

A well-constructed evaluation design canprove extremely valuable when you're tryingto learn ways to improve design and deliveryof leadership development institutes.NCREL's design has proven to be extremelyvaluable in providing the right kinds ofinformation that allow us to improve uponour experiences each time we do this. Ifpossible, conduct evaluations before, during,and after the institute. Include a mix ofwritten evaluations and personal interviewsthat capture qualitative andquantitative data.

CELEBRATE YOUR ACCOMPLISHMENTS!

Encourage PBL groups to treat themselves tosocial celebrations that reward their hardwork and accomplishments. Help them toindulge their creativity! Build celebratoryrituals into the institute schedule, and taketime at the end of the institute (after finalproject presentations have been made) tohave everyone congratulate each other ontheir accomplishments. Recognize that PBLis an intense, challenging experience; it isalso one that participants have successfullynavigated. Everyone will find it valuable toapplaud what they have achieved together.

R el ezereiceoHawkes, M. (1995). The Ohio Urban

Leadership Academy 1995 evaluationreport. Oak Brook, IL: North CentralRegional Educational Laboratory.

Hawkes, M. (1994). The MilwaukeePrincipals Institute 1994 summer sem-inar evaluation. Oak Brook, IL: NorthCentral Regional EducationalLaboratory.

53

CHAPTER 4: PBL PROJECTS AND SELECTED RESOURCES

C--aapterr

PBL Group Role Definitions

LEADER:

L -In:3*n and Sekcited Resources

Primarily responsible for organizingthe project in order to accomplish thelearning objectives and to completethe product. In the leader role, you:

Provide initial direction and set theagenda (assign roles, tasks, andtime allotments).

0 Contribute your own ideas andviews about the content of thediscussion.

0 Do not dominate the meetings.Let the facilitator run the meetings.

FACILITATOR: Acts as the traffic cop for the group.Keeps group on-task and on sched-ule; helps group to reach consensus(not agreement on what is the bestdecision, but agreement on a decisionthat everyone can live with). Whenacting as facilitator, strive to followthese guidelines:

0 Do not evaluate or contribute ideasto the content of the discussion.

Contribute your idea only if you

signal that you are stepping tem-

porarily out of your role as facilitator.

0 Protect individuals and their ideas

from personal attack.

0 Encourage everyone to participate

and do not allow anyone to domi-

nate the discussion.

RECORDER: Acts as the group's memory: recordsmajor ideas and decisions reachedand presents the group's report.When carrying out the role of therecorder, strive to:

54

0 Record the words of the speaker.

o Write down key phrases rather

than every word, but don't sub-

stitute your ideas for those of

the speaker.

Check periodically to ensure that

you are writing down everyone's

input.

. CHAPTER 4: PBL PROJECTS AND SELECTED RESOURCES-DID YOU MAKE THE TEAM?

Did You Ma (e t le Team?

by Bill Andrekopoulos

Introduction

As our cities experience widespread andrapid social and economic changes, urbanschools face a variety of unique challenges

an increasingly diverse student population; lowstaff expectations for student achievement; highstudent mobility, apathy, poverty, violence; andlarge achievement gaps between middle-classCaucasian students and poor African-Americanand Latino students. Furthermore, urban educatorsare ill-prepared to confront the challenges theyface due to diminished financial and humanresources; fragmented school, health, and socialservices; and outdated teacher and administratorpreparation programs.

Unfortunately, many urban educators believethey have little influence over student achieve-ment. They blame students' home environment,parents, or socioeconomic status for their lowachievement. Others simply believe that urban,poor African-American and Latino students areunable to achieve at the same level as middle-class Caucasian students.

Research on achievement has proven that evenin the most impoverished urban areas, high-achieving schools can develop under astute lead-ership. Researchers also have found that a schoolthat operates as a community is one that cultivatesprogressive reform, high morale, and a learningatmosphere. Such an environment fostersachievement, cultural sensitivity, and staffcommitment.

Now more than ever, schools need to functionas true communities in which staff, teachers, par-ents, and students feel responsible for each otherand take pride and ownership in their school andthe students' success. Building and sustainingthis type of community can be one of a schoolleader's toughest challenges: It requires providingstrong direction as well as supporting an openclimate in which inquiry, risk taking, and growthis the norm.

The process of fostering a community is com-plicated, involving nearly every function and policyof the schoolfrom staff development and cur-riculum issues to relations with parents, commu-nity, and the district. Some factors are beyondany one person's control, such as the size andlocation of the school or district. Other factorsmay cause staff to feel overwhelmed because oftheir scope and complexity, such as absenteeism,low staff morale, and poor parent involvement.Yet it is essential that all potential school leadersunderstand their capacity to overcome these chal-lenges and build a school community throughstrong commitment and a clear vision for schoolimprovement.

In the following scenario, you will be asked totake on the role of the principal of GeorgeWashington Middle School. Your challenge is toidentify the action steps necessary to engage theindividual interests and talents of your staff,teachers, and students; mobilize a school leader-ship team; and develop a true community oflearners and leaders.

40. 55

CHAPTER 4: PBL PROJECTS AND SELECTED RESOURCES-DID YOU MAKE THE TEAM?

The ProblemIt's Monday morning, the start of your third

week as principal at George Washington MiddleSchool, located in the heart of a medium-sizedcity. Your appointment book is full and your"In" basket is overflowing, but what's concerningyou most at the moment is enlisting teacher rep-resentatives for the shared decision-making council.Out of a staff of 65 teachers, only 3 responded toyour call for volunteers last week. You've stillgot to find seven teachers before the council'sfirst meeting, scheduled for Thursday. When youasked about the lack of enthusiasm at the school,one teacher remarked that shared decision makingwas a joke, that the council was nothing but a"token" group. You find the situation a bit per-plexing since in your years as an assistant principalat a nearby school, teachers normally jumped atthe chance to share in policy-making activitiesfor the school.

At George Washington, however, you're sensingthat things are quite different than what you'reused to, particularly when it comes to the teachers.Though the district has a mandate for shareddecision making, you've witnessed nothing thatwould lead you to believe that the teachers herefeel empowered.

At the top of your agenda for the shared deci-sion-making council this year is the issue of howto improve student achievement. GeorgeWashington has a student body of about 1,000,with 45 percent African-American, 5 percentLatino, and 50 percent Caucasian. Nearly 60percent of the students are enrolled in the freelunch program. At the end of last year, approxi-mately 33 percent of students in each grade wereretained. Already, many of the students are over-age due to retentions at the elementary level. Bythe district's estimation, 65 percent of GeorgeWashington's students are at least two grade levelsbehind in reading and math, with even more whosetest scores make them eligible for Chapter 1.

You also noticed that Caucasian students' scoreswere much higher than those of African-Americanand Latino students.

When you accepted the job, the superintendenthad mentioned that the staff might have a hardtime accepting you as their new leader since youare the third principal in just five years. At thesame time, the staff did play a role in the selectionprocess, and this had led you to assume that thetransition would be relatively smooth. You haveheard staff members say that they disliked theprevious principal because he was an autocrat,and that the principal prior to that had been pop-ular because she communicated well with staff,students, and the community. The teachers wereapparently very upset when she was moved to amiddle school that was just opening.

It appears that George Washington is structuredto operate as a community. There are committees,department meetings, team meetings, staff meet-ings, and a shared decision-making group, but, asyou're learning, these meetings are poorly attend-ed and even ridiculed by the staff.

There has also been ongoing difficulty gettingGeorge Washington staff involved in centraloffice projects. Just last week the director of cur-riculum and instruction phoned to tell you thatthere are no teacher representatives on any of thenew textbook adoption committees for next year.

There is also little parent participation in theschool; only 40 percent of parents show up forteacher conferences. However, the ParentTeacher Student Association is spearheaded by anactive group of 12 parents who seem to show agreat deal of concern for the school's well-being.

You began the school year with a good deal ofenthusiasm, working hard to be consistently visi-ble in the school's hallways, to maintain an open-door policy in your office, and to provide anoverall model for responsive, open communica-tion. You're ready to make a difference, but two

56


weeks have taught you that you're only one personand can't do it all. You've already fielded complaintsfrom five parents who left messages for teachersand never received a return phone call. One stu-dent dropped in to let you know that the school'stwo guidance counselors are "always too busy withpaperwork" to make appointments with students.You cannot be in every classroom and every hall-way, nor can you answer every phone call.

Of your two assistant principals, one is newthis year. He's got what you consider a good atti-tude, but having come from a high school, he hasno experience at the middle school level. Theother assistant principal is a veteran of George

Washington, and a somewhat disgruntled one atthat. He's been at the school for eight years inthe same role and has been passed over for pro-motion on numerous occasions. He's made itmore than clear that he feels slighted that youwere hired as principal instead of him.

You're beginning to lose confidence. You'veconsidered calling the district's administrativespecialist to ask for guidance several times, butyou feel that perhaps it's too early in the year toadmit your discomfiture. Besides, there are 150schools in the district, 23 of them middle schools,and you don't want to be the only principal ask-ing for help.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

At this moment, the phone rings. It's your longtime friend, Ann Peters, who is an educationprofessor and director of the student teaching program at the local university. She has beensupervising student teachers in your building this semester. You're always glad to hear fromAnn. She's an upbeat, experienced educator whose insights you value highly.

Today Ann is calling with some observations she's made in her first two weeks at the school.As you listen to what she has to say, your own perceptions of the problems within the schoolcommunity seem confirmed.

One aspect of life at George Washington that Ann finds striking is that very little conversation oreye contact occurs in the hallways between classes. As she walked through the halls in the lasttwo weeks, neither teachers nor students seemed to pay any attention to her or, for that matter,to anyone else. They weren't exactly unfriendly, says Ann, but they did seem distracted and distant.

Ann tells you that inside the classrooms, she observed a number of teachers relying on skill anddrill instructional tactics, which left most students unengaged and often misbehaving. When youhear this, you think about the fact that many teachers believe that their students must master thebasics before they can master higher-level thinking skills. When she asks, you give Ann thestatistics: attendance is low (approximately 84 percent); tardies average 47 daily; the suspensionrate is 37 percent; and discipline cases average 900-1,100 per month.

Ann continues on to say she perceived a rift between Caucasian and non-Caucasian students,with the Caucasian students generally receiving more attention from teachers, while the otherstudents usually sat in the far reaches of the classroom. On the first day of school, in one class-room, Ann watched as a math teacher renamed his students as he took attendance, fromGuillermo to "Bill" and from Rosa to "Rose." Another teacher sent six students to the assistantprincipal's office over a 40-minute period. Yet another handed out a multiple-choice pop quiz andthen left the room for nearly half an hour.

57


She pauses to add that she did find several teachers using progressive, interactive methods ofinstruction in their classes that met with more success. Strangely, says Ann, these teachersappeared to have less confidence in their abilities than those teaching in the more traditional mode.

Ann also remarks that the Caucasian teachers (84 percent of the teaching population) andAfrican-American teachers (16 percent of the teaching population) do not seem to interact oftenor sit together in the teacher's lounge, at staff meetings, and at school assemblies. At the sametime, Ann points out that when it comes to extracurricular activities, nearly all the leadership posi-tions are held by Caucasian students. However, there are nearly equal numbers of Caucasianand non-Caucasian students participating in extracurriculars. Oftentimes, teachers take an activerole in encouraging or selecting students for leadership positions.

Ann relates how she arrived at your office one day and took a seat in what appeared to be a gen-eral administrative office and reception area. She was ready to tell anyone who asked that shewas waiting to meet with student teachers, but nobody asked her why she was there. As she satthere, she heard one of the school secretaries answer the phone, "George Washington MiddleSchool. . . . What? . . . No, the principal isn't here now. I don't know where she is, but she'll prob-ably be here before very long. . . . Please call back."

She tells you that in the ten minutes she spent in the reception area, she was struck by the sec-retaries' casual, if not indifferent, attitude toward people who came and went from the counter,particularly students. When one student approached with a question about the upcoming schoolscience fair, one secretary responded by saying that the fair was "not her area" and left it at that.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Your Challenge:

Upon hearing all this, you take a deep breathand thank Ann for taking the time to call. Youassure her that you intend to develop a plan thataddresses her concerns and some of your ownabout the school, and you ask her to continue tomonitor the situation. After you put down thephone, you begin to make a mental list of theareas in the school that need improvement. Asyou ponder these issues, you realize that unlessyou find a way to solve them quickly, your stayat this middle school and your success as a prin-cipal will be short-lived.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

." Acquire and apply knowledge and under-standing of strategies for effective leader-ship.

3

4

Acquire and apply knowledge about effec-tive models and approaches for shareddecision making.

Acquire knowledge and understanding ofthe skills needed to guide a group of indi-viduals to work as a team.

Acquire an understanding of what it takesto develop community in a school setting.

Acquire knowledge of research-basedstrategies for reducing the achievement gapbetween middle-class Caucasian studentsand poor African-American and Latinostudents.

Understand how to promote a student-centered and culturally sensitive schooland learning environment.


GUIDING QUESTIONS

,e What instructional philosophies, stan-- dards, and strategies must we have to

raise achievement of all students, particu-larly those most underserved?

What are effective ways for a leader to getthe members of an organization to focuson a set of shared beliefs and values?

3

a

0

How does a school community prioritizeneeds, determine key goals, and identifythe resources and strategies necessary toachieve them? And how does this becomea collaborative process?

Once a vision (i.e., a set of perceived, pri-oritized needs) is created, by what meanscan an administration develop a commit-ment to it and, in turn, institutionalize it?

How does teamwork develop? How doesa school develop a sense of community?

What are the major roles and responsibilitiesof a principal, teachers, parents, and stu-dents in a shared decision-making model?

How do people begin to take ownershipof the organization for which they work?

Why are empowerment and high moraleimportant to an organization?

Why is good public relations important?

What are some of the common problemsa staff faces when there is a continualchange in leadership?

PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS

Identify and prioritize a set of needs thatyou perceive in the George Washingtonschool community.

46V

3

Taking these needs into account, write avision statement to guide school improve-

ment aimed at creating a strong, collabora-

tive, student-centered school culture at

George Washington School.

Write a plan for how to involve other mem-

bers of the school community in creating a

shared school vision and mission.

Present your vision and plan at a meetingwith school staff, parents, communitymembers, and central office staff.

Presentations are to last no longer than 15minutes. Each PBL group will be paired withanother PBL group. Your partner PBL group willserve as the participants in the meeting.Instructions are attached for PBL partner groups.Provide a copy of your vision and plan to the"guide on the side" assisting your group.

ONSTRUCTIONS TO PEI PARTNER GROUPS

Each PBL group will be paired with anotherPBL group for the purposes of the final PBLproject presentation.

As the audience for another team's presenta-tion, you will take on the roles of the schoolstaff, community leaders, and parents of GeorgeWashington school. While they are giving their15-minute presentation, you will be listeningfrom the perspective of members of the GeorgeWashington community. At the end of the pre-sentation, you will have 15 minutes to ask ques-tions of the other group, much as you would ifyou were asking questions of the principal at afaculty meeting or retreat. Keep your commentsand questions realistic but positive and construc-tive. Good luck!

59


George Washington Middle Schooll

Staff Profile1996-1997

NuRRBIER OF TEACHERS°. 65

less than S years

S to 15 years

more than 15 years

TEACHING EXPERIENCE

20%

62%

RACIAL BREAKDOWN84%

European-American

16%African-American

NUMBER OF

OTHER STAFF

Principal 1

Assistant Principals 2

Guidance Counselors 2

Nurse 1

Secretaries 2

Cafeteria and Janitorial Staff 8

60


George Wasain ton Miiddile Sc

Organizational Chart1996.1997

RINCIPaL

bolo

ASSISTANT PRINCIPALS AND

ADMINISTRATIVE TEAM

SCHOOL-BASED

MANAGEMENT COUNCILS*TEACHERS

ParentInvolvementCommittee

BuildingCommittee

SchoolClimate

Committee

Social EventsCommittee

SchoolEffectivenessCommittee

*Committees are designed to be broad based. They include teachers, parents, students, and administrators.

61

PTSA


K e y 1( es ou Ir c e s

SYSTEMIC CHANGE

Fullan, M., & Miles, M. (1992). Getting reform right:What works and what doesn't. Phi DeltaKappan, 73(10), 745-752.

Murphy, J., & Hallinger, P. (1993). Restructuringschooling: Learning from ongoing efforts. In J.Murphy, & P. Hallinger (Eds.), Restructuringschooling: Learning from ongoing efforts (pp.251-271). Newbury Park, CA: Corwin Press.

SCHOOL VISION AND MISSION

Barth, R. S. (1993). Coming to a vision. Journal ofStaff Development, 14(1), 6-11.

George, P. S., Stevenson, C., Thomason, J., & Beane,J. (1992). Middle school organization:Practices reflecting values. The middle schooland beyond (pp. 46-80). Alexandria, VA:Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment.

MULTICULTURAL/DIVERSITY ISSUES

de la Luz Reyes, M., & Laliberty, E. A. (1992). Ateacher's "pied piper" effect on youngauthors. Education and Urban Society, 24(2),263-278.

Jackson, F. R. (1993-94). Seven strategies to supportculturally responsive pedagogy. Journal ofReading, 37(4), 298-303.

CHALLENGING LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

Haberman, M. (1991). The pedagogy of poverty ver-sus good teaching. Phi Delta Kappan, 73(4),290-294.

Irvin, J. L. (1992). Developmentally appropriateinstruction: The heart of the middle school. InJ. L. Irvin (Ed.), Transforming middle leveleducation: Perspectives and possibilities (pp.295-313). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &Bacon, Inc.

Oxley, D. (1994). Organizing schools into small units:Alternatives to homogenous grouping. PhiDelta Kappan, 75(7), 521-526.

Wang, M. C., & Kovach, J. A. (1995). Bridging theachievement gap in urban schools: Reducingeducational segregation and advancingresilience-promoting strategies. In B. Williams(Ed.), Closing the achievement gap: A visionto guide change in beliefs and practice (pp. 9-24). Oak Brook, IL: North Central RegionalEducational Laboratory.

MOBILIZING PARENT-COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/Family/CommunityPartnerships: Caring for the children we share.Phi Delta Kappan, 76(9), 701-712.

Fullan, M. G., & Hargreaves, A. (1991). Totalschools. In What's worth fighting for?:Working together for your school (pp. 37-61).Andover, MA: The Regional Laboratory forEducational Improvement of the Northeastand Islands.

Jehl, J., & Kirst, M. (1992). Getting ready to provideschool-linked services: What schools must do.In The future of children (pp. 95-106). LosAltos, CA: The Center for the Future ofChildren, The David and Lucile PackardFoundation.

TEAM-BUILDING/SCHOOL CULTURE

Deal, T., & Peterson, K. (1993). Strategies for buildingschool cultures: Principals as symbolic leaders.In M. Sashkin, & H. Walberg (Eds.),Educational leadership and school culture (pp.89-99). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publishers.

Kruse, S., Louis, K. S., & Bryk, A. (1994). Buildingprofessional community in schools. Issues inRestructuring Schools, 6, 3-6. Madison, WI:Center on Restructuring and Organization ofSchools.

Saphier, J., & King, M. (1985). Good seeds grow instrong cultures. Educational Leadership,42(6), 67-74.

CHAPTER 4: PBL PROJECTS AND SELECTED RESOURCES-THE DISGRUNTLED COUNSELOR

T

by Rogers Onick and Philip Hal linger

Introduction

Dis runtlled Counsellor

After a ball game in which there had beennumerous controversial calls, threeumpires went out for a beer and reflected

on their various philosophies of the sport.

One umpire claimed, "Well, you know I don'tcare what they say. I call 'em as I see 'em."Responding quickly, the second ump interjected,"Huh, not me; I call 'em as they are!" Sittingback, the third umpire said quietly, "For me,well, they ain't nothing 'til I call 'em."

School reform involves change. As with theball game above, school reform initiatives arelikely to be seen from different perspectives.Administrators, parents, teachers, students, andpoliticians all naturally interpret a given changefrom their own points of view. While an innova-tion designed to boost student learning may looklike motherhood and apple pie to one person orgroup, it might just as easily raise specters ofunion-busting, Darwinism, or favoritism to others.

The tension that usually accompanies changerelates to the values applied by the affected par-ticipants to the request or plan for the change.Anything that threatens to take people out oftheir routine has the potential to create conflict.Thus, at the heart of leadership is the ability tobring about change in people and institutions.

No matter how good the intention of a princi-pal, when the attempt to bring about changetakes place, corresponding and seemingly whollyunrelated issues will color the landscape in whichreform unfolds. Although the administrator can

anticipate some of the issues in advance, otherunanticipated issues will release all sorts of emo-tions, views, threats, and appeals.

It is important to give thought to one's visionfor reform at the outset. Whatever that visionmay be, it must relate to the potential to enhancestudent learning, whether directly or indirectly.We've all been told at one time or another thatschools exist for students, or that educatorswouldn't have jobs if it weren't for students, orthe bottom line in educational reform is whetherchange maximizes student learning.

It would seem that regardless of what youwant to do as a building principal, your visionand philosophy for changing aspects of your pro-gram or organization must be tied to the benefitsfor students. Yet, at the same time, while schoolreform is often encompassed in grand visions, theadministrator's job entails translating these intoactions on a daily, weekly, and monthly basis. Aparticularly difficult part of managing changerequires the administrator to accept conflict andmessiness as organic to the process. While changedoes involve planning, it is only in the process ofimplementing reforms that the administrator canbe fully aware of what is needed to bring aboutthe change in his or her specific context.

Education is a dynamic enterprise. Theprocess for bringing about desired, importantchange to increase student learning is seldom lin-ear. Although we like to think of change in termsof progress, more often we take steps forwardand then retreat back, then step forward again,learning from mistakes along the way. Theprocess is more like the flight of a butterfly thanthe trajectory of a bullet.

83


The Problem

In the following scenario, you will be asked to take on the role of principal of Washington

Park Middle School. You are in your fourth year as principal of this large (1,100-plus stu-dents), Grade 6 to 8 urban middle school. Several years ago, the school adopted themiddle schools concept. It is still making the transition from a traditional teacher-centered,

junior high curriculum to a student-centered program.

Last year, the school also agreed to be a pilot school for a new districtwide school-to-workprogram. This program is designed to connect the curriculum to the real world and toenhance student opportunities and transitions from school to the workplace. Both themiddle school philosophy and the school-to-work program have required a different

approach to the school's curriculum, the professional roles of staff members, and thestructure of the school day.

Wednesday, April 12, 2 p.m., in the conference room for your weekly meeting with the middleschool's three assistant principals:

PRINCIPAL:

Let's begin with staffing needs for next year.Our staffing report is due into the centraloffice by May 20. -The sooner we get it tothem, the so-oner we can receive permissionto begin interviewing candidates.

LAURA HILL, A.P. FOR CURRICULUM:

We also need to finalize scheduling plans fornext year. We're set in most of the subjectareas, but the new courses are another story.For example, the Sociology of the Familycourse that was proposed last year is readyto go, but we are still short teachers for twoperiods of the day. We need three teacherson this course if your plan to reach all sev-enth graders is going to happen next year.We have a similar problem with the Careerscourse that the eighth-grade teachers havebeen teaching. Also, our most experiencedguidance counselor, Mr. Watts, is taking

gs

early retirement this year, and we are goingto need someone to replace him.

DON DAVIES, A.P. FOR ADMINISTRATION:

Under the district's school-to-work initiative,counselors have to provide more leadershipin both academic and counseling areas.Remember, we are supposed to put intoplace a school-to-work process for every stu-dent in the school. We have to use this asan opportunity for moving ahead. Why can'twe use the counselors as teachers to improvethe teaching of the Careers course as well asthe new soc class?

HILL:

64

The counselors could use the software andother materials we ordered for a career cen-ter. It's a perfect match, after all: coun-selors teaching the Careers class.


TONIE JAMISON, EXECUTIVE A.P.:

I'd be inclined to say, an almost perfectmatch. Remember that the counselors herehave never traditionally taught classes. I'mnot necessarily saying that they shouldn't;just don't expect a give-away on this.

PRINCIPAL:

Well, we have a goal of increasing studentcontact for all special-program staff, includ-ing the counselors. That's a part of the mid-dle school's philosophy that we've consis-tently fallen short on. Last year, we startedto have teachers doing counseling throughthe student advising program. It makessense to me that the counselor should pitchin on teaching in areas germane to theirspecialties.

JAIVIISON:

We're also getting some heat from theassociate superintendent's office over thepace of implementation with the school-to-work program. To quote Dr. Dyer, "You'rejust not getting the horses into place tomove the cart. When are we going to seechanges in the program that begin to bringit in line with what we want for students asthey move through school and into theworkplace?" The counselors could helpmove that program along by providing somecareer counseling.

PRINCIPAL:

That may be, but at this point we don't havea choice on whether or not to implement it.We made that decision last year when weagreed to take this on. Besides, the goals ofthe program are totally consistent with whatwe profess to want for our students. Thestaffwell, at least a lot of themfelt that

way when we voted to become a pilotschool for the program. So what are ouroptions?

HILL:

In the current circumstance, I suggest thatMr. Watts' counselor replacement teach oneperiod of Careers a day and one period ofSociology of the Family. The eighth-gradeteachers don't like teaching Careers, and itwill push the counselors in a direction theyneed to be going anyway.

JAMISON:

If we go in that direction, then we'd betterbe explicit in the staffing report as well.That way, whoever applies for the vacantposition will understand that in addition tocounseling, there is a teaching assignment,too. I don't want the headache of supervis-ing someone else who can't deal with a flexi-ble assignment. You know, we're supposedto have a new school philosophy, but peopleforget that this means they have to changewhat they do! It's like they want to get toheaven without ever dying.

HILL:

Well, as far as I'm concerned, we shouldalso look at having Helene Arthur, the next-senior counselor, teach the Careers course.She happens to be highly qualified to takeon these particular teaching responsibilities.We supported her staff development andcurriculum purchases in the Careers area injust the past two years. She hasn't done athing with it, so far as I can tell; let her earnher keep. In fact, she can also teach one ofthe sociology classes, with the new coun-selor teaching the other one.

65


JAMISON:

Except for the hassle of getting her to do itand do it well, I'd agree. What's our teacherallocation budget look like? Do we haveanyone else on staff, or anyone we couldbring in to take these courses?

DAVIES:

We'd have to make a special request to thedistrict for another teaching slot. We couldmake the case that it's a new course andpart of the school-to-work program. Itworked last year, but they warned us aboutcoming back every time we wanted them tofund us to do something different.

PRINCIPAL:

Yes, I got that one as well. We're supposedto be making the changes that we desirewithin the allocated budget.

HILL:

Well, Ms. Arthur is certified to teach thecourse, and you've wanted her to be morestudent oriented. Here's an opportunity toincrease her contact time with students in away she can't squirm out of.

With the new block scheduling, the coun-selors can receive a different group of stu-dents for Careers every six weeks. Thiswould be followed by four weeks ofSociology of the Family. By having thecounselors assume this responsibility, theeighth-grade teachers can start theirexploratory offering, or high-interest classes,immediately at the start of the year.Preparation for the Career and Sociologyclasses would be minimal. They can uselessons developed for the initial groups forsucceeding ones.

DAVIES:

Sounds good to me. It puts people wheretheir expertise lies, balances out the workload, and increases counselors' time withstudents. How can we lose?

JAMISON:

Well, I've never seen a situation where some-one didn't think they were losing. In thisone, we can move the horse, but it remainsto be seen whether that's going to get thecart on the road. It's worth a try, though.

PRINCIPAL:

Okay, that sounds like consensus. I'll letMs. Arthur know this week that she's goingto be teaching a section of Careers and alsoSociology of the Family. Let's go to the nextitem: final-exam scheduling.

DAVIES:

Uh, before we move on, let me suggest thatwe inform Ms. Arthur as a team. She's lesslikely to throw a fit if she knows we're unit-ed on this decision. I'll also draft the jobdescription for the staffing report. I'll run itby Tonie and pass it on for you to look atbefore we send it over to Central.

PRINCIPAL:

Okay, sounds good.

66


Background

Helene Arthur has more than 20 years of

experience working in the district. She has

spent the last ten years as a counselor at

Washington Park Middle School. You like Ms.

Arthur and have known her since you came to

Washington Park with a specialty program

eight years ago. When you were made prin-

cipal four years ago, Ms. Arthur made you feel

welcome. Since becoming principal, however,

you have learned that although Ms. Arthur

considers herself a team player, she balks at

having her role expanded. Thinking back on

the previous year, you can recall several inci-

dents that pertain to your current decision to

have her teach Careers and Sociology.

The Schedule

Three years ago the school adopted the middleschools concept. One of the precepts of thisphilosophy is to meet student needs through pro-viding the staff with more flexible roles. Thus,teachers took on responsibilities for advising students.Special-program staff also had to shift their roles.

In order to get a better handle on how non-teaching staff members were spending their time,you asked them to keep a weekly schedule oftheir activities. This was to be used to assess cur-rent time use and to identify potential changes.In response, Ms. Arthur simply did not turn inthe requested schedule. When pressed by DonDavies, she complained to the district's pupil-personnel administrator.

When you met with her to discuss her feelingsabout this, she retorted, "I do so many things

with students that you don't know about.Maybe I should be filling you in more on what Ido, but do you really think a schedule is neces-sary? I don't want to be turned into a clock-punching bureaucrat! I came here to work withkids, and that's what I do. If you want to followme around for a week, you can see what I do!"

While your own intent was not focused onbureaucratic procedures, you needed this infor-mation in order to make sound decisions on allo-cation of staff. Moreover, you were concernedthat Ms. Arthur wasn't spending enough timewith students. When you recounted the conver-sation to your A.P.s, Don Davies shook his headand said, "That's one lazy counselor. One thing Ican assure you, if I followed her around for ayear, I wouldn't wear out the leather on my shoes!"

Over the objections of Davies, you decided togive her a chance and no longer require theschedule.

Student to Student

Two years ago, Laura Hill came back from aregional middle schools conference where she hadattended a session on counseling groups of students.The presenting counselors discussed how theyhad organized ongoing group counseling sessionsfor students on self-directed techniques for conflictresolution, peer counseling, and problem solving.

This information was so consistent with thenew Washington Park philosophy that Hill cameback with hand-outs, which she shared withcounselors and other staff. Ms. Arthur agreed toreplicate the program and subsequently orderedthe videos and other program materials.However, in the ensuing year and a half, she didlittle to implement it beyond holding some initialorientation sessions each school year. Whenasked why the program was not being developed,she replied, "I'm just not sure if it's right for our

67


students. It seems to require more skills andmaturity than they have for working in groups.I've been using some of the concepts in workingwith the students one on one instead."

The Annual Evaluation

Although Ms. Arthur's annual evaluationreport was satisfactory last spring, it did includenotations concerning several perceived deficien-cies: eating in the office, filing her nails in frontof students and parents, not meeting with stu-dents, and poor attendance.

At the time, Ms. Arthur was distraught andblurted to you through her tears, "If I knew youhad these concerns, I would have improved, butnobody ever once told me you were upset aboutthese things."

In fact, after checking with your A.P.s, itturned out that she was right about the lack ofnotification, so you removed the unfavorablecomments. You did, however, tell her that youexpected improvements and that Tonie Jamisonwould be doing an interim evaluation with hernext year. (Formal evaluations are conductedevery three years for tenured staff in the district.)

The Missing Club Advisor

Ms. Arthur is the official advisor for the YoungEducators' Society (YES), which has 25 membersdrawn from grades six through eight. The club isscheduled to meet once a week in the cafeteria,during which time Ms. Arthur advises the stu-dents on careers in teaching.

Earlier this school year, you visited one of theclub's meetings, but Ms. Arthur wasn't there. Later,when you asked her about this, she said she for-got about the meeting. You reminded her of theimportance of her diligent attendance at meetings.

As the weeks passed, you saw no visible resultsof her increased interaction with the students.Although you assumed they met weekly, it turnsout they didn't. Moreover, since then you haveheard nothing around the school about clubactivities. When you mention this to TonieJamison, he tells you he'll keep an eye on it aswell and bring it up with Ms. Arthur in a futureconference.

The story continues several weeks later . . .

Thursday, May 13, 9:15 a.m.,outside your office

Tonie Jamison approaches you and suggeststhat it's time to inform Ms. Arthur of theteam's decision. Laura and Don have to fin-ish up scheduling for next year. You set adate and time and inform your three A.P.sand Ms. Arthur of the meeting.

Monday, May 18, 11:15 p.m., meeting withMs. Arthur and the administrative team

(Although you didn't invite Mr. Watts, theretiring counselor, Ms. Arthur brings himwith her to the meeting.)

TONE JAMISON:

Well, Charlie, how's it feel to be on the finalgo-around?

CHARLIE WATTS:

Very strange, I can tell you that. With all ofthe complaining we do about the kids, youdon't realize how much a part of your lifethey become until they're not going to bethere anymore.

68


LAURA HILL:

Any plans for transition?

WATTS:

Well, I've got some ideas, but first I want toborrow Don's boat for some fishing up onthe lake.

DO DAVIES:

Assuming your time's going to be a lot moreflexible than mine, that shouldn't be a problem.

WATTS:

That's a deal. I'm also thinking of taking upa second career, but I think I'd better makean appointment with Helene first for somecareer counseling.

HELENE ARTHUR:

There's nothing I could teach you aboutthat! You wrote the book. By the way, Iassume it's okay for Charlie to be here. I

figured that since we were going to be dis-cussing planning for next year, we couldbenefit from his experience one last time.

PRINCIPAL:

Well, Mr. Watts might just be able to offersome insight as we move in some new direc-tions and could help us to see some angleswe may have missed. We've been looking atsome creative ways to achieve our goal ofhaving a more student-centered program,particularly for those pieces related to theschool-to-work initiative. In order toaccomplish that, counselors are going toplay a key role.

ARTHUR:

I'm sure you know that you can count onthe counseling staff. Do you have any insideinfo on who's going to replace Mr. Watts?

HILL:

Well, you know the new Sociology of theFamily course we're introducing next year?It's going to be a big plus for the school.The concept of the course was initiated bycentral office, and this is an opportunity forus to show that we're taking their ideas seri-ously. It's also going to be a real addition tothe school-to-work approach, so we all win.

ARTHUR:

I couldn't agree with you more. We'veneeded a course like this for some time. Butyou're preaching to the choir here. Mr.Watts and I have long told the district staffthat we need these kinds of courses. So whyare you telling us this?

PRINCIPAL:

Well, Helene, with the new schedule for nextyear, we're going to ask both counselors toChip in with the teaching. We've put you into teach the Careers course fifth period forboth semesters. It may also be that we'regoing to need you to teach one section ofthe Sociology of the Family course, too.The new counselor will have a similarassignment.

HILL:

This will free up the eighth-grade teachers toconcentrate on their exploratory, high-inter-est elective courses. We think that Careerscan best be taught by counselors such asyourselves who have the training and exper-tise in this area. The counselors can teach

69


Careers to all of the eighth graders duringalternating free periods. We'll be sure thatthe new counselor also has a K-8 teachingcertificate so he or she can also take this on.

ARTHUR:

You're telling me that I'm teaching next year?

DAVIES:

Now Ms. Arthur, you know the counselingstaff is going to have to start taking onteaching assignments, just as our teachersare taking on student advising. One of theassumptions of the middle schools concept isthat homeroom teachers are student advisors.That should have begun to lighten some ofyour load, which we know is considerable.

ARTHUR:

Uh, well, that's news to me. I still wantto know . . . are you telling me that I'mteaching next year?

PRINCIPAL:

Yes, that's the decision we've made. Is thereany input you'd like to give us on this?

ARTHUR:

Well, it sounds like you've already made upyour minds. Why should I give you anopinion? I just don't see why you want toturn teachers into counselors and counselorsinto teachers! It just defeats the purpose ofour specialties.

Well, this is really none of my business, butthe teachers have only just begun to assistwith the advising. I haven't wanted to men-tion this, but we now spend a lot of time

solving problems caused by teachers givingout improper information to students. Canyou really expect teachers to be advisors?

DAVIES:

It's not an issue of whether we can or not.We are expecting it. It's being done else-where and being done well. It's just goingto take time.

PRINCIPAL:

The way we see it, the changes taking placein the school will require all staff to be moreflexible concerning their roles. If we areserious about reshaping education to meetthe real needs of our students, we must havethe ability for people to contribute theirskills and talent where they're needed most.That requires a new way of thinking aboutwhat we do that isn't always going to fitinto the traditional way of organizing theschool. That's the case with the middleschool philosophy and with school-to-work.

ARTHUR:

Well then, that about answers my questionmore doesn't it? You're ordering me to beflexible.

HILL:

We know that changing roles is not easy, butit's part of the job. This will present newchallenges for you, and it will also have ben-efits for the kids. I'm sure you can see that.

ARTHUR:

What I see at the moment is you telling mewhat's good for me. I don't know.

79


PRINCIPAL:

If you wish to talk further about this pri-vately, we can do so at your convenience.

ARTHUR:

I really have to go now. I've got some stu-dents waiting for me, and I don't want to betold that I missed another appointment withstudents.

(After Ms. Arthur and Mr. Watts leave, youagree with the A.P.s that although the meet-ing could have gone better, it also couldhave gone worse. Anyway, the hard partwas done . . . or so you thought.)

Later that day, at 3:45 p.m., Ms. Arthurmeets you in the copy room across fromher office.

ARTHUR:

You know, you really took me by surprisethis morning. I can't believe that you wouldembarrass me with that in front of the gangof four and Mr. Watts. You should havetold me about this in private, gotten myopinion, and then discussed it with thecounseling staff. Instead, you're just rail-roading me into this.

PRINCIPAL:

Now Ms. Arthur, we just wanted to be clearabout our expectations. You know there'llhave to be some changes for everyone.

ARTHUR:

I don't believe I can handle teaching. I wastotally shocked when you told me I'd haveto, but I didn't want to say too much then.

I'm really hurt, after all I've contributed tothis school, that you would do this to me.Uh, let me ask you something. You don'thave to answer it if you don't want to; I'llunderstand. But whose idea was it anywayfor me to teach?

PRINCIPAL:

Ms. Hill suggested it, as the CurriculumA.P., but all of us supported the idea.

ARTHUR:

And she's supposed to be my friend! Well, Iprobably shouldn't tell you this, but one ofyour A.P.s told me that they tried to tell youthat having me teach isn't a good idea, butthat you wouldn't listen. I know you're notdoing me any favors these days, that's for sure.

PRINCIPAL:

Helene, I think we should wait a while totalk. Let's get together next Wednesdayafter I've spoken more with the administra-tive team about our options. We'll work outa final decision then.

71

CHAPTER 4: PBS PROJECTS AND SELECTED RESOURCES-THE DISGRUNTLED COUNSELOR

Your Challenge:

As principal, you and your team will need towork out a solution to this problem that meetsyour goals within the constraints under whichyou are operating. You will need to make a deci-sion and develop a strategy for communicatingthis to Ms. Arthur in the one-on-one conference.Your goal is to create a win-win situation, if pos-sible. If you cannot, you need to be fully-pre-pared for the consequences.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

To identify issues and consequencesinvolved when principals must make deci-sions in light of potentially conflictingneeds of staff and students.

3

To reflect on your personal feelings aboutconfronting staff with difficult decisions.

To use levels of staff concerns as a guideto confronting individual staff members.

To learn how to use a variety of concep-tual lenses for interpreting a problem.

To effectively communicate a decision in aconference and/or memo style.

GUIDING QUESTIONS

When considering a decision in light ofstaff and student needs, how shouldadministrators determine whose needs takeprecedence? How do on-the-job needsthat must be met figure into one's valuesand vision of change in a school setting?

How do your own past experiences indealing with change and conflict shapeyour feelings and approach to such situa-tions in the present? What assumptionsdo you typically bring to situations thatinvolve change?

4724)P

3

5

7

a

72

What do you need to understand aboutyourself as a leader when preparing astaff for change? What do you need toknow about your teachers as you imple-ment new initiatives?

How does initial interpretation of aproblem affect one's approach to a solu-tion? What mistakes did this principalmake in introducing this change? Werethe major errors a result of misinterpret-ing the problem or a poor solution?What steps might you take to broadenyour interpretation of complex problems?

How does your perspective on this situa-tion shift as you view it as a changeproblem, adult development problem,staff performance problem, politicalnegotiation problem?

What are the major legal and organiza-tional constraints that would influenceyour actions in this situation?

How do your own personal values oneducation influence your thinking aboutthis problem?

When is moving forward with a plan forchange worth the potential consequencesof declining individual and/or staffmorale?

How should administrators conduct con-ferences in which bad news is going tobe delivered?

What are the potential consequences offollowing through with your decision?Of backing off? Are there other alterna-tives that could achieve your goals?

Under what circumstances is it appropri-ate to follow up a conference with astaff member with a memo and place itin his or her personnel file?



Your task is to determine the best course ofaction that you, as the principal, should take inresolving this problem. Will you change your ini-tial decision, put Ms. Arthur in the classroom, orcreate another alternative? What will be thebasis for your action?

1 Prepare yourself to conduct a one-on-oneconference with Ms. Arthur. The confer-ence will not exceed 15 minutes in length.Ms. Arthur will show up for the confer-ence and will act in character. During theconference, you should convey your finaldecision to her as well your rationale forit. You should be prepared to respond toher concerns and threats, whatever theymay be.

Based upon the outcome of the confer-ence, prepare a memo, not to exceed onetyped, single-spaced page for Ms. Arthur'sfile. The memo should convey your deci-sion, the rationale, the contents of themeeting, and any future steps you havediscussed.

ASSESSMENT

Review the videotape of your conferencewith Ms. Arthur and answer the follow-ing questions:

a. How did you feel during the conferenceand how did your feelings change asthe conference progressed?

b. What conferencing techniques worked?Which did not? How did your plan forthe conference unfold? Were there anysurprises?

c. Was the outcome of the conference sat-isfactory in your eyes? Why or whynot? What criteria would you use tojudge success?

3

d. If you were to hold this conferenceagain, what would you do during it?

If you were to confront the same decisionagain, how might you approach it differ-ently? Specifically?

a. What role would your administrativeteam play and how might you use themdifferently?

b. What sequence of steps would youenvision taking to introduce this newpolicy to the counseling staff? Be sureto include a brief contingency plan thatanticipates the possible consequences ofyour decision.

c. Which of the perspectives introduced inthe project (change, adult development,negotiation) would have the most influ-ence for your reinterpretation of theproblem? Briefly state why.

Complete the attached Talkback sheet.

ROLE FOR MS. ARTHUR IN THE CONFERENCE

You have been given considerable clues as toMs. Arthur's personality in the text of the problem.In the conference, you should continue to playthis role. Here are some guidelines you can use:

1 Continue to alternate between wanting toappear reasonable and dropping remarksthat indicate possible consequences of theprincipal forcing you to teach.

Some negatives you might raise includeany of the following:

o You'll transfer to another school.

o This situation will damage the princi-pal's reputation.

o Claim that the principal does not havethe authority to make this assignment.

7 3


3

O This is unfair punishment and nothingin your past evaluations suggests thatyou deserve this.

O You'll file a grievance.

O Imply that your effort in teaching theCareers course would be less thansteller, given the circumstances.

Come to the meeting with some alterna-tives of your own that seem reasonable(at least from your point of view):

O Note that you have been working on agroup counseling program and beganimplementing it this past year (eventhough you really didn't).

7 4

4

0 You would be willing to expand thiscounseling program.

0 You would be willing to act as a coun-seling resource person for the teacherwho takes the Careers course.

Feel free to change the subject withoutresponding to the principal's side of theissue, particularly if you feel that he orshe is not hearing your concerns.


K e y R es our c esPERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL CHANGE

Evans, R. (1989). The faculty in midcareer:Implications for school improvement.Educational Leadership, 46(8), 10-15.

Fullan, M., & Hargreaves, A. (1991). Interactive pro-fessionalism and guidelines for action. InWhat's worth fighting for? Working togetherfor your school (pp. 62-97). Andover, MA:Regional Laboratory for EducationalImprovement of the Northeast and Islands.

Krupp, J. (1987). Understanding and motivating per-sonnel in the second half of life. Journal ofEducation, 169(1), 20-46.

Vanderslice, V., & Farmer, S. (1994). Transformingourselves: Becoming an inquiring community.In M. Fine (Ed.), Chartering urban schoolreform: Reflections on public high schools inthe midst of change (pp. 85-97). New York:Teachers College Press.

STAFF SUPERVISION

Bridges, E. M. (1990). Managing the incompetentteacher. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon.

Lawrence, C. E., & Vachon, M. K. (1994). How tohandle staff misconduct. Thousand Oaks, CA:Corwin Press.

CONFERENCING

Booher, D. (1994). Holding your own in meetings, butworking as a team. Training & Development,48(8), 54-61.

IlliEMO WRITING

Sweetnam, S. (1986). The executive memo: A guide topersuasive business communications (pp. 64-67, 74-82). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

illilDDLE SCHOOLS CONCEPT

Crockett, M. (1994). Restructuring schools for earlyadolescent learners. NASSP Bulletin, 78(564),70-78.

Daly, J. L., & Feller, R. W. (1992). Educational changeand counselor renewal. Counselor role andeducational change: Planning, integration andbasic skills: Book 6. Fort Collins, CO:Colorado State University Press.

Hopfenburg, W. S., Levin, H. M., Meister, G., &Rogers, J. (1990). Toward accelerated middleschools. Stanford, CA: Stanford University.

Thomas, R. J., & Hutchinson, R. L. (1992). Meetingstudents' needs: Counselors' changing roles.Available on microfiche from ERIC DocumentReproduction Service, Rockville, MD.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1981). Focus on interests, notpositions. Invent options for mutual gain. InGetting to yes (pp. 41-57, 58-83). New York:Penguin Books.

Katz, N. H., & Lawyer, J. W. (1993). Conflict resolu-tion: Building bridges. Roadmaps to success.Newbury Park, CA: Corwin Press.

Rucci, R. B. (1991). Dealing with difficult people: Aguide for educators. Available on microfichefrom ERIC Document Reproduction Service,Rockville, MD.

LEGAL ASPECTS OF PERSONNEL ISSUES

Milwaukee Teachers' Association: waivers to teachers'contracts (for implementing site-based man-agement within schools)

Milwaukee School Board policy regarding teachingstaff roles

Potential Secondary Resources:Counselor's job description

Counselor's calendar

Counselor's weekly schedule

Teacher/counselor contract

75

CHAPTER 4: PBL PROJECTS AND SELECTED RESOURCES-LEADERSHIP IN THE URBAN HIGH SCHOOL

Leaders -nip in tiie Urban 1-ai: -n SarnoohMeeting 111e C"-nalllien:es of tiiie 21st Century

by Clark Lovell

Introduction

s we look toward education in the 21stcentury, we must examine and assess ourprogress as a nation in educating our

youth, particularly in light of the vast changesthat continue to shape and reshape Americancities. Given the shifting ethnographics of thiscountry, today's students are often confrontedwith a curriculum that is obsolete or irrelevant totheir frame of reference, making learning unnec-essarily difficult. Even as new education tech-niques are unveiled, fresh societal issues seem toarise, further complicating the teaching and learn-ing process. The challenge of replacing a tradi-tional curriculum with an integrated multiculturalcurriculum involves first sorting out what wemean by these terms, what we expect from oureducational system, and how, realistically, we canwork to bring about large-scale systemic change.

Redesigning education on a national level isvery much within the competency of our profes-sional personnel, and within the range of currentfinancial resources. Questions remain, however,as to whether we can summon the desire, leader-ship, persistence, and creativity needed to chal-lenge the status quo and develop a model for theAmerican school that reflects the values andneeds of today's students.

In the early 1990s, a number of nationalreform programs were initiated to address theissue of failing schools, including the Coalition ofEssential Schools, Educate America 2000, and theU.S. Department of Education's New AmericanSchool Development Corporation. These pro-

grams operate largely on a theoretical level, offer-ing sound objectives but few practical resources.Consequently, many administrators face a toughchallenge in instituting change effectively withinindividual schools.

Because a school is as unique as its studentsand staff, it is essential that reform be based notonly on national policymaking, but simultaneouslyon the specific character and makeup of eachschool. This is to say, a national program is onlyas successful as the extent to which it is suited toand accepted by the individuals that make up aschool community. Systemic change is possibleonly when parents, teachers, administrators, stu-dents, and members of the business sector shareequal responsibility and voice in its developmentand implementation.

The responsibility of assembling this group ofdecision makers normally falls to the principal ofa school community, who must negotiate, facili-tate, and act as an advocate for progressivechange. Tantamount to the local success of areform program is an administrator who under-stands the need to relinquish control and providea leadership base through which the differentconstituencies can develop a full partnership.

In this problem-based learning project you willbe challenged to confront the very differentassumptions of a traditional curriculum and amulticultural integrated curriculum. In workingto implement progressive reform that coincideswith district initiatives, you will be faced with thediffering attitudes and energies of staff and par-ents, as well as with the challenge of adaptingnational ideals to serve a specific set of studentneeds.

76


The Problem

About the Community

The city of Benton is an industrial metropoliswith a population of approximately 750,000.Over the last decade, the labor force has shiftedfrom manufacturing to more service-orientedwork. The city, formerly one of the nation'slargest producers of beer and heavy machinery,lost a number of its plants when companiesmoved production to places where they could paylower wages and avoid union demands. Mostfactories now function in a limited capacity withonly skeletal crews in place. Many of the fami-lies who depended on these well-established com-panies for their incomes have been forced to set-tle for lower wages. A number of families haverelocated to smaller townships. While at onetime a significant percentage of Benton's childrenreceived private education, the present economyhas brought many of them into the public schoolsystem.

Benton supports 16 public high schoolsthroughout the city. Traditionally, African-American and Hispanic students were concentrat-ed in the central city. In the wake of the decreasein well-paying jobs, as well as a concurrent deseg-regation suit, the school system's minority popu-lation suddenly became the majority, giving eachof the 16 schools a greater representation of non-Caucasian students, with the exception of oneschool that had been 98 percent African-American from the beginning.

Background

You are the principal of Clark High School, abustling community of 1,900 students located inthe extreme southwest section of the city. WhenClark opened in 1969, the enrollment wasapproximately 3,000 students, 96 percent ofwhom were European-American. Today, Clark's

students are 50 percent European-American, 40percent African-American, 8 percent Hispanic,and 2 percent composed of other ethnic groups.The school staff, which in 1969 was 97 percentEuropean-American, is presently 75 percentEuropean-American, 22 percent African-American, and 3 percent from other ethnic groups.

While Clark's current 112-member staff isclearly talented and has had much success in edu-cating the school's majority population, theminority groups seem to have fallen largely by theacademic wayside, with the exception of one ortwo students each year. Overall, Clark HighSchool is on par with the rest of the state in stan-dardized test scores, but minority group averagesfall below the state median. Of the 600 incomingninth graders, about 50 percent will graduate fromClark. Though some portion of the departing 50percent is comprised of students moving to otherschools, the dropout rate remains high, particu-larly among African-American students, a greatnumber of whom leave at the end of their tenth-grade year.

The curriculum structure at Clark has notchanged in 25 years. The traditional subjectsEnglish, math, social studies, and sciencearerequired in all grades, with courses in music, art,physical education, and home economics offeredas electives. The majority of teachers at Clarkhave been teaching for more than ten years andseem content with their methods and subject areas.One English teacher, Ms. Sanders, has been atClark for 32 years. She expects such excellencefrom the students in her American Authors, BritishAuthors, and Basic Composition classes that shehas been known to fail half her students becausetheir performance doesn't meet her expectations.While you've had some heated conversations withMs. Sanders concerning these expectations, youfind yourself also respecting her classroom man-agement and the quality of the work her studentsproduce.

77


Over the last few years, there have been severalreform initiatives introduced within the district,many of which have been unpopular with staffmembers. In fact, you've heard Clark teachersrefer to each new initiative as another "this, too,will pass" program, the latest being a K-12 cur-riculum guide designed to enable staff to developspecific goals and measurable objectives. Withoutadequate staff development and planning time,many teachers simply have ignored curriculumchanges or have attempted to satisfy centraladministration directives only. In fact, Clark'sstaff has earned the dubious distinction of leadingthe district in negative or indifferent reactions toschool board initiatives. Your response to thissituation has been to reward and support teach-ers who receive new ideas with an open mind,encouraging them to lead by example. You con-sider yourself lucky to have at least a handful ofprogressive-minded teachers among your ranks:

Ms. Conners is a 38-year-old physical edu-cation teacher who has been at Clark forfive years. Her poise and professionalismhave earned her the respect of most of herpeers. As the field hockey and volleyballcoach, she has established an excellentrelationship with the student body. Youoften rely on Ms. Conners to develop andlead student activities.

Mr. Dumars is a first-semester teacher whohas a number of interesting ideas, butseems to be extremely aggressive aboutthem. He has volunteered to demonstratenew teaching techniques at the next staffinservice. You welcome his enthusiasm,but worry that the rest of the staff mightbe put off by him. He's already mentionedthat several veteran teachers have respondednegatively to his ideas, and he's requestedthat you speak with them about theimportance of change.

Mr. Stone, a 40-year-old, six-year veteranof Clark, is clearly the most popularteacher in the school, among both studentsand staff. His teaching skills are superbwhen it comes to both traditional andmore contemporary methods, and he'ssomeone you often turn to for advice.

Innovations

In fact, you have collaborated with some of thenewer teachers to implement several local pro-grams that have had a positive impact onachievement for some students. Your latest efforthas been the Renaissance Program, which isdesigned to motivate students to improve theirattendance, grade point average, and behaviorand to reduce tardiness with incentives such asbicycles, stereo systems, car phones, and TVsdonated by the school's business partners. Theprogram has been accepted by the majority ofteachers, students, and parents, but a certain seg-ment of the community and student body, mostlyAfrican-American, feels that the programexcludes them due to some guidelines that areperceived as unfair. The major complaint is thatin order to qualify for the program's benefits, astudent must have no absences and no tardies.Ninety-six percent of the African-American popu-lation is bused more than ten miles to school,which, given the frequency of problems with buspick-ups and stops, as well as inclement weather,often puts punctuality beyond the students' control.

School-to-Work Mandate

In the last few months, the district has grownserious about implementing substantive reform,handing down a policy that requires schools todevelop a school-to-work curriculum for all levels.The objective is to shape curriculum in a waythat will cultivate students' critical thinking skillsin preparation for future life experiences. All ini-

78


tiatives are expected to be tailored toward a mul-ticultural community and accessible to studentsof all levels and abilities. The initiatives must beacademically rigorous, intended to prepare stu-dents for higher education, and involve integrat-ed, cross-disciplinary learning. Finally, the dis-trict has mandated that schools actively seek toheighten the involvement of parents and the busi-ness community in school activities.

Clark High School has been selected as one ofthe ten pilot schools charged with developing anindividual school-to-work program based on dis-trict guidelines. The superintendent, a firmbeliever in risktaking, has made it known to thecommunity that each principal will be heldaccountable for developing a model for the dis-trict's other 110 schools. In fact, just last weekshe reminded you specifically that at the end ofthis next semester, your fifth as principal of Clark,she will decide whether to recommend you fortenure. Her decision, she says, will be predicatedon your success in developing a new integrated,multicultural curriculum for your once predomi-nantly Caucasian, blue-collar school.

Reaction to the School-to-Work PolicyIn response to the district policy, union offi-

cials have sent a memo to all members, remindingthem that as teachers, they are licensed in specificcontent areas and are not required nor certifiedto teach outside their disciplines. At Clark HighSchool, the union representative stood in thelounge and read the memo to teachers and thencirculated it throughout the building. Mr.Carney, a traditional-style math teacher at Clarkfor ten years and an active union supporter,dropped by your office just the other day to letyou know that the rumors are flying about howyou're going to radically revise the teaching sys-tem and ask teachers to take on extra responsibil-ities. The teachers are so unsettled, he told you,that they're having difficulty keeping their mindson teaching.

Clark High School parents seem to haveembraced the idea of a school-to-work curricu-lum, and a discussion of its development is at thetop of the agenda for the next meeting of parentsand teachers. In the meantime, a very vocalgroup of parents has requested that you meetwith them to discuss rumors about changing thecurriculum. The first concern is that their chil-dren will be no longer be prepared to attend col-lege and that the new curriculum will be voca-tional, qualifying them for entry-level factory andservice jobs. One parent told you that he hasworked in a factory for 30 years and his childdeserves a chance to attend college.

The students are confused because of mixedmessages coming from their teachers. Someteachers are angry over the idea of having towork in teams. Others are eager to develop aninnovative curriculum. It appears that the veter-an teachers of 20 years or more are determinedthat tradition will prevail; the younger and moreambitious teachers are anxious to get started ondeveloping new approaches to learning.

Your Challenge:

It is now September 15. School has been insession for two weeks. As principal, you are con-cerned that your students cannot concentrate ontheir subjects due to distracted teachers and theflurry of rumors. The confusion among staff andanger in parents seems to be mounting. You real-ize that the superintendent and board membersare aware of this situation and are waiting to seewhat will develop.

In anticipation of a meeting with the superin-tendent scheduled for December 1, you haveassembled a 12-member shared decision-makingteam composed of six teachers, three parents, andthree students. About three-quarters of the teamis supportive of the school-to-work initiative,while the remaining quarter is reluctant to see


any significant change in curriculum. Your majorconcern is the 1,900 students who will be mostaffected by a new program. You recognize theimportance of adapting the curriculum to suittheir needs; the challenge is to determine the mosteffective way to accomplish this, and to gain thefull support of your staff as you move ahead.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Your participation in this project will help you to:

1

3

Become aware of how diversity amongstudents and staff affects a school'slearning environment.

Develop a vision that correlates nationalcurriculum objectives with the realities ofimplementing change within the contextof an individual school.

Understand factors that influence peoples'motivation to change and learn a set ofstrategies that will assist them in over-coming resistance at different stages ofthe change process.

Consider the challenges of facilitatingshared decision making in a school com-munity.

Develop a method for helping staff under-stand their individual values as well asthose of their students.

GUIDING QUESTIONS

1How can we assess our progress as anation and as individual administrators ineducating our youth?

How can we measure the success of vari-ous reform programs? What do the suc-cesses and failures of these programs sug-gest about where we need to go in thefuture?

3How does the status quo affect a princi-pal's introduction of change into a schoolcommunity?

What resources does a decision-makingteam require in the development of a mul-ticultural curriculum?

What facets of the culture in Benton arelikely to promote or impede change?

What are the roles of the principal, stu-dents, parents, and teachers in the devel-opment and implementation of a multi-cultural curriculum?


Role-play a meeting of the curriculumchange committee, with individual PBLmembers taking on roles of those bothsupportive of and resistant to change. Inyour meeting, discuss the specific failuresof the existing curriculum and the possi-bilities for implementing an integrated,multicultural curriculum.

3

Write a one-page value statement reflect-ing your personal point of view on multi-cultural curriculum issues.

As a group, write two, one-page articlesfor the school newsletter, presenting thepros and cons of curriculum change.

As a group, develop a three-year actionplan for Clark School. Your plan shouldcontain the following sections: A. TheProblem, B. Our Goals, and C. ThePlan. Decide how you will gain the sup-port of key personnel and how you planto overcome potential obstacles duringimplementation.

Prepare a 15-minute presentation of yourplan to be delivered to the superintendent.

80


K e y es our C esCURRICULUM, ACHIEVEMENT AND INSTRUCTIONAL REFORM

Gay, G. (1988). Designing relevant curricula fordiverse learners. Education and Urban Society,20(4), 327-340.

Knapp, M. S., Means, B., & Chelemer, C. (1991).Conclusion: Implementing new models forteaching advanced skills. In B. Means, C.Chelemer, & M.S. Knapp (Eds.), Teachingadvanced skills to at-risk students: Views fromresearch and practice (pp. 255-276). SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers

Lee, V., & Smith, J. B. (1994, Fall). High schoolrestructuring and student achievement. Issuesin Restructuring Schools, 7, 1-16. Madison,WI: Center on Restructuring andOrganization of Schools.

Newmann, F. M. (1992). Higher-order thinking andprospects for classroom thoughtfulness. In FM. Newmann (Ed.), Student engagement andachievement in American secondary schools(pp. 62-91). New York: Teachers CollegePress.

Savoie, J. M., & Hughes, A. S. (1994). Problem-basedlearning as classroom solution. EducationalLeadership, 52(3), 54-57.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT/CHANGE FOR TEACHERS

Louis, K. S., & Smith, B. (1992). Cultivating teacherengagement: Breaking the iron law of socialclass. In F. M. Newmann (Ed.), Studentengagement and achievement in Americansecondary schools (pp. 119-152). New York:Teacher College Press.


Wlodowski, R. J., & Ginsberg, M. B. (1995). Aframework for culturally responsive teaching.Educational Leadership, 53(1), 17-21.

SCHOOL-TO-WORK ISSUES

O'Neil, J. (1995). On preparing students for theworld of work: A conversation with WillardDaggett. Educational Leadership, 52(8),46-48.

CHANGE LEADERSHIP

Deal, T. E., & Peterson, K. D. (1993). Strategies forbuilding school cultures: Principals as symbolicleaders. In M. Sashkin, & H. Walberg (Eds.),Educational leadership and school culture (pp.89-99). Berkeley, CA: McCutcheon Publishers.

Fullan, M. (1993). The complexity of the changeprocess. In Change forces (pp. 19-41). Bristol,PA: Falmer Press.

Leithwood, K., Begley, P., & Cousins, B. (1992). Aconception of expert leadership for futureschools and Envisioning future schools. InDeveloping expert leaders for future schools(pp. 4-11 and 30-41). London: Falmer Press.

81

CHAPTER 4: PBL PROJECTS AND SELECTED RESOURCES-SPARE THE ROD

Spare t ene Roe

by Deborah Bell

Introduction

he U.S. Department of Education has setits sights on unprecedented academic suc-cess by the year 2000. The need to align

curricular expectations with the realities of life(for example, in the School-to-Work Initiative)has prompted a flurry of paradigm shifts in suchareas as assessment, learning styles, and discipline.

One might ask, Why discipline? According toseveral studies, schools that have failed to resolvetheir discipline problems have a common flaw inperception: they are unableor unwillingtosee discipline as an integral part of a positive aca-demic environment. A school that emphasizes adisciplined community is quite often more suc-cessful academically than one that favors the useof punitive measures against students. The mes-sage is that discipline is achieved via several acad-emic, organizational, and interpersonal goalsbased on the notion that all behavior has a cause.Until a school's administration and faculty learnto understand and deal with the causes of studentmisbehavior more effectively, such behavior islikely to recur. Administrators must cooperatewith teachers, parents, and others in order todiagnose the causes of misbehavior.

Many students come to our schools withoutthe basic necessities for building a strong founda-tion for learning. As educators, we are chal-lenged to create a stable environment in which anallotted amount of time can be devoted solely toinstruction, and in which every student has anequal opportunity to learn. Suspensions, deten-tions, and early dismissals from the classroom

tend to rob students of valuable lessons, whilesending a message to the student that his or herpresence in the classroom is not wanted. At thesame time, classroom disruptions reduce instruc-tion time, to the disadvantage of every member ofthe class. Once must ask, Is it the student or thebehavior that is unacceptable? For administra-tors, the objective is to create an environment inwhich the entire school community wins.

A common frustration for teachers is dealingwith students who choose to relate to othersthrough misbehavior. What can be difficult torecognize in these stressful moments is that a stu-dent's lack of success and poor self-concept are atthe root of most behavior problems. Whenteachers gain the knowledge and skills to copewith classroom behaviors that previously drovethem to distraction, their satisfaction in teachingincreases. The academic performance of studentsrises in a firm-yet-friendly classroom, and parentsgain confidence in the ability of the school toaddress the needs of their children.

In this problem-based learning project, youwill be faced with the types of discipline prob-lems that confront principals daily. Differentteachers use different approaches to both teach-ing and classroom management. As the princi-pal, it is your responsibility to solve the problemsof individual students and teachers and to craft aschoolwide approach that is fair and just andplaces the discipline problems of students in thecontext of instruction.

S2


The ProblemIt's Friday evening and you've just completed

the ABC Middle School Incident Referral Analysisreport for September, October, and November.The highest ranking behavioral problem is cate-gorized as "classroom disruption." This categoryincludes several misbehaviors, from throwing anobject across a room to verbally confronting ateacher. The second highest ranking behavioralproblem, according to the referral classificationchart, is "refuses instruction." In three months,there have been 1,121 referrals, and a dispropor-tionate number of them have gone to African-American students. As principal of ABC MiddleSchool, you are troubled by the high number ofreferrals. Each referral means time lost, either by

the teacher or the students, and in most caseseveryone has lost valuable instruction/learning time.

When you were approached two years ago totake the job of principal of ABC Middle School,you recognized it as the opportunity of a lifetime.ABC Middle School opened its doors for the firsttime last fall. Creative architects turned what wasonce a brewery into a palace for learning. Theschool, with its arched windows and skywalkconnecting two buildings, is located near the down-town area of a medium-sized city. If you walk east,you will see boats docked along the river, high-riseoffice buildings, and restaurants serving everythingfrom pizza to pate. If you walk west, you will seechildren who live in the nearby low-income housingproject playing in the vacant lots and back alleys.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ©0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

About the School

Your vision is to have a middle school that "specializes" in the middle school child. While some schools spe-cialize in the arts and others claim to be for the "gifted and talented," ABC Middle School is for the child whobrings whatever talents or gifts he or she has discovered or has yet to discover. Any child of middle schoolage fits the criteria.

You recruited students from all over the city to come to ABC, where the focus is on the physical, social, emo-tional, and intellectual needs of its students. One of the primary goals of ABC is to create individualized andpersonalized instructional strategies for each student.

In a typical classroom, the sons and daughters of judges sit next to the sons and daughters of welfare moth-ers. Approximately 820 students attend ABC: 50 percent African-American, 15 percent Hispanic, 30 percentEuropean-American, and 5 percent Asian. The school's program includes a component called Family Literacy,which consists of 50 students of Hispanic or Asian descent who are new to the country and have very limitedEnglish proficiency. Bilingual teachers serve both these students and a number of parents who choose tocome to school with their children to learn.

Adult-student relationships at ABC are created in "families" of five teachers and approximately 130 students.These families remain together for the three-year period students are in middle school. The idea is to give studentsand teachers three years to develop a close, caring relationship. The instructional program is guided by an accel-erated-schools concept, which treats all students as gifted and talented by identifying and building on their strengths.

In its first year, ABC opened with 500 students and a staff of 50 teachers and support personnel. Ten teacherswere classified with less than three years of experience. Extensive inservice training and staff developmentsessions were offered during the summer prior to the opening of school and throughout the first year to ensurethat teachers' goals and expectations fit the philosophy of the school.

The second year began with an additional 250 students and 20 staff members. The second group of teacherswas more experienced than the previous year's group and did not receive as much training or staff development.

83


Just as you are packing your briefcase with weekendwork, you notice that you have two telephone mes-sages. One is from Mrs. Milhouse, president of theParent Teacher Student Association (PTSA), and theother is from Mrs. Jenkins, mother of Lashaun Jenkins,an Exceptional Education student who was suspend-ed from school yesterday. Thinking to yourself thatboth calls will probably involve a certain degree ofdispleasure, you decide to call Mrs. Jenkins first.

Mrs. Jenkins tells you that she wants Lashaun removedfrom the school because he is "very slow" and he is"tired of school." She is afraid that he will become atruant, drop out of school, and get recruited by gangs."Isn't there a technical education program where hecan learn how to do something with his hands?" sheasks with the desperation of a mother who knows sheis about to lose her son if things don't change.

Lashaun was suspended today because his socialstudies teacher, Mr. Lange ly, said Lashaun cursed athim and raised his hand as if he were going to strikehim. Lashaun is taken out of his social studies classalmost daily. Mr. Lange ly is new to ABC this year.His instructional approach revolves around the use ofworksheets, which have proved difficult for Lashaunto understand. A 20-year veteran of teaching, Mr.Lange ly has told you many times that he is not goingto "put up with any nonsense" in his classroom. Heexpects the principal to be a strong disciplinarian andto "do something with these kids when they misbehave!"

Things are quite different for Lashaun in Ms.Copper's science class, from which he has neverbeen dismissed. Lashaun seems to enjoy the hands-on activities Ms. Copper routinely organizes. Lastweek he dissected a frog and told his mother allabout itevery detail! Ms. Copper, who joined ABCwhen it opened, has been teaching for just threeyears. She often keeps students after school to dis-cuss their problems. Parents have reported that shecommunicates openly with them, and very seldomdoes Ms. Copper resort to using an incident referralto change a negative behavior.

You tell Mrs. Jenkins to bring Lashaun to school onMonday and you will join them in a meeting with theExceptional Education resource teacher. You assureher that you will do everything possible to keepLashaun in school.

It's getting late, but you know it's important to returnMrs. Milhouse's call. Some of the parents have beenconcerned recently about classroom disruptions, soyesterday Mrs. Milhouse sat in on her son's mathclass. Because you were out of the building at aprincipals' meeting yesterday afternoon, you did notget a chance to check in with her after the class.When you get her on the phone, you are pleasantlysurprised by Mrs. Milhouse's invitation to havebreakfast tomorrow morning. Just as you are relax-ing into the conversation, she drops the bomb:"Several parents are concerned about the classroomdisruptions in Ms. Taufer's math class. She knowsher math, but doesn't seem to care what the studentsare doing. If things don't get any better, I'm going topull my son out of your school and advise other par-ents to do the same. We would like to discuss thiswith you tomorrow at breakfast."

Although Mrs. Milhouse does not condone thebehavior of the disruptive students, she feels thatteachers should embrace the nurturing philosophy ofthe school when addressing discipline problems. Shefeels that disciplinary practices and policies shouldbe fair and reasonable and made clear to the students.

Mrs. Milhouse also states that she noticed more stu-dents being taken out of their classrooms withoutsupervision. "What if a student got so angry that heleft the building and got hurt, or decided to do some-thing destructive?" Her concerns are certainly valid:You've noticed vandalism starting to occur. In thebathrooms, soap containers have been pulled off thewalls, graffiti has been spotted on some of the doorsleading to stairwells, and last week a window panewas broken on the hall door. You thank Mrs.Milhouse for the invitation and tell her that you lookforward to breakfast tomorrow morning.

84


As you finally finish packing your briefcase andreach to turn off the lights, you remember a line froman article you read in one of your professional jour-nals that stated, "Being an administrator trying tokeep order in a school sometimes seems like being adoctor trying to practice medicine without a scalpelor a hypodermic needle." Yet, as you slowly walkout the door, you tell yourself that there are peoplewho will never need a doctor's scalpel or hypodermicneedle and will live long, healthy lives because theypractice healthy behaviors.

And speaking of healthy behaviors, you'd better gohome and get some restbreakfast will be servedbright and early tomorrow morning.

Your Challenge:

Assume the organizational responsibility to use all theavailable expertise to develop a definitive discipline pol-icy that will require staff to:

(3 Work together to establish construc-tive and consistent classroom andschoolwide guidelines for studentbehavior management.

0 Analyze instructional strategies andclassroom management techniquesthat foster student self-discipline.

Promote a disciplined environmentconsistent with the philosophy of ABCMiddle School.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Acquire knowledge and understanding ofthe ways in which people in the schoolwork together to solve problems.

Obtain insight into the various discipli-nary procedures that promote positiveself-discipline.

10

3

4

Acquire knowledge and understanding ofresearch and theory on curriculum andinstructional strategies that are consistentwith students of the 1990s.

Become knowledgeable about the legalaspects of disciplinary procedures andpractices in the public schools.

Develop an understanding of the processfor creating a schoolwide, disciplinedcommunity.

Develop a positive philosophy and atti-tude toward student behavior, with anemphasis on the role that a teacher needsto play in promoting student self-discipline.

Learn how to analyze and use school-based data for decision making in schoolimprovement.

GUIDING QUESTIONS

What knowledge can be gained from ana-lyzing statistical data on incident refer-rals?

34

7

85

What diagnostic techniques can be usedto identify reasons for student misbehav-ior?

What are some of the existing resourcesfor building self-esteem?

In what ways are self-discipline and self-esteem connected?

How can parents become partners in theschool's discipline plan?

What role can self-analysis (for teachersand students) play in the development ofa discipline plan?

Why is consistency throughout the schoolimportant to the success of a disciplineplan?



Develop a one-paragraph mission state-ment for student behavior that includespositive expectations consistent with theaccelerated-school concept.

2 Identify three priority areas for disciplinein the school. In no more than two para-graphs, include your rationale for selec-tion of priorities and refer directly to youranalysis of data on the school's behaviorproblems. Attach a summary table ofyour analysis.

3 Develop a set of school policies that couldact as a framework for teachers' individ-ual classroom management strategies. Itshould be connected to your missionstatement (see 1., above) in philosophyand acknowledge the legal aspects of dis-ciplinary procedures and practices in the

4(1

public schools. These policies shouldinclude the following dimensions:

Rewards and recognition of studentaccomplishments

O Desirable and undesirable behavior

O Rights and responsibilities of students

O Consequences for violating school rulesand responsibilities

Develop and conduct a 30-minute staffdevelopment session that focuses on:

Changing the response of the personreacting to the misbehavior.

O Changing the teacher's role from pun-ishing to reinforcing correct studentbehavior.

86


The Accelerated Schools Project: A Philosophy and a Process

The accelerated schools project was established to bring at-risk students intothe educational mainstream. Instead of slowing down student learning withremediation, the idea is to enhance students' academic growth through challeng-ing and stimulating activities. Instead of having lower expectations for thesechildren, the goal is to treat students as gifted and talented by identifying andbuilding on their strengths. Instead of treating a school as a collection of indi-vidual programs and staff members with individual goals, the objective is to cre-ate a schoolwide unity of purpose or dream that encompasses all children, staff,and parents. Instead of using "canned" curriculum packages that are imposedon schools as solutions to learning challenges, the goal is to incorporate theentire staff into a governance and decision-making process around the unifiedpurpose of creating powerful learning experiences for all children.

These ideas were combined to create a process that incorporated an integratedapproach to school curriculum, instructional strategies, and organization, whereparents, students, teachers, support staff, administrators, district offices, andlocal communities could work together to reach their shared vision. The firstaccelerated elementary schools were established in 1986-87, and by 1992-93 themovement had grown to about 300 elementary and middle schools in 25 states.These schools have demonstrated that all students can do high-quality academicwork, engage in collaborative and individual inquiry and research, communicateeffectively, and meet high standards.

The accelerated school is built upon a unity of purpose on the part of theschool community in creating practices and activities that are dedicated to accel-erated progress; the establishment of an active school site decision-makingprocess with responsibility for results; and active participation in decisions by allschool staff and parents, relying on small group task forces, a schoolwide steer-ing committee, and schoolwide governance groups. Instead of focusing on weak-nesses, accelerated school staff and parents use a pedagogy built on the strengthsand cultures of the children, with a heavy reliance on relevant applications, prob-lem solving, active and hands-on learning approaches, and thematic learning,which integrates a variety of subjects into a common set of themes. Finally,parental involvement both at home and at school is central to the success of anaccelerated school.

Author:Henry M. LevinStanford, CASeptember 1992

4087


K e y I e s our c e s

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT

Glasser, W. (1986). Discipline problems as total behav-iors. In Control theory in the classroom (pp.44-59). New York: Harper & Row Publishers.

Letgers, N., & McDill, E. L. (1995). Rising to thechallenge: Emerging strategies for educatingyouth at risk. Oak Brook, IL: North CentralRegional Educational Laboratory.

Newmann, F. M., Wehlage, G. G., & Lamborn, S. D.(1992). The significance and sources of stu-dent engagement. In E M. Newmann (Ed.),Student engagement and achievement inAmerican secondary schools (pp. 11-39). NewYork: Teachers College Press.

Newmann, F. M. (1992). Conclusion. In F. M.Newmann (Ed.), Student engagement andachievement in American secondary schools(pp. 182-217). New York: Teachers College Press.

Zane, N. (1994). When 'discipline problems' recede:Democracy and intimacy in urban charters. InM. Fine (Ed.), Chartering urban schoolreform: Reflections on public high schools inthe midst of change (pp. 122-135). New York:Teachers College Press.

SCHOOL CULTURE

Aames, N. L., & Miller, E. (1994). Everybody is some-body and Nine essential lessons. In Restructuringschools: How to make schools work foryoung adolescents (pp. 21-66 and 177-200).San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers

Brandt, R. (1995). Punished by rewards?: A conversa-tion with Alfie Kohn. EducationalLeadership, 53(1), 13-16.

Hopfenberg, W., Levin, H., Meister, G., & Rogers, J.(1990). Toward accelerated middle schools.Edna McConnell Clark Foundation/AcceleratedSchools Project-Stanford University.

Johnson, D. W, & Johnson, R. T. (1995). Creating acooperative context. In Reducing school vio-lence through conflict resolution (pp. 24-32).Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development.

McPartland, J. M. (1994). Dropout prevention in the-ory and practice. In R. Rossi (Ed.), Schoolsand students at risk: Context and frameworkfor positive change (pp. 255-275). New York:Teachers College Press.

Wynne, E. A., & Ryan, K. (1993). Reclaiming ourschools: A handbook on teaching character,academics, and discipline. New York:Macmillan Publishing Company.


Cohen, E.G., Kepner, D., & Swanson, P. (1995).Dismantling status hierarchies in heteroge-neous classrooms. In J. Oakes, & K. H.Quartz (Eds.), Creating new educational com-munities: Ninety-fourth yearbook of theNational Society for the Study of Education:Part I (pp. 16-31). Chicago: University ofChicago Press.

Kuykendall, C. (1993). Motivating the un-motivated.In From rage to hope: Strategies for reclaim-ing Black and Hispanic students (pp. 49-69).Bloomington, IN: National EducationalService.

Williams, B., & Newcomb, E. (1994). Building on thestrengths of urban learners. EducationalLeadership, 51(5),75-78.

88

CHAPTER 4: PBL PROJECTS AND SELECTED RESOURCES-FOR THE CHILDREN'S SAKE: COLLABORATE!

by Yvonne Hopgood

Introduction

or the C iildreini9s Sol

espite the best efforts of educational lead-ers to focus staff attention on curriculumand instruction, the deteriorating envi-

ronments in which many urban schools existrefuse to be ignored. Schools simply cannot pre-tend that hungry children have eaten breakfastwhen they have not. They cannot pretend thatstudents with poor vision can read when they areunable to see clearly. They cannot pretend thatstudents who lack clothes to wear to school areattending when they are not. The trying condi-tions of urban environments cannot be ignoredby educators who hope to have a positive impacton the learning and well-being of students.

While research has found that instructionallyeffective schools for the urban poor have a clearacademic focus, current professional wisdom sug-gests that schools must broaden their services ifthey hope to help those students whose needs aregreatest. In many urban neighborhoods, the per-centage of such students is simply too large to beignored by caring educators.

Yet, a debate continues over the appropriaterole of schools in providing social services inaddition to "book learning." This debate reflectsboth value-based differences of opinion and prac-tical considerations about the implementation ofsocial services within a school context. Opponentsof social services in schools raise a host of objec-tions involving cost, expertise, safety, space,staffing, control, liability, and more. Advocatesask, "If not us, who will provide this assistance?"Moreover, as described above, they note that edu-

{e: Collliaboiratevo

cators can no longer ignore these conditions, ifonly because of their indisputable impact onteaching and learning in the classrooms.

If we move beyond the question of whether toprovide social services in urban schools, manypractical problems concerning implementationremain. Many of the concerns noted abovefunding, space, staffing, coordination, liabilityare not easily overcome. How can a schoolmobilize needed social services and still maintaina necessary focus on the academic developmentof its pupils?

You will face this challenge in this problem-based learning project. You will have an oppor-tunity to explore your own beliefs and valuesconcerning the mission of schools in light of prac-tical and pressing problems that face urbanschools today. You will explore the literature onsocial service integration in schools and developstrategies for implementing an appropriate rangeof services in urban school settings.

The Problem

The Community

Winnebago is a large -Midwestern city thatexperienced growth and prosperity during the1950s, '60s, and '70s. Home at one time tomany sizable industries, Winnebago offered anabundance of well-paying jobs for both unskilledand skilled laborers, as well as those with tradetraining. In the last decade, however, due to theclosing or relocation of a number of factories, thejob market has changed drastically. As manufac-turing jobs have been replaced by lower-paying

89


service jobs, some families have gone through dif-ficult times. Many breadwinners have experi-enced long periods of unemployment, and somehave been forced to take jobs where they makeconsiderably less money than before.

Given the resulting high rate of unemployment,the number of people seeking help from socialservice programs has grown considerably. Inaddition to an increase in welfare payments andfood stamp distribution, large numbers of mealpantries and clothing banks have sprung up inchurches and other agencies. More agencies nowprovide individual and family counseling servicesas well.

Violence, too, is increasing at an alarming pacein Winnebago. Eighty-seven children have beenkilled during the last three years, many of themstudents in the city's public schools. No schoolhas gone untouched by this horror. Additionally,the use of illegal drugs has reached epidemic pro-portions. News agencies report stories of horren-dous abuse and neglect on a regular basis.Instances of reported child abuse and neglect clogsocial service agencies. It sometimes takes hoursto reach the Children's Protective Services Agencyby telephone, and it's usually another severaldays before a worker can be dispatched to inves-tigate allegations.

The District

Student enrollment in the Winnebago PublicSchools is slightly under 100,000. Of that num-ber, approximately 63 percent are non-Caucasian.The number of Caucasians in the district hasdecreased dramatically since the desegregationorder in 1975. However, 75 percent of the teach-ers in the district are Caucasian.

Four years ago, under the former administra-tion, Winnebago lost its summer school program.The program not only provided a safe, structuredenvironment for children, it also enabled children

in need of additional instruction to meet therequirements for promotion through the extendedschool year. Though some recreational and edu-cational programs are still available in the sum-mer, access is limited to those students whoseparents are able to pay the modest fee and whoare savvy enough to access the system in a timelymanner.

Summer is a difficult time for underprivilegedchildren in Winnebago. Seventy percent of fami-lies depend on free and reduced meal programsthat provide eligible children with two meals eachschool day. During the school year, staff mem-bers are able to observe children on a daily basisand are usually able to spot and report problemsin their initial stages.

The School

Notel Elementary School, located in the heartof Winnebago, has nearly 500 students in gradesK-5 and a staff of 19 teachers, 6 specialists, andone 4/10 time social worker. Seventy-five percentof the students are African-American, 23 percentare Caucasian, and the remaining 2 percent com-prise other ethnic groups. The staff reflects thedistrictwide ethnic percentages, and the staffingratio is a result of the desegregation order. Mostteachers at Notel are experienced and have hadmuch success as educators. Ten years ago,Notel's standardized test scores were at the topquartile nationally. Today, however, staff mem-bers are expressing frustration because somestrategies and techniques that have proven to besuccessful in the past no longer work for many ofthe children. Family stresses affect not only thebehavior and performance of the students, butstaff and parent interactions as well.

The neighborhood around Notel has changeddramatically over the past few years. The num-ber of middle-income families in the neighbor-hood has declined steadily. An increasing gang

90


presence is evidenced by graffiti, vandalism, theft,and violence. Crime is up significantly, andNotel has been affected directly. In one weekalone, the school was burglarized twice, losingexpensive computer equipment. Windows havebeen broken and the building has been defaced.An expensive bag was stolen recently from anunlocked classroom. Teachers have not adjustedto the need for increased security, even thoughthey receive frequent reminders regarding person-al safety from the administrators.

Children at Notel have been affected in manyways. Since school started two months ago, onestudent's brother was gunned down on the streetand another student's cousin was murdered.During the second week of school, two mothersgot into a fight in a second-grade classroom.Last week, the mother of three Notel studentswas shot in the alley by her house. She is expect-ed to recover, but has lost the vision in one eye.

It is obvious that children are feeling the stress.A fifth-grade boy committed suicide in the spring,and several students have been admitted for inpa-tient psychological treatment this fall. The staffreports an increase in the number of studentswith behavioral and learning problems. Severalnew students have tested between two and fouryears below grade level in reading.

Notel does not receive Chapter 1 services, butan increase in the number of qualifying studentsmakes the school eligible for these services nextyear. The school is scheduled to receive twoadditional reading teachers and approximately$2,000 to purchase materials for their use.

Some schools in Winnebago have specialtyprograms such as foreign language, arts, gifted,science, and African-American immersion.Magnet schools and schools with vocal parentgroups tend to receive a disproportionately highper-pupil allocation, thereby reducing the amountof funds available to neighborhood schools likeNotel. The accountability factors do not take

into account funding differences. Schools areexpected to maintain the same achievement andattendance standards, even though the per-pupilallocation can vary from school to school by asmuch as $900 at the elementary school level andeven more if secondary schools are considered.Notel is among the schools that receive the low-est per-pupil allocation in the district.

Sam Ryder is just one example of a childcaught in a system that is not working for him.A second grader who repeated first grade atNotel, Sam is in his fourth year in school and hisattendance rate is approximately 50 percent.His mother is an active alcoholic. When she isnot drinking or is living with another responsibleadult, Sam attends school. He is a bright, artic-ulate little boy who seems to love being inschool. He gets along well with other studentsand is considered a delightful child by the staff.When asked why he was absent, he hasresponded, "My mother didn't wake me up," or "Ididn't have any clean clothes," or "We werestaying at a friend's house and I couldn't get tothe bus stop." He appears to want to be atschool and could easily master the content if heattended regularly. Staff members realize thatSam is in school when his mother is soberenough to send him and is absent when she isbingeing. They are quite concerned about hiswell-being.

Staff members have followed the truancyprocedure, which includes three- and eight-dayletters. The next step requires the involvementof a social worker and a face-to-face visit withSam's mother. After several months of attemptsto meet with her and many missed appoint-ments, the social worker followed Sam homeand confronted his mother when she opened thedoor to let him in. The case was then presentedto the district attorney, but was delayed severaltimes because Sam's mother failed to show up.Finally, after nearly eight months, the case wasreviewed by the DA and currently is being moni-

91


tored by her staff. Supposedly, if Sam's atten-dance doesn't improve, the DA can remove himfrom his home. The social worker, however, isquick to say that she doesn't know of any casesin which this step has actually been taken.

During the past five years, parent involvementin the school has waned. Children of stable,active parents have moved on to middle and highschool or out of the area. In fact, some situa-tions, such as the classroom fight mentioned ear-lier, require the administration to deal firmly withparents' problems as well as the children's.

Consider, for example, the Harris family. Twoof the Harris children have attended Notel andthe third, a third-grade boy, is currently enrolled.Two years ago, when an older son was in fifthgrade at Notel, Mr. Harris had to be ticketed fordisorderly conduct while visiting the school.

Mr. and Mrs. Harris seemed suspicious of theschool and believed half-truths and blatant liesthat the manipulative fifth grader took home. Mr.Harris had been recently laid off from a well-pay-ing factory job and was unemployed at the time.Apparently, his son came home from Notel oneday and told his father that another student hadattacked him and that the staff wouldn't do any-thing about it. The next day, Mr. Harris came toschool and ignored the published procedure thatrequires all visitors to sign in at the office andthen sit quietly and observe in the classroom.Instead he went directly to the classroom andverbally threatened the other child.

After the principal had Mr. Harris removedfrom the school, Mr. Harris spent the next fewdays creating quite a stir as he called everyonefrom the superintendent to school board mem-bers. The administrative supervisor supportedthe principal's response to the situation, andafter a few weeks, Mr. Harris calmed down andbecame more cooperative. Since that time, healso has been called back into work. At onepoint last month, Mr. Harris called to request that

his third-grade son be kept in during recessbecause he feared reprisal against the child foran incident that occurred in the neighborhoodbetween himself and some members of anotherNotel family. The school honored Mr. Harris'swish by having the child sit in the office and dohomework during recess for nearly a week.

Just before school was out in June, Mrs.Harris initiated divorce proceedings against herhusband. The couple has tried to involve theschool in their problems by demanding separateparent/teacher conferences, which cut into thethird-grade teacher's conference time with otherparents. Mr. Harris also has tried to use theopen-door policy regarding parents to visit withhis third grader instead of working through hiswife and attorney. The school responded with afirm, written reminder of the "observation only"policy on classroom visits. Shortly thereafter,Mrs. Harris telephoned, complaining that theschool was "practically breaking the law" byallowing Mr. Harris in at all. Though the princi-pal has requested a meeting with both parents,neither has called to schedule an appointment.

Many Notel teachers are clearly dismayed bythe extra-instructional problems they must face intheir classrooms each day. These problemsrequire inordinate amounts of the staff's time andenergy and often take away from teaching andlearning time. While most staff members dowhatever they can to help students, there are sim-ply not enough hours in the day to address thestudents' needs properly. Mr. Goldwasser, a first-grade teacher, discovered that several of his stu-dents were having trouble with their vision inclass. As it turned out, they had eyeglasses, buthad lost or broken them. Because their insuranceprovided for only one pair of glasses per year,and because these children's parents could notafford the replacements, the students' vision wentuncorrected. The teacher spent three exasperat-ing months tracking down an agency that could

92


donate replacement glasses. In the meantime, thestudents continued to miss out on much of whatwent on in the classroom.

At the same time, Mrs. Johnson, a fifth-gradeteacher, has voiced her frustration with the extraeffort needed simply to get the students into aposition where they are ready to learn. She sus-pects that many of her students don't eat break-fast in the morning. A good number of themcome to school without gloves, hats, or evenjackets in the coldest part of winter. Some par-ents haven't filled out the necessary forms forputting their children on the free lunch program,which means that until a teacher takes the initia-tive and fills out the forms, those children getonly peanut butter and jelly sandwiches each day.Mrs. Johnson, like many other dedicated teach-ers, feels that she is working hard enough just tokeep up with the newest instructional methods."I'm not a social worker," she told the principalin a conference. "How will I ever find the timeto teach if I have to worry about keeping the stu-dents clothed and fed? These are things that theparents should worry about, not me."

Notel's principal, a third-year administrator,has decided that the social problems affecting thestudents can no longer be ignored. Somethingmust be done. She has formed a ten-memberdecision-making team comprising teachers,administrators, parents, and community advisors,and has requested that they examine the situationat Notel and look into ways to integrate specialservices as a school resource. The main challengeis to lessen the impact of poverty on the learningenvironment at the school. No additional directfunds can be expected.

Your Challenge:

As a member of the decision-making team, it isup to you to conduct a needs assessment for theNotel community and to develop a plan that notonly will help alleviate the various problemsfaced by staff and students at Notel, but one thatcan serve as a model for other urban schoolsworking to integrate social services. You willneed to consider issues of cost, expertise, safety,space, staffing, control, and liability in your strat-egy. Also keep in mind that the Notel staff areaffiliated with a teachers' bargaining union, andany changes to the standard work day or teach-ers' duties will need to be approve by the union.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1

3

Acquire knowledge about the ways inwhich schools can reduce the impact ofpoverty on the academic achievement ofchildren in their classrooms.

Gain knowledge of the types of servicesthat are available in a community anddevelop methods of accessing these servicesto soften the impact of low socioeconomicstatus and low per-pupil funding on students.

Clarify your personal values concerningthe role of schools in meeting students'noneducational needs by providing socialservices.

GUIDING QUESTIONS

What kinds of free or low-cost social andcommunity resources might a school relyon? What is a school's responsibility togive students and their families access tothese services?

How can a school stimulate parentinvolvement in social and academicissues?

93


3

4

Given existing limits on budget, staffing,space, and expertise, is social service inte-gration a realistic goal for urban schools?

How might an administrator effectivelyapproach a staff that is divided on therole of the school in providing social ser-vices in order to gain support for an inte-gration program?


Working on your own, develop a valuestatement concerning social services in theschools. Make sure to represent yourown point of view. Statements should beno longer than a single, double-spaced,typed page.

3

94

Develop a plan for integrating servicesinto the school. Include in your plan real-istic strategies that will serve to increaseparent support of their children's academicprogress and provide staff members witha network of social resources. Addressthe practical problems of implementation,including the division within Notel's staffon the issue of whether teachers should beinvolved with their students' social issues.

Prepare a 15-minute team presentationfor the next school board meeting, outlin-ing the role of social service in the publicschools and your proposal for a "pilotprogram" at Notelone that could beused as a model for other schools. Keepin mind that some members believe thatschools should not be responsible forproviding social services.


K e y R es our C esCOLLABORATIVE SCHOOL-COMMUNITY SERVICES

Bruner, C, Bell, K., Brindis, C., Chang, H., &Scarbrough, W. (1993). Charting a course:Assessing a community's strengths and needs.NY: National Center for Service Integration.

Dryfoos, J. G. (1994). School-based clinics: A look ata pioneer program and Realizing the vision:Two full-service schools. In Full-serviceschools: A revolution in health and social ser-vices for children, youth, and families (pp. 77-98 and 99-122). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,Inc., Publishers.

Epstein, J. (1995). School/family/community partner-ships: Caring for the children we share. PhiDelta Kappan, 76(9), 701-712.

Jehl, J., & Kirst, M. (1994). Getting ready to provideschool-linked services: What schools must do.Oak Brook, IL: North Central RegionalEducational Laboratory.

Shaw, K. M., & Repogle, E. M. (1995). Evaluatingschool-linked services. Harvard FamilyResearch Project: The Evaluation Exchange,1(2), 2-4.

Stone, C., & Wehlage, G. (1992). Community collabo-ration and the restructuring of schools.Madison, WI: Center on Organization andRestructuring of Schools.

Tushnet, N. C. (1993). Guide to developing educationalpartnerships. Austin, TX: Southwest RegionalEducational Laboratory.

TEACHING DIVERSE STUDENTS

Bucci, J. A., & Reitzhammer, A. F. (1992).Collaboration with health and social serviceprofessionals: Preparing teachers for newroles. Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4),290-295.

Burnett, G. (1994, April). Urban teachers and collabo-rative school-linked services. ERIC Digest 96.New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on UrbanEducation; Washington, DC: NationalEducation Association.

Williams, B., & Newcombe, E. (1994). Building onthe strengths of urban learners. EducationalLeadership, 51(5), 75-78.

INCREASING TEACHERS' CULTURAL COMPETENCIES

Gay, G. (1993). Building cultural bridges: A boldproposal for teacher education. Educationand Urban Society, 25(3), 285-299.

EFFECTS OF RETENTION AND ALTERNATIVES

Illinois State Board of Education. (1990, January).Retention: More malady then therapy.Synthesis, 1(1). Springfield, IL: Author.

FUNDING AND FINANCING

Farrow, F., & Joe, T. (1992). Financing school-linked,integrated services. (1992). Future ofChildren, 2(1), 56-67.

Fay, J., Dilbert, J., & Wrean, K. (1993). Building vil-lages to raise our children: Funding andresources. Guides to comprehensive familysupport services. Cambridge, MA: HarvardFamily Research Project, Harvard GraduateSchool of Education.

Odden, A. (1994). Including school finance in sys-temic reform strategies: A commentary. CPREFinance Briefs. New Brunswick, NJ:Consortium for Policy Research in Education,Eagleton Institute of Politics, RutgersUniversity.

BEST CO

95

Y AVAILABLE

CHAPTER 4: PBL PROJECTS AND SELECTED RESOURCES-SAVE OUR SCHOOL

by Helen Harris

Introduction

Save Our Sic 1°011

argantuan changes are taking place todayin America's classrooms. In response toour emerging technological society,

schools are experiencing vast shifts in curriculumand teaching methods. It's becoming apparentthat the static curriculum of the past will not pre-pare our students for the challenges of the nextcentury. They will need skills and abilities thatenable them to adjust to the demands of an ever-changing, increasingly complex world.

School systems in urban areas are in crisis asthey strive to educate children of many lan-guages, cultures, and lifestyles in the midst ofincreasing poverty and funding shortages. Manyof these schools are plagued by low achievement,violence, and staff frustration. In the name ofaddressing the diverse learning styles and back-grounds of our multicultural student population,classroom practices in many schools are begin-ning to reflect new goals: curriculum and teach-ing methods that focus on the development ofproblem-solving abilities, communication, criticalthinking, and teamwork.

Changes in the way teachers are teaching havedemanded parallel changes in how we assess andevaluate students' progress. Teachers are findingthat traditional assessments, such as multiple-choice tests, do not adequately measure the newskills that are being learned. Parents, teachers,and administrators are beginning to raise ques-tions as to what should be assessed, with whatmeasures, for what purposes, and by whom.

Assessment is a critical area for schools, yet itis an area that is often neglected and underusedas a vehicle for improving curriculum, instruc-tion, and decisions that have an impact on studentachievement. Terms such as authentic assessment,performance-based learning, and outcome-basededucation all connote a concern for improving theend products of education: students' knowledgeand, more specifically, their ability to apply theirlearning to complex, real-world problems.

In this problem-based learning project, youwill be challenged to consider new approaches toassessing student performance in designing aschool-based assessment system. As principal,your goal is to design an assessment system thatis aligned with your overall school-improvementplan, that is consistent with state imperatives,and that is defensible to diverse groups within theschool community. You will have to know theschool-change literature and be able to articulateyour own philosophy about change in order toadvocate, market to the public, and establish anassessment system in the midst of dissenting opin-ions. Particularly, you will have to be preparedto defend your new assessment approach todiverse but vocal groups of parents who havecome out against the new approach for differentreasons.

The Problem

About the School

Metro-City School is an elementary magnetschool with a student population of 600, rangingfrom four-year-old kindergarteners through sixthgraders. The school is located near the down-

96


town area of a large metropolitan city. About 65percent of the students are African-American and5 percent are Hispanic. The remaining 30 per-cent are mostly Caucasian with a small percent-age of Asian-American students. More than 60percent of the students qualify for free lunches.About 20 percent of the students walk to schooland the others are bused in from all parts of thecity. Because of attrition, there is an influx ofabout 120 students each year, many of whomseem to have behavior or learning problems.

At one time, a large number of affluentCaucasian students attended the school. The per-centage of these students has declined in recentyears, although there is still an active and vocal,though small, group of Caucasian middle-classparents who send their children to the school.

At times it appears that the values of these par-ents are in conflict with those of the African-American parents to some degree, especially onissues related to student autonomy, discipline,communication, and grading. The Caucasianparents have complained about too much regi-mentation, too much skill and drill in homework,and a lack of challenging activities, whileAfrican-American parents often say their childrenrequire more structure.

Metro-City School has long been known as agood place for children, having enjoyed strongparent involvement and a caring, committed stafffor many years. Staff members pride themselveson being leaders in educational innovation. Overthe years, the staff has embraced methods such ascooperative learning, multigrade classrooms, het-erogeneous groupings, whole language, activity-based science, and process writing.

In the last three or four years, however, therehas been concern among staff and parents as towhether the school program is slipping. Thereare now more discipline problems and lower testscores. Although a number of interventions havebeen attempted, such as small-group tutoring,

Qr

individual instruction, the establishment of anafter-school homework center, and increased par-ent involvement, the achievement gap betweenthe highest-and lowest-achieving students seemsto be getting wider. The staff is concerned thateven despite the school's use of the most recom-mended practices, including whole language, mul-tiple-age grouping and cooperative learning, largenumbers of students are not learning well.Teachers are alarmed that many children in eachclassroom cannot read at grade level and thatsome students are two to three years behind. Inaddition, despite the school's peer mediation anddiscipline programs, fighting and disrespectfulbehavior abounds among students.

The Achievement Gap

As principal of Metro-City School for the pasttwo years, you have tried to address the needs ofall students while supporting measures to reducethe achievement gap and improve the learning oflow-achieving students. You want all students tobe challenged to higher levels of thinking, creativ-ity, and productivity. You also want to maintain,as much as possible, a rich multicultural anddiverse student population because you believethat students who have learned to work with otherswho have different values and lifestyles will bebetter prepared for living in our society and theworld. You especially want to reverse thedownward academic spiral.

While modest gains have been made, you havenot seen the breadth of improvement desired.Some teachers and parents have suggested thattoo much emphasis is being placed on lower-achieving students to the detriment of higher-achieving students. This group of largely middle-class parents has some curriculum concerns, butat the same time, they are quite satisfied with thenorm-reference-based testing system currently inplace. The fact is that historically, they have beenwell served by the current public school system,

97


which "sorts" students through normative, stan-dardized testing. That is to say, their childrengenerally have come out on top. Thus, they seeno reason to change. In fact, some mistakenlyequate new systems with affirmative action-typemotivations and charge the school with unfairlyspending too much time with the low-achievingstudents.

Teachers in the higher grades complain thatcritical skills and strategies were not taught at theprevious levels. This has caused animosity anddefensiveness among some of the lower grade-level teachers, who cite too little parent coopera-tion and involvement, poor attendance, and stu-dents' learning problems as some of the reasonswhy students aren't progressing.

At a staff meeting, Mr. Nelson, who teachesfourth grade, declared that any child who can'tread at least at a third-grade level should not bepromoted from the primary grades. He describedchildren in his room who didn't know lettersounds and had no decoding skills. He askedwhy this happens and wanted to know why thelower-grade teachers weren't addressing thisproblem. Ms. Wilson, a veteran first-gradeteacher, pointed out that many students weren'tattending school on a regular basis and that par-ent contact was impossible in some cases sinceparents didn't have phones and did not respondto letters. She also pointed out that studentsoften lost the books sent home for homework.Another primary teacher stated that the after-school tutoring program sponsored by a localchurch was ineffective because there was nocarry-over to the classroom.

Grade-Level Standards

During the past year, the staff developed grade-level objectives in reading and language arts as away to ensure that necessary skills and strategieswere taught to all children at each grade level.

Some staff think the standards are unnecessaryand unrealistic because the capable students meetand exceed them while weaker students don'treach the goals. Some think the objectives arenot developmentally appropriate for slower stu-dents and late bloomers, who need time to learnat their own pace. The majority agree that someguidelines are needed to ensure some consistencyabout what is taught from teacher to teacher andfrom grade level to grade level.

At the most recent staff meeting, a handful ofteachers who had attended a state-sponsored pro-fessional development seminar the week beforeexpressed frustration at the fact that they're expectednot only to meet school assessment standards,but also state standards as well. "As a school wemay want to look into nongraded alternativesand different groupings for students, but it seemslike we'll never get that far as long as we still haveto spend time preparing students for state-mandatedtests and grade-level objectives," said one teacher."It seems unrealistic and counterproductive."

At a PTA meeting shortly after, a small core ofparents of higher-achieving students stated thatthey had read a newly published article related tonew assessment systems that focus on learningoutcomes. This article on outcomes-based educa-tion, they report, asserted that these new assess-ment systems allowed students as many opportu-nities as necessary to take the tests to meet thehigh standards that were set within the district.A speaker for the group began to read verbatim aportion of the article, which read: "A student,who had achieved in the 96th percentile the pre-vious year, lost his college scholarship because ofoutcomes-based education."

The mention of lost scholarships caused otherparents, who had been tolerating the meeting dis-interestedly until now, to sit up and take note.What was this about lost scholarships due to newtests and standards? These parents wanted toknow whether this new system is a part of your

98


plans for the school and if so, how it will affectthe normative grading system now in place.

Your Challenge:

At the last School Leadership Committee (SLC)meeting, the parent representatives on the commit-tee shared concerns that had been generated attheir last PTA meeting, including the wideningachievement gap, the fact that school policy seemsto waver between back-to-basics standardizedassessment and newer, performance-based assess-ment, and a sense of dissent regarding theseissues among the school community at large. Theparents then asked you and the SLC to addresstheir concerns at the April PTA meeting. Theschool's community advisor, who is the vice presi-dent of M&I Investment Corporation, is interest-ed in the parents' concerns and plans to attendthe April meeting. Though it is not certainwhether she will attend, the school superinten-dent has also been invited.

Some staff members are feeling defensive aboutthe issues raised by the PTA. A union meetingwas called and an inside source told you thatquestions have been raised about your leadership.About one-third of the staff members felt thatthey were getting too much pressure to improvetest scores and did not believe that they had thesupport and trust of the principal. Another one-third felt that the principal was on the right track.The remainder of the staff isn't sure what's goingon and is waiting to see what will happen.

It is now February and parents have madetheir school selections for the next year. Youhave noted that a larger percentage than usual,particularly non-African-American parents, havedecided to send their children to other schools forthe coming year. You feel frustrated, confused,and uncertain about where to turn for help. Inorder to help the students, you know that youmust address the concerns of the staff and gaintheir confidence and support. You also recognize

the need for a comprehensive look at teaching,learning, assessment, and outcomes at Metro-CitySchool. You decide that preparing for the PTAmeeting will provide the focus for generating thekinds of improvements that will lead to greaterstudent achievement and staff/parent decisionmaking and collaboration.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Learn how to involve parents, teachers,community members, employers, and stu-dents in building an assessment system thatsupports your vision for school change.

Participate in aligning curriculum andassessments.

3 Review current research on retention andpromotion.

ALearn the connection between curriculumand content, performance, and deliverystandards in designing a comprehensiveassessment system that supports instructionreform and high expectations for all students.

Understand how norm-reference and stan-dards-based (criterion-reference) systemsrepresent student performance.

4-, Learn how to determine your purposes forassessing and how to use this understand-ing to guide your development of an assess-ment system.

7 Explore the process of change that accom-/ panies the implementation of curriculum

and school policy.

GUIDING QUESTIONS

What is the relationship between instruc-tion, assessment, and achievement?

1) What are the issues related to retention andpromotion?

99

CHAPTER 4: PBL PROJECTS AND SELECTED RESOURCESSAVE OUR SCHOOL

What is the role of traditional and authentica assessment in the school curriculum?

A How can you ensure that higher-levelthinking skills and critical thinking skills aretaught and assessed across the curriculum?

How can you ensure that multicultural con-siderations are addressed in the teachingand assessment process?

How will the interests of the entire school10) community be represented in building an

assessment system and expectations forperformance?

PROJECT SPECIFICATIONS

Together with your peers, determine thepurpose behind the assessment system youwill create. Some purposes may includeschool accountability; raising test scores;developing a seamless curriculum, instruc-tion, and an assessment loop that supportsoverall school improvement; enhancingteacher professionalism; developing a climatein which all students are challenged to meethigh standards; and so on. Given yourschool context, you might be interested inone or a combination of these purposes.

Sort out the various positions of groupswithin the school community and whattheir motivation might be (e.g., parents oflower-achieving students wanting structure;some teachers wanting a voice in articulat-ing standards, and others not wanting toupset the status quo, and so forth). Indesigning a well-orchestrated system, youwill have to anticipate the potential percep-tions and misperceptions on which theposition of these groups might be based.

1) Create an action plan for developing a sys-tern designed to suit your vision for schoolimprovement, as well as your purpose(s) asoutlined above. Include the following:

114?

°Describe the reference point for assessingstudent achievement (e.g., norm-referencedto other students' performance, a set ofabsolute standards, and so forth).

o If your system is standard-based, describeyour process for determining standardsand who would be involved in the role ofeach participant. If your system is norm-referenced, describe how the norms wouldbe determined.

°Describe how the system would be linkedto instruction and curriculum.

o Describe the assessment measures, includingexisting tools, that you would adopt. Includewhy they support your assessment purpose.

°Detail how you intend for assessmentinformation to be reported and used byparents, teachers, employers, and commu-nity members, including what assurancesyou plan to put in place so that informa-tion is not misused.

o Describe any other components of yoursystem and how they will support yourpurpose in assessing as well as your visionfor school improvement (e.g., delivery stan-dards, professional development, teacherand community involvement, and so on).

Ai Your new assessment system will be put tothe test at the next PTA meeting. Develop aten-minute presentation that will fairlydescribe your approach as well as convincetwo vocal parent groups.

o One group of parents is against your pro-posed alternative assessment systembecause they see the system as lacking the"back to basics" structure they support.

0 The other group distrusts your programbecause they believe it will usher in an out-comes-based approach that they feel sacri-fices the needs of high-achieving students inorder to bring others up to speed.

100


K e y

HIGH STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN READING

Beach, R. (1987). Strategic teaching in literature. In B.E Jones, Palinscar, A. S., Ogle, D. S., & Carr, E.G. (Eds.), Strategic teaching and learning:Cognitive instruction in the content areas (pp.135-159). Oak Brook, IL: North CentralRegional Educational Laboratory.

Calfee, R. (1991). What schools can do to improve lit-eracy instruction. In B. Means, C. Chelemer, &M. S. Knapp (Eds.), Teaching advanced skills toat-risk students: Views from research and prac-tice (pp. 176-215). San Francisco: Jossey-BassInc., Publishers.

Slavin, R. E., & Madden, N. A. (1995). Success forall: Creating schools and classrooms where allchildren can read. In J. Oakes, & K. H. Quartz(Eds.), Creating new educational communities:Ninety-fourth yearbook of the National Societyfor the Study of Education: Part I (pp. 70-86).Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

PARENT INVOLVEMENT IN STUDENT READING

Gaber, D, Harrison, C., & Tracey, D. (1993). Familyliteracy: Perspective and practices. The ReadingTeacher, 47(3), 194-200.

ALIGNMENT OF CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT

Resnick, L. B., & Resnick, D. P. (1992). Assessing thethinking curriculum: New tools for educationalreform. In B. Gifford, & M. C. O'Connor (Eds.),Changing assessments: Alternative views of apti-tude, achievement, and instruction (pp. 37-76).Norwell, MA: Klewer Academic Publishers.

SHARED DECISION MAKING

Peterson, K., & Brietzke, R. (1994). Building collabo-rative cultures: Seeking ways to reshape urbanschools. Oak Brook, IL: North Central RegionalEducational Laboratory.

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT SYSTEMS

Freedman, S. W (1993). Linking large-scale testingand classroom portfolio assessments of studentwriting. Educational Assessment, 1(1), 27-52.

§ our C C §


Estrin, E. T. (1993). Alternative assessment: Issues inlanguage, culture, and equity. (Brief No. 11). SanFrancisco: Far West Laboratory for EducationalResearch and Development.

Garcia, G. E. (1991). Literacy assessment in a diversesociety. (Technical Report No. 525). Champaign,IL: Center for the Study of Reading, Universityof Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of cultur-ally relevant pedagogy. American EducationalResearch Journal, 32(3), 465-491.

Lee, C. D. (1992). Literacy, cultural diversity, andinstruction. Education and Urban Society, 24(2),279-291.

RETENTION-PROMOTION ISSUES

Shepard, L. A., & Smith, M. L. (1990). Synthesis ofresearch on grade retention. EducationalLeadership, 47(8), 84-88.

PURPOSES FOR ASSESSING

Wiggins, G. (1993). Assessment worthy of the liberalarts. In Assessing student performance (pp. 34-71). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers.

AUTHENTIC LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT

Newmann, E M., Secada, W. G., & Wehlage, G. G.(1995). A guide to authentic instruction andassessment: Vision, standards and scoring.Madison, WI: Center on Organization andRestructuring of Schools, University ofWisconsin-Madison.

TEACHING STANDARDS

Knapp, M. S., Shields., P. M., & Turnbull, B. J.(1995). Teaching for meaning in high-povertyclassrooms. In M. S. Knapp with N. E. Adelman,C. Marder, H. McCollum, M. C. Needels, C.Padilla, P. M. Shields, B. J. Turnbull, & A. A.Zucker, Teaching for meaning in high-povertyclassrooms (pp. 183-204). New York: TeachersCollege Press.

101

A p p e n d i x

1994 MILWAUKEE INSTITUTE AGENDA

1995 OHIO URBAN LEADERSHIP ACADEMY AGENDA

DEFINING FEATURES MATRIX: PBL VS. CASE METHOD

SAMPLE OVERHEADS

SAMPLE PBL PROBLEMS

Because Wisdom Cannot Be Told

In English Please

102

APPENDIX-MILWAUKEE SAMPLE AGENDA

Milwaukee -Irincipalis Enstitute ASummer Seminar, July 19-22, 1994

erida

TUESDAY, JULY 19, 1994

8:00 Check-In (complete required paperwork, full check-in after 3:15 p.m.)

9:30 IntroductionHoward FullerOverview of InstituteLynn J. StinnetteIntroduction of MPS/NCREL staff

10:00 Stoking the Fires of ChangeBuilding TeamsFacilitated by Keith Weedman

12:00 Lunch

1:00 Reinventing Urban Education for High Performance Teaching and LearningPresentation and discussion led by Eric Cooper

2:30 Aligning District/School Initiatives Activity: Beginning your School ProfileFacilitated by Enid Lee and Eric Cooper

3:15 Break and Check-In (pick up room keys/luggage)

3:45 Introduction of PBL: Overview of the ProblemLynn Stinnette

5:00 Daily evaluations and close

6:00 Dinner

7:00 PBL team session

8:30 Close

EDNESDAY, JULY 20, 1994

8:00 Breakfast

8:45 IntroductionCynthia M. Ellwood

9:00 Overcoming Barriers to Creating High-Achieving Learning EnvironmentsKeynote presentation by Enid Lee

10:00 Illustration/Demonstration Activity: Analysis of your school's "Spheres ofInfluence/Continuation of School Profile DevelopmentFacilitated by Enid Lee (level alike groups)

11:00 Break

103


Ill Ilwau -(Ce rincipalls Institute A enda (continued)

11:15 Illustration/Demonstration Activity: Analysis of your school's "Spheres ofInfluence/Continuation of School Profile Development"Facilitated by Enid Lee (level alike groups)

12:00 Lunch1:00 Systemic Change

Keynote presentation and activities led by Jerry Bamburg

3:00 PBL team session [read/view/access/discuss resources to address PBL learning objectives]

5:00 Daily evaluations and close

5:30 Reception and dinner by the poolBooksale

7:00 UEN Special Session: NCREL & MPS Leadership Training Model

7:30 PBL groups convene (optional)

9:00 Close

THURSDAY, JULY 21, 1994

8:00 Breakfast

8:45 Introduction Howard Fuller

9:00 Using Data to Build High-Achieving Learning EnvironmentsPresentation and discussion led by Jerry Bamburg and Kent Peterson

10:30 Reflection and Planning: School hnprovement/Leadership StrategiesFacilitated by Jerry Bamburg, Kent Peterson, and Enid Lee

Individual ReflectionGroup DiscussionIndividual/School Team Work

12:00 Lunch

1:00 Leadership for High Performance SchoolsKeynote Presentation and discussion led by Kent Peterson

2:30 Break

104

Mil twata.cee


rin-RcipaRs Ihstittute Agenda (continued)

3:00 Reflection and Planning: School Improvement/Leadership StrategiesDevelopmentof a Plan for Getting StartedFacilitated by Jerry Bamburg, Kent Peterson, and Enid Lee

Individual ReflectionGroup DiscussionIndividual/School Team Work

5:00 Daily evaluation and close

6:00 Dinner by the pool and Book Sale

7:30 PBL teams convene (optional) Fruit/Sundae BarTechnology room tours (sign-ups required) and Book Sale

FRIDAY, JULY 22, 1994

Plan to check-out before 11:00 a.m.

8:00 Breakfast

8:45 Whole Group Meeting

9:00 PBL groups: Prepare products for presentation

11:30 PBL presentations and debriefing

12:30 Lunch

1:30 PBL debriefingDiscuss ways to use PBL at your school

2:30 PBL groups prepare for closing presentations

Break

3:15 Closing Activity: Each PBL group gives a fun and creative presentation on:What We LearnedThe Summer Seminar was like a becauseOne Word to Describe Your Experience

4:15 Closing RemarksLynn J. Stinnette

4:30 Raffle/evaluation

5:00 Close

105

oe

APPENDIX-OHIO SAMPLE AGENDA

-Rio Summer Leaders -up Enstitute A:emiaJuly 17-21, 1995

MONDAY, JULY 17, 1995

8:00-9:45

9:45-10:30

10:30-12:00

12:00-1:00

1:00-3:15

3:15-3:30

3:30-5:00

5:30-7:00

Registration

Welcoming RemarksGene Harris, Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction, Ohio Department of Education

Lynn Stinnette, Director, Urban Education, North Central Regional Educational Laboratory

Jim Jilek, Assistant Director, Division of Curriculum,Instruction, and Professional Development, Ohio Department of Education

Building a Shared Vision for Educational ChangeRoland Barth, keynote presentation and workshop activities

Lunch

Building a Shared Vision for Educational ChangeRoland Barth, workshop activities

Break

PBL Overview and First Team MeetingPhilip Hallinger, Department of Educational Leadership, Vanderbilt University

Dinner/networking

TUESDAY, JULY 18, 1995

8:00-9:00

9:00-10:00

Breakfast

Transforming Schools Through Effective Leadership: Using Problem-Based Learningto Build Leadership Capacity in Urban SchoolsPhilip Hallinger, Department of Educational Leadership, Vanderbilt University

10:00-12:00 Work On PBLPhilip Hallinger, Department of Educational Leadership, Vanderbilt University andKent Peterson, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison

12:00-1:00 Lunch

1:00-2:30 Work on PBLPhilip Hallinger, Department of Educational Leadership, Vanderbilt University andKent Peterson, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison

2:30-2:45 Break

2:45-4:00

4:00-4:45

4:45-5:00

5:00-6:00

Work On PBLPhilip Hallinger, Department of Educational Leadership, Vanderbilt University andKent Peterson, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison

Planning for School Improvement (school team meeting)

Large Group Debriefing/Meeting

Dinner/networking

106

APPENDIX-OHIO SAMPLE AGENDA

01-iio Summer Leaders: nip Institute A (11) ends (continued)

WEDNESDAY, JULY 19, 1995

8:00-9:00 Breakfast

9:00-11:30 High ExpectationsHigh Achieving StudentsBarbara Sizemore, Ph.D., Dean, School of Education, DePaul University,keynote presentation and workshop activities

11:30-12:00 Planning for School Improvement (school team meetings)

12:00-1:00 Lunch

1:00-2:30 Work on PBLKent Peterson, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison

2:30-2:45 Break

2:45-4:00 Work on PBLKent Peterson, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison


4:45-5:00 Large Group Debriefing/Meeting

6:00-10:00 Reception and Dinner/networking

THURSDAY, JULY 20, 1995

8:00-9:00 Breakfast

9:00-10:30 PBL Culmination (performances, debriefing)Kent Peterson, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison


12:00-1:00 Lunch

1:00-3:45 Building Foundations for Change: Shaping School Culture Through Symbolic LeadershipKent Peterson, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison,keynote persentation and workshop activites

3:45-4:00 Break

4:00-5:00 Closing Ceremonies (1 minute presentations on what we learned;The Summer Institute was like a because

FRIDAY, JULY 21, 1995

8:00-9:00 Breakfast/networking

9:00-12:00 Special forum with central office staff and university facultyPutting the Pieces Together: New Roles for Central Office LeadersKent Peterson, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison

107

APPENDIX-DEFINING FEATURES MATRIX

Defining Features Matrix:PBL vs. Case Method

PBL CASE

Problem-centered X X

Student-led teams X

Teacher-led discussion X

Emphasis on analysis X

Emphasis on implementation X

Class time is scheduled by students X

Basic unit of instruction: project X

Basic unit of instruction: case X

Problem is the starting point for learning X (X)

Emphasis on life-long learning skills (X)

Emphasis on problem-solving skills X

Emphasis on managements skills X

Emphasis on project management skills X

Concern for emotional aspects of leadership X

Practice in getting results through others X

Acquire skills in giving feedback X

On-going formative evaluation X

Problem-based LearningE. Bridges & P. Hallinger

1O8

APPENDIXSAMPLE OVERHEADS

What Problem-based Learning is NOT:

-)roblem-solving designed as an exercise for applyinginformation previously learned in a subject- centered approach

Problem-solving intended to demonstrate the relevanceof prior learning

Finding the answer to a question


Components of a PBL Curriculum

O CUMULATIVE LEARNING:

spiraling skills and content with increasing demands for sophistication over time

o DNTEGRATED LEARNING:

inter-disciplinary presentation of knowledge in relation to problems

o PROGRESSION IN LEARNING:

curriculum changes in relation to evolving maturity of students' skills & knowledge

o CONSISTENCY IN LEARNING:

aims of PBL must be supported in all aspects of implementation (e.g., adult learners,resource support)

From Charles Engel, 1991Problem-based LearningE. Bridges & P. Hallinger

109

APPENDIX-SAMPLE OVERHEADS

"So

to

le

Because Wisdom Can't Be Told

le ilad grown rich at last, and t iought to transmit

is only son all the cut-and-dried experience w -tic -a

limsellf had purchased at t -Re price of -tits Rost il usions:

Me last illusion of age."a10


Balzac

Professional Education

"Educatio 1 in the pro'essions

shou d prepare students for action. 99


C. Gragg, 1940Harvard Business School

APPENDIX-SAMPLE PBL PROBLEMS

11; ecalase Wisdom Cannot

Problem-

00

ased Learnin: in Hither Education

Developed by

Edwin M. Bridges,

Stanford University

and Philip Hallinger,

Vanderbilt University and Chiang Mai University

So he had grown rich at last, and thought

to transmit to his only son all the cut-

and-dried experience which he himself

had purchased at the price of his lost

illusions; a noble last illusion of age.'

This quote vividly highlights the difficulty thatpeople experience in transmitting knowledge toothers. In 1940, Charles L. Gragg published anarticle on management education in which heasserted that "the goal of education is to preparestudents for action."' The problem of knowledgetransfer is particularly acute in the professionswhere the application of knowledge is paramount(e.g., education, law, medicine, administration).

Yet, there has been a growing recognition thatprofessional education has fallen short of thedemands of the workplace. Graduates view thecontent of preparation programs as irrelevant totheir work roles. Theory and research appearunrelated to practice. Studies confirm the beliefthat knowledge and skills gained in professionaleducation often transfer poorly to the workplace.Students often forget much of the material whichthey have learned and/or are unsure how to applythe knowledge they have retained. Moreover,

professional education programs have generallyignored the affective domain of education despiteits importance in the practice of many professionalfields.

The challenge of preparing students for theworkplace has taken on increased importanceover the past decade as research continues togenerate new knowledge at increasing rates.The explosion of knowledge and the use of moreefficient information technologies have placed agreater premium on life-long learning as a legiti-mate goal of professional education. In mostprofessional fields, important curricular domainshave changed substantially over the past decade;change in the knowledge base among the profes-sions is likely to accelerate in the future.

Professional preparation programs mustincrease their capacity to make both current andfuture knowledge accessible to practitioners. Onepotential vehicle for closing the gap between ouraspirations for student learning and the reality ofapplication is problem-based learning. Thisapproach holds promise for making education moremeaningful and for increasing students' ability toaccess and apply knowledge outside the class-room. In this project you will have the opportunityto learn about problem-based learning by partici-pating in the process of problem-based learning.It is hoped that you will learn about PBL in themanner that enables you to apply your knowledgeto the development of your own educationalprogram.

'From Balzac quoted in Bransford, J. et al., (1989). New approaches to instruction: Because wisdom can't be told.In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning. New York Cambridge University Press.'Gragg, C.L. (1940, Oct. 19). Wisdom can't be told. Harvard Alumni Bulletin.


The Problem

Assume that your educational institution isexperiencing a 10 percent cutback in its budget.Further assume that your Dean has conducted athorough review of each department. Her reviewreveals that the enrollments in your departmentshow a downward trend over the past four yearsand that graduates of your program are extremelycritical of the quality of their preparation. Theymaintain that the content lacks sufficient relevanceto professional practice and that the instructorsrely much too heavily on two methods of instruc-tionlecture and teacher-led discussion.

The Dean shares her view with yourDepartment Head and asks your department todevelop a plan that responds to the decliningenrollments and student criticisms. Unless yourdepartment comes up with a reasonable plan, it isin danger of suffering a much larger cut than 10percent. Despite the fact that your department isstaffed primarily by mid- and late-career tenuredfaculty, the lack of a credible response could leadto it being phased out or merged with anotherprogram.

Your Department Head has created three sub-committees to look into problem-centeredinstructional strategies: case method, case inci-dent technique, and problem-based learning(PBL). You have been assigned to the subcom-mittee investigating PBL.

The Department Head has charged your sub-committee with reviewing the literature on PBLand preparing a brief report on what you havelearned about PBL and its salience to the issuesfacing your department. You won't have timeduring this session to draft the full report, butyou will make a presentation to the other facultyin your department.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

What is PBL and how does it operate in a1.. classroom setting?

What is the rationale behind PBL and whatempirical evidence exists to support its use?

2 How is PBL organized for the classroomj' and what is the role of students?

4What is the role of the instructor in PBL?

What factors influence the adoption andimplementation of curriculum in educationalinstitutions?

GUIDING QUESTIONS

11 What are the major differences between therole of a student in PBL and the traditionaland case methods of instruction?

What are the major differences between therole of an instructor in PBL and the tradi-tional and case methods of instruction?

2 What facets of problem-based learning fosterJI transfer of learning to the workplace?

A What are some of the advantages and dis-advantages of PBL from the teacher's per-spective? From the student's perspective?

What factors need to be considered in terms,..)) of introducing a curricular/instructional

change such as PBL into the department?

(Note: The guiding questions are designed to orient you toimportant !earnings /issues in the project. It is not intendedthat you will answer these questions explicitly.)



1Prepare an oral report that you will deliverto the rest of your department's instruc-tional staff; this report should indicate:

a. What you have learned about PBL thatis probably of greatest importance toyour staff.

b. What the department should do nextconcerning PBL (e.g., drop the idea ofusing PBL; study the idea in more depth,noting what you want to know moreabout; use PBL on the limited, trial basis).

c. Why you are making the recommendation.Each group will have a maximum of 10minutes to present its oral report to theother staff in your department.

Your oral report should be supplementedby a short written handout (maximum twopages) that outlines your findings, yourrecommendations, and the rationale behindthe steps that you are suggesting.

Oo ORDER

Problem Based Learning for Administrators(Bridges with Hal linger, 1992) and/orImplementing Problem Based Learning forAdministrators (Bridges & Hal linger, 1995),please contact:

ERIC Clearinghouse on EducationalManagement

University of Oregon1787 Agate StreetEugene, OR 97403-5207Telephone: (503) 346-5043Fax: (503)346-2334

11 es ou >r C e S

For this PBL project, you will have thefollowing resources:

Reading materialsPBL: What is it? Read PBL forAdministrators, pp. 4-17.PBL: Organization and implementation; ReadPBL for Administrators, pp. 19-28.PBL: Role of the professor: Read PBL forAdministrators, pp. 58-63PBL: What students learn: Read PBL forAdministrators, pp. 65-72, 80-84

Related Reading on PBL and its Effectiveness

Barrows, H. (n.d.). A specific problem-based,self-directed learning method designedto teach medical problem-solvingskills, and enhance knowledge reten-tion and recall. Southern IllinoisUniversity.

Bridges, E., & Hallinger, P. (1993). Problem-based learning in medical and man-agerial education. In P. Hallinger,K. Leithwood, & J. Murphy (Eds.),Cognitive perspectives on educationalleadership. New York: TeachersCollege Press.

Gragg, C. (1940, October 19) Because wisdomcan't be told. Harvard AlumniBulletin, Reprinted Harvard BusinessSchool, #451-005.

Norman, G. (1988). Problem-solving skills,solving problems and problem-basedlearning. Medical Education, 22,279-286.

11.3

Walton, H., & Matthews, M. (1989).Essentials of problem-based learning.Medical Education, 23, 542-558.

APPENDIX-IN ENGLISH, PLEASE

Rra

The United States of America is a nation ofimmigrants, and the state of California epito-mizes the linguistic, ethnic, and cultural diversitythat accompanies immigration. In 1990 slightlymore than half of the 29,760,021 residents werewhite. Hispanics accounted for 26 percent of thepopulation; Asians and Pacific Islanders foranother 9 percent; African-Americans amountedto 7 percent; and American Indians, Eskimos,and Aleutians for nearly 1 percent. This diversity,as in previous periods of our history, poses a for-midable challenge for the public schools inCalifornia and elsewhere.

One of the major challenges facing the schoolsis how to deal effectively with students who lackproficiency in the English language. In Californiaone of every seven students is either Non-EnglishProficient (NEP) or Limited English Proficient(LEP). Although most of these NEP and LEP stu-dents attend the early grades, they are also to befound in the upper grades. Helping these childrento communicate and to learn in English representsa major goal and challenge for the schools.

Despite virtually unanimous agreement on thegoal, there is considerable disagreement abouthow the goal should be attained. The underlyingissues are complex, often misunderstood, and fre-quently charged with great emotion. The princi-pal stakeholders in these issues have sought theirresolution in a variety of forums: the schools, thestate legislature, the U.S. Congress, the courtroom, and the ballot box. Despite these efforts,the issues remain unsettled and the center of heateddisputes.

Scholars and researches have sought to shedlight on these issues and to identify effectiveteaching strategies and programs for helping NEPand LEP students to acquire proficiency in the

'lease

English language. Although the theoretical andempirical work of these scholars points to effec-tive and ineffective ways of acquiring proficiencyin a second language, the public and educatorsalike continue to harbor misconceptions aboutthese programs. In consequence, they unwittinglyperpetuate policies, programs, and practices thatexacerbate rather than solve the problem.

In this problem-based learning project, youwill be introduced to a number of the issuessurrounding America's multilingual past. At thesame time you will learn about the research andtheory that bear on these issues. In addition youwill become knowledgeable about the legal andfiscal aspects of providing an education for NEPand LEP students who are striving to acquireproficiency in English as a second language.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Acquire knowledge and understanding ofthe major issues that confront a schoolserving a linguistically diverse population

14

Obtain insight into the various approachesthat might be used to deal with these issues

-2 Acquire knowledge and understanding ofthe theory and research that relate to theseissues and approaches

Become knowledgeable about the legalaspects of providing an education for alinguistically diverse student population

Develop a personal philosophy/rationaleabout bilingual education that can becommunicated to a diverse audience

APPENDIX-1N ENGLISH, PLEASE

GUIDING QUESTIONS

In what respects is the King Middle Schoolin and out of compliance with state andfederal laws governing the education oflinguistically diverse populations?

The letter from Mrs. Olson contains aAt number of opinions and perceptions? Which

of these are unfounded (i.e., inconsistentwith what research has to say about theeducation and linguistic practices of thosefor whom English is a second language)?

3 What are the existing resources within thedistrict and the school that might be usedto enhance the education of this linguisti-cally diverse population, how are they cur-rently being deployed (including proposalsfor deployment), and how might they bere-deployed?

A What approaches might be used to providean education for this linguistically diversepopulation?

3)What approach(es) would you favor, andhow would you defend your choice?

Problem

Read the case, In English, Please!

Product Specifications

As the first-year principal of King MiddleSchool, you have decided to appoint a BilingualAdvisory Committee consisting of yourself, par-ents with opposing views (English only, secondgeneration Hispanic, recent Hispanic immigrant,and non-Hispanic), and teachers (intermediate,upper grade, and bilingual). Prior to the firstmeeting, you intend to circulate a packet of

materials that you have prepared. This packetshould contain the following materials:

a. a statement that describes the committee'scharge

b. a tentative plan for how the committeeshould proceed to accomplish its charge

c. an agenda for the meeting that clarifies whatthe content and the process will be for themeeting

d. a statement (not to exceed two single-spacedtypewritten pages) that attempts to providecommittee members with the backgroundinformation that you believe all committeemembers should have about bilingual educa-tion

e. a statement (not to exceed one single-spacedtypewritten page) that discusses what yourcurrent views on bilingual education are

[Note: In wrestling with the issues in this caseyou may find that it does not contain some cru-cial information you need. In this event, makewhatever assumptions you feel are reasonable inlight of the other facts presented in the case.Make these assumptions explicit.]

Assessment

When you have finished your product, pleaseprepare an integrative essay that reflects whatyou have learned while completing this project.Also, complete the Talk Back sheet.

115


R es our cesReadings

BILINGUAL EDUCATION THEORY

Schooling and Language Minority Students: ATheoretical Framework, 1981. Pp. 3-146.[Strongly recommended.]

Glossary of Terms for Bilingual Education inSchooling and Language MinorityStudents. Pp. 215-18.

RESEARCH

"Basic Research on Language Acquisition." InCrawford, 1989. Pp. 97-111. [Stronglyrecommended.]

THEORY INTO PRACTICE

"Theory into Practice: The Case Studies Project."In Crawford, 1989. Pp. 126-41. [Stronglyrecommended.]

R. Porter. "The Newton Alternative to BilingualEducation ." The Annals of the AmericanAcademy of Political and Social Science(March 1990). Pp. 147-59.

S. Morison. "A Spanish-English Dual-LanguageProgram in New York City." The Annals(March 1990): Pp. 160-69.

POLICY

"Bilingual Education: Learning English."Ed Source XI (January 1988): Pp. 1-8."Final Report of the Bilingual EducationTask Force" (One example of a schooldistrict policy on bilingual education).Redwood City School District, RedwoodCity, CA, June 6, 1990.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

J. Perlman. "Historical Legacies: 1840-1920."The Annuals of the American Academy ofPolitical and Social Science (March 1990).Pp. 27-37. [Strongly recommended.]

LEGAL CONTEXT

B. Piatt, "Language Rights in the Classroom." InOnly English? Albuquerque, NewMexico: University of New Mexico Press,1990. Pp. 37-57.

"State Requirements for Programs ServingLimited English Proficient Students"(CCR documents containing complianceitems). Mimeographed, undated but cur-rent. [Strongly recommended.]

THE ENGLISH-ONLY MOVEMENT

A. Padilla, and others. "The English-OnlyMovement: Myths, Reality andImplications for Psychology." Journal ofthe American Psychological Association46, 1 (February 1991): 121-30. [Stronglyrecommended.]

MANAGING ADVISORY COMMITTEES (TASK FORCES)

J. Ware. Managing a Task Force. Boston,Massachusetts: Soldiers Field, HarvardBusiness School, 1977.

E. Bridges. "Notes on a Prescription forConsensus Building in Ad Hoc Groups"(Task Forces), 1991. (Mimeographed.)

116


ilra En 4, lis 1, Incas&You are in your first year as principal of the King Middle School. At this point you are wondering

whether your decision to become a principal was a wise one. You fully expected to make a difference andwere eager to confront the challenges facing public education. Now, these challenges seem overwhelming.

A troubling issue sits on your desk. Mrs. Lore Olsen, the leader of a group of concerned parents, haswritten you a letter about the "Hispanic problem" at the school. For the third time you begin to read thisletter from her.

Dear Principal Smith:

I was listening to the radio yesterday and heard a well known commentator discussing an issue that concerns ourgroup. His concern, like ours, is the promotion and use of other languages by so many in our country who do notappear to be attempting to learn English or become part of the melting pot. He equated the problems here withthose in Quebec, and warned that with our policies the time would come when we would have states secedingfrom our union.

The problems involved with non-English speaking students has long been a challenge for our school system. Everypublic agency in the state is burdened with providing interpreters and often literature in several different languages,especially Spanish. The cost of these services is astronomical. Perhaps, if there was a happy ending to the story itwould not be so perturbing. But, year after year, these same people continue to expect the United States to supporttheir lack of language acquisitionand on and on indefinitely. States like California never get ahead because anew wave enters the system daily without an equal number exiting.

Now this problem is starting to plague our school. Our concern is with the large numbers of such people who bleedall sorts of funding agencies, and generation after generation, never do learn English. The parents never read Englishbooks, never watch English television and never attempt to speak English. Their children are cut from the samecloth; the only place they try to speak English is at school. Our experience tells us that these kids eventually wind upcosting the system lots of money, money better spent on kids who come to school to learn and are capable of doingso. We already spend too much money on special education services. Before long these kids from across the borderwill be classified as "learning disabled" and receive more attention than kids who are serious about their education.

Let's quit paying translators and expect these people to provide their own. Let's quit printing tests for driverslicenses, school notices, etc. in several different languages and let these people either learn to read English or providetheir own assistance. Cruel? We think not. Didn't your ancestors have to learn English to found this country?Ours did.

Our democratic government is based on an informed electorate. Unless one can read, write, and speak the lan-guage of the country, how can he or she truly know and understand the issues and be adequately informed?

We believe the key is motivation. If these people weren't fed, clothed, housed and given medical assistance sofreely perhaps the motivation would be there to learn English and find jobs.

Granted there are no easy solutions but we need to begin moving toward the goal of expecting people to speakEnglish. It would save a fortune in salaries and services and in the long run reduce unemployment because thesepeople could find jobs and get off welfare. Test scores would rise, and the need for special classes would be reduced.

While you are trying to find a solution for this problem, we want you to put these kids in separate classes. There'sno law that says these kids must sit side by side with children who come to school ready and able to learn. Otherschools have tracking. It works there, and there is no reason why it won't work here.

You have our views on this problem. We await a letter or phone call from youin English please!Sincerely,

Mrs. Lorie Olsen, PresidentConcerned Parents Group

117


You put the letter down again and say to yourself:

As if that isn't bad enough, many of theteachers are also complaining. The complaintsare pretty consistent: "It's impossible to teachthese kids. The district keeps raising classsize. At the same time they're sending usmore and more kids who don't understandEnglish and don't seem motivated to learn it.If the truth be known, they probably don'tknow their own language all that well andweren't doing all that well in school even ifthey were going to school which they proba-bly weren't. It's unreasonable to expect usto deal effectively with this situation. Wedon't have the skills to teach these kids.Our ESL program isn't working either.These kids are pulled out of our class for 20minutes a day and don't show any improve-ment. If a bilingual aide can't accomplishanything, how do you expect us to?"

Moments later your mind flashes back to aconversation you had two days ago with a leaderin the Hispanic community. He was quite reasonablebut very forthright about the problems at King.The gist of his comments as you recall was as follows:

The school is a tinder box ready to be ignitedat any minute. Students don't like comingto school. They feel unwelcome. Theysense that the teachers don't understandthem and are not making much of an effortto help the students adjust to a foreign envi-ronment or succeed in school. Most teach-ers ignore the students' cultural heritage anddiscourage them from ever saying anythingin their native language. There isn't any-thing in their classes that students can relateto; everything seems so different from whatthings were like in their homeland. TheAnglo students resent the presence ofHispanics and harass, tease, and intimidatethem daily. Overt racial conflict will breakout any day if racial relations don't improve.

Many of the Hispanic parents are not welleducated and are reluctant to come to school

because they don't speak English very well.First generation immigrant parents also dis-trust authorities and prefer to remain invisiblebecause they don't know their legal rightsand fear that they might be deported. Theseparents also are pretty confused about theAmerican school system and are inclined tobelieve that school officials and teachers knowwhat's best for their children. Second gener-ation immigrant parents feel that their chil-dren are being treated badly here at King, areangry about it but don't know what to do.If something isn't done and racial conflicterupts in the school, you won't be able tocount on any support or cooperation fromany of the Hispanic parents, first or secondgeneration.

You also must realize that Hispanic parentshave needs of their own that aren't being met.Some want to learn how to read and write,either in English or Spanish. Other desire tohelp their children with their homework.Still others want to be informed about schoolissues, to receive help and guidance in raisingtheir children, and to know what their legalrights are. If you really want the cooperationof these parents, you should address theirneeds, as well as their children's.

Adding to your problems is the lack of creden-tialed bilingual teachers and the district assignmentpolicies that have been negotiated with the teachers'union. Assignment preference goes to seniorteachers, regardless of the special needs of individualschools. Given the number of Hispanic studentsin your school, you should have more teacherswith bilingual certification. However, they justaren't available, and your school is out of compli-ance with the law. You wonder what that por-tends for the future. Perhaps, you could avoid thelegal problems by supporting the district's proposalto establish a newcomers' center for the Hispanics.This proposal (see attached) is currently underconsideration by the Superintendent's cabinet towhich you belong.

1118


Meanwhile....

Proposed Newcomer Center forHispanic Students

The Bay lands Elementary School District iscurrently considering a proposal to establish aNewcomer Center for Hispanic Students. Thiscenter will focus on students in grades 4-8 andwill be funded through the federal EmergencyImmigration Education Assistance Program anddistrict funds. Students who speak limited or noEnglish will be assigned to the Newcomer Centerfor a period not to exceed six months. The centerwill have four major functions:

1. to provide comprehensive assessment services

2. to conduct physical examinations

3. to provide a transitional education program

4. to orient parents of the new students to theBay lands Schools, the American educationalsystem, and broader issues about Americanlife

Comprehensive assessment services. Thesenew students will be assessed through five examsin (a) oral primary language use and comprehen-sion, (b) English reading, (c) English writing, (d)mathematics, and (e) tests in Spanish to ascertainnative language literacy levels. Two bilingualspecialists will conduct these assessments.

Physical examinations. In addition to academ-ic assessment, the center will provide physicalhealth examinations to students. One full-timenurse-practitioner will be assigned to carry outthese duties at the center.

Transitional educational program. Studentsmay stay up to six months and receive intensiveESL instruction in oral language, reading and lifeskills, PE, general math, and world cultural studies.There will be five teachers (all bilingual in Spanishand English) assigned full-time to the center.

Service to parents of student newcomers. Anorientation handbook will be made available inSpanish for parents and students. This handbookwill contain basic information about school ser-vices, graduation requirements, expectations, howto obtain a locker and lunch tickets, and contactsfor further assistance. In addition, the center willdevelop and show a slide show about the schools,with audiocassettes in Spanish, for use at quarter-ly orientation meetings for newly arrived parentsand weekly sessions for students. The parentmeetings will also include information about theschools and broader issues as well, includinghealth, employment, immigration, and parentalinvolvement in education. The center will build anetwork of community agencies to work withparents on these issues.

Other staff of the center will include a full-timecoordinator and secretary. The center coordina-tor will work with school principals and receivingteachers to ensure that students receive transition-al support when they are assigned to regularclassrooms.

Estimated costs for the center during its firstyear of operation will be approximately$275,000.

119


STAFF

act S-leet: Kin 1: Middle School. (4-8)

Enrollment: 950 [327 Hispanic (100 LEP), 30 Black, and 593 White]

Principal

Assistant PrincipalTwo counselorsNurse41 teachers (2 credentialed bilingual; should have 10)4 bilingual aides

CURRICULAR AND INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM

8th Grade-2 period core featuring language arts and reading7th Grade-3 period core featuring language arts, reading, and social studies4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th Gradepullout program, 20 minutes daily, for ESL students6th Gradedual 3-period core scheduleInterdisciplinary teamingTeam teaching7-period dayElective and exploratory classes4th and 5th grades are self-contained

EXTRACURRICULAR PROGRAM

Student Activity CenterAfter school sports and recreationPerforming arts (band and chorus)

PARENT/COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

PTA

School Site Council(Virtually no participation of Hispanic parents)

STUDENT SUSPENSIONS

226 days of suspension during the previous year81 different students suspendedStudents suspended for these reasons in order of occurrence: Fighting (by far the leadingreason), defiance or insubordination, alcohol/drugs, vandalism, and smoking

TEST INFORMATION

On statewide tests, King scored at the 50th percentile last year compared to other schools in thestate that serve students with similar backgrounds.

(Note: The Bay lands School District has six elementary schools and two middle schools, including King.)

120

NCRELNorth Central Regional Educational Laboratory

1900 Spring Road, Suite 300Oak Brook, IL 60523-1480

(630) 571-4700Fax: (630) 571-4716

121

(9/92)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and improvement (OERI)

Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)

NOTICE

REPRODUCTION BASIS

ERIC

This document is covered by a signed "Reproduction Release(Blanket)" form (on file within the ERIC system), encompassing allor classes of documents from its source organization and, therefore,does not require a "Specific Document" Release form.

This document is Federally-funded, or carries its own permission toreproduce, or is otherwise in the public domain and, therefore, maybe reproduced by ERIC without a signed Reproduction Releaseform (either "Specific Document" or "Blanket").

Date post:	31-Jul-2020
Category:	Documents
Upload:	others
View:	3 times
Download:	0 times

ERIC - Education Resources Information Center · 2014-05-19 · ship development. At NCREL's...

Documents