`DOCUMENT RESUME ED 302 628 CE 051 441 AUTHOR Grigsby, Lindle TITLE Adult Learning Handbook. INSTITUTION Brookhaven Coll., Farmers Blanch, TX.; Brookhaven Coll., TX. PUB DATE 88 NOTE 43p. AVAILABLE FROM Continuing Education Division, Brookhaven College, 3939 Valley View, Dallas, TX 75244 ($5.00). PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052) EDRS PRICE XF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS *Adult Education; Adult Educators; *Adult Learning; Andragogy; *Cognitive Style; Learning Strategies; Part Time Faculty; *Student Motivation; *Teaching Methods; *Teaching Skills ABSTRACT This booklet addresses two of the competencies needed by part-time faculty who teach adults. The competencies are adult learning and the need for quality in preparation!to assure quality in :instruction. The booklet begins with a discusSion of just who the adult learners are. The next topic is adult motivation to learn-At the beginning, during, and at the end of the learning p±bcess. In that connection, the.booklet-addresset preparation that is related to instructor knowledge of learner orientations, learning styles, instructional methods, and learning situations. Finally, the differences between andragogy and pedagogy are considered. Faculty responsibility is stressed. Tiblbliography and an indek are provided. (YLB) ******************************* ***** *********************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. *
ABSTRACTThis booklet addresses two of the competencies needed
by part-time faculty who teach adults. The competencies are adultlearning and the need for quality in preparation!to assure quality in:instruction. The booklet begins with a discusSion of just who theadult learners are. The next topic is adult motivation to learn-Atthe beginning, during, and at the end of the learning p±bcess. Inthat connection, the.booklet-addresset preparation that is related toinstructor knowledge of learner orientations, learning styles,instructional methods, and learning situations. Finally, thedifferences between andragogy and pedagogy are considered. Facultyresponsibility is stressed. Tiblbliography and an indek are provided.(YLB)
******************************* ***** ************************************ Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *
* from the original document. *
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ADULTLEARNINGHANDBOOK
Dr. Lindle Grigsby
Continuing Education
Brookhaven College
1988
4
ff
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE 1
Adults and Education TodayAdjunct Faculty NeedsLifelong Learning
WHO ARE ADULT LEARNERS? 6
Higher Education TodayAdult Learners Defined
Crisis
MOTIVATION FOR ADULT LEARNING 8
Mager's Influence
Critical Periods of ImpactThe Basic Need
Differences in Learners Equals
Differences In Learning
ANDRAGOGY AND PEDAGOGY 17
Defined
ComparisonsFaculty Responsibility
SUMMARY
FOOTNOTES
BIBUOGRAPHY
INDEX
26
29
32
36
Over the past few yearsthe continuing educationof adults has been thefastest growing realm ofeducation. Presently over40 million American adults participate in some form ofeducation every year. If the trends in the birth rate andthe population explosion continue their downwardspirals, adult education will probably be the onlyelement of the educational process experiencingcontinued growth. Add to this "adultization" ofAmerica, the knowledge explosion brought on by thetechnology age, and the need for providing qualityeducational experiences for adults multiplies again.
PREFACE
Since most teachers of adults are adjunct faculty (thosewho teach on a part-time basis), the training theypossess may be related more to their teaching fieldsthan to knowledge of adult learners or curriculum orlesson planning. However, administrators have longlooked to the part-time faculty to meet the diverseneeds of the "adult" population enrolled in theirinstitutions.
Typically the part-time faculty will themselves bediverse, mobile, and responsible; but, again, thoughthey will know their subject matter well , they will notnecessarily possess skills in instructional competency.Part-time faculty need special training to aid them indeveloping a knowledge of and skill related to
Effective communication with learners in theclassroom
Effective working relationships with theselearners
Possessing a positive attitude toward adultlearners,
Developing a climate that will encouragelearners to participate in the classroom
Establishing a basis for mutual respect withlearners
Adjusting the pace of instruction to the learners'rate of learning
Adjusting teaching style to accommodateindividual and group charactaristics
Differentiating between teaching children andteaching adults
Devising instructional strategies that willdevelop the learners' confidence
Maintaining the learners' interest in classroomactivities
Adjusting the program to respond to thechanging needs of learners
Using more than classrooms--using othersettings that provide stimulating learningenvironments
Recognizing each learners potential forgrowth
Placing learners at their own learning level
72
Summarizing and reviewing the main points ofeach lesson and/or demonstration before theclass is dismissed
Participating in frequent "self- evaluations"relative, to their own teaching effectiveness
Providing continuous feedback to the learnerson their progress
Selecting the components of a subject areathat are essential to the learners in that class
Determining the principles of learning thatapply to adult learners
Demonstrating a belief in innovation andexperimentation by trying new approaches in theclassroom
This list of knowledge and skills(1) was taken from alist prepared by the Center for ReSource Developmentin Adult Education, University of Missouri-Kansas City.initially the list of competencies began with 605statements that was gradually reduced to a final
' twenty-four by over 700 adult educators andadministrators.
This booklet will address two of the competencies justlisted:
1. The adult learner
We will address
adult motivation to learn, and...
the differences in Andragogy and Pedagogy.
3 8
2. The need for quality preparation
to assure quality instruction
We will address
instructor knowledge of learner orientations,
learning styles,
instructional methods, and...
learning situations.
The importance of professionalism and quality shouldbe evident in any teaching situation, but even more sowith adults.
Adults are the present movers of society.
Adults are the present leaders directinggovernments.
Adults are the present managers of businessand industry, making decisions that will impactour future economic and technological welfare.
Adults are the present changers of careers andjob orientations as never before in employmenthistory -- from three to five times in a lifetime,careers will change, and with each changeadditional training and education are needed.
So, the education of adults takes on manycomplexities, and you as an instructor of adults mustbe prepared for the task you have assumed foryourself.
K. Patricia Cross, professor at the Harvard UniversityGraduate School of Education, expressed it this way
"...lifelong learning is not a privilege or aright; it is simply a necessity for anyone,young or old, who must live with theescalating pace of change -- in the family,on the job, in the cofnmunity, and in theworldwide society." (2)
Burton Kreitlow, professor of Continuing andVocational Education at the University of Wisconsin,was even more straightforward in his evaluation of theimpact of the adult educator
As an adult educator you
"...have a responsibility for socialreconstruction"...you fulfill this role mosteffectively..."not by manning thebarricades but instead by educating theoppressed to recognize their conditionand to acquire the sisills essential tochanging the system." 3)
As a facilitator of adult learning YOU have atremendous impact on these adults. With some ofthese adult learners you hold their future decisions andwhat they do with the rest of their adult lives in the palmof your hand.
510
One of the mostprofound changes ineducation in thiscentury is an attitudethat no longer viewseducation as
preparation for life, but rather sees it as a way ofmeeting present demands. As a result, 48 percent ofthe enrollment in higher education a e adults. Sixteenpercent of the adult population between 25 and 34years of age are enrolled in some kind of educationalinstitution.
Who are these people? The definition of an adult isoften derived from a personal image of "adulthood".That image can be chronological, social, legal or workrelated. From the chronological view, "adult" isanyone after a certain age. Socially, "adult" isconferred for mature qualities such as sanity,responsibility and rationality. Legally, "adults" aredefined by creating exceptions for "non-adults" suchas juveniles. Finally, the ability to work and beproductive, accepting life-sustaining obligations, canalso be defined as "adult".
Whatever adulthood is (and the answers are still notcomplete), we do know that it is not an unchangingplateau. Adulthood is characterized by change,development, and growth that is as real and dramaticas any of .these changes associated with the earlystages of growth. This often creates a CRISIS.
The Chinese have a unique way of expressing the word"crisis". The upper character represents danger, thelower character stands for hidden opportunity. Aninstructor holds the same options with each learner inthe classroom. In each learning situation, especially
116
possibility of Dangerous Negative Results orPositive New Opportunities. Where change isinvolved, through the classroom, we must be sure theend result is "positive new opportunities". For aneducational institution the knowledge of new, adultinstructional philosophies and an understanding of theneeds and demands of changing adults becomes thecornerstone of programs built to serve that adultpopulation. But what motivates an adult to return to theformal classroom? (We make the distinction betweenthe "formal classroom" -- regardless of the topic ofinstruction -- and an "informal" learningsituation,because everyone is learning something neweveryday. Learning is not limited to the classroom.)
71 2
Motivational concepts andmotivation training arewidely promoted bytraining entrepreneurs,but motivating people todevelop a desire to learn isnot simply a matter of
words. Robert Mager, noted training instructor andauthor whose writings center on instructional goalsand performance objectives, has said, (4)
"Exhortation is used more andaccomplishes less than almost anybehavior changing tool known to man"
Mager continued by saying,
"The three types of events which, for ourpurpose, influence attitude towardlearning are conditions, consequences,and modeling. So far, so good. But thenature of the conditions, the way in whichconsequences are organized, and theway in which modeling is done make adifference"
Then he said,
"While it's true that we learn bypracticing, by doing, and by beingrewarded for progress, it is also true thatmost of what we learn is learned byimitation. Most of what we learn comesfrom watching others do things that wethen become able to do - or encouragedto do. When we see others do something,there is a tendency for us to imitate theiractions. People see, people do."
Words arguing, cajoling, exhorting are not very goodways to motivate people to develop a healthy attitudetoward learning.
In Motivating- adults in the direction of learning thereare three critical periods of maximum impact on thelearner. (5)
1. The Beginning - as the learner entersthe leaming process
2. During - as the learner becomesinvolved in the learning process
3. The End as the learner is completingthis particular teaming process
The following chart graphically outlines the fact thatthese three periods are not separate and independentof each other.
9 J 4
r
Within each of these critical periods of learning thereare two major factors that impact motivation:
1. The Beginning - as the learner enters the learningprocess
Attitudes The learners' attitudes towardthe learning environment, the instructor,the subject matter, and themselves
Needs The perceived needs of thelearner as seen by the learner
2. During - as the learner becomes involved in thelearning process
StimulationStimulations affecting thelearner during .the learning process
AffectThe affective (emotional) impacton the learner during the learningprocess
3. The End - as the learner is completing this particularlearning process
Competence --The exit competencies ofthe learner resulting from the learningprocess
Reinforcement The support providedby the instructor toward the end of thelearning process
What motivates an adult to return to the classroomis a desire to learn. That learning may be job related,
.1 510
or it could be to satisify an inquiring mind, or to buildself esteem; it could be recreational, or it-could be assignificant as individual survival.
We live in a technological age. The knowledgeexplosion is'something no other generation has everhad to deal with to the extent of today's adultgeneration. However, this leaves many adults, whohave not been in the formal classroom for severalyears, without a sufficient knowledge of today'stechnology. Further education means better jobs orpromotions within the jobs they presently enjoy.
Other adults want to satisfy an "inquiring mind" so theyreturn to the classroom. They want to be able to"communicate" on the same level as their professionalcontemporaries or neighbors. They know knowledgeis changing, and they want to change with it.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs establishes a very basicmotivation for lifelong learning -- survival. Lifelonglearning means more then winetasting and bridge, andsometimes it is more vital than computer training or realestate certification -- it is survival. Millions of adults,many of whom could be in your classroom, arediscriminated against and hungry because they canneither read nor write, or their English speaking abilityis below usable levels. Most adults are returning to theclassroom because of critical issues facing them asadults.
Self esteem, recreation, personal growth, survival --these are motivating stimulations for adults who enrollin formal learning situations. These adults come fromvaried backgrounds, with varied needs to be met.Thus, as no two individuals will view the same situation
11 16
from exactly the sameperspective, so no two adultlearners will view theclassroom and the learningatmosphere from exactly thesame perspective.
Whatever the reason, adultselect to participate in learningsituations of their own choice.Adults are not usually in the classroom because of legaldemands. They are there because they want to bethere. As a result adults will remain in the classroomonly as long as their wants or needs are being met. Inaddition, adult learners will learn only what they wantto learn. Material the instiuctor thinks is important mustbe presented in such a way that it is interesting andpersuasive.
Education is not just thetransmission of knowledgefrom the teacher to thestudent. Learning is moreactive than this. If adults feelthe class is not pertinent totheir personal needs orinterests they will walk awayfrom the classroom.
Whether adult learners are in the classroom seekingknowledge to remain current in today's informationworld or seeking knowledge to "retool/retrain"themselves for a new career, they are curious and have
an intense desire to succeed, but often, time is asvital as the need to know. If they feel their time is beingused unwisely, it is not worth the effort or timeexpended for them to remain in the classroom.
Ron and Susan Zemke wrote "30 Things We Know ForSure About Adult Learning" in which they emphasizedthat
"...adults have something real to lose ina classroom situation. Self-esteem andego are on the line when they areasked to risk trying a new behavior infront of peers and cohorts..." (6)
Therefore, adult learners must leave every classsession feeling good about themselves and theirearning experience. However, feelings are notnecessarily proof of good course design or instruction.The possibility of this false sense of security can beavoided with careful preparation. This preparationbegins by understanding that all learning takes placeunder different conditions. As an instructor you mustnever be mesmerized into believing that the only placelearning occurs is in the classroom. In fact, theopposite is true, most learning occurs outside theclassroom; thus, learning and teaching are notnecessarily synonymous. The conclusion - - ...sincemost learning takes place outside the classroom, youmust prepare to make certain that learning will be theoutcome of your teaching in the classroom.
To facilitate this learning process:
FIRST, understand that as all learning takes placeunder different conditions, so all learners are alsodifferent.
There are goal-oriented learners - Learner "A"--
Those who are interested in meetingthe objectives, either their own or thosefor the class.
There are learning oriented learners - Learner "B"--
Those who are interested in learningfor the sake of learning.
There are activity oriented learners - Learner "C"
Those who are more interested in theactivities than the goal or statedpurpose of the course.
These orientations toward learning can overlap. Soindividually, or as a class, learners may have more thanone odentation toward learning. (7)
LEARNER A
LEARNERS' ORIENTATIONS
...---....,%% LEARNERS
Learning \Orientation
.N. t
1
% ,I
\ Orientation ,./.Act Nity
N. .,LEARNER C
:IS
SECOND, there are different learning styles. Thebehavior of your students' learning patterns can beidentified as Visual, Auditory, or Kinesthetic-Tactile .
The student who is a Visual learner willusually be relatively quiet in theclassroom and will learn best bydemonstration -- seeing the learnedconcept. This student may have difficultylearning other languages.
The student who is an Auditory learnerwill, in most instances, be the talker in theclassroom. This student remembersspoken material above printed material.
The Kinesthetic-Tactile learner likes totouch things and people and learns bestby doing.
THIRD, teaching methods will vary according to tnelearning situation. That learning situation will involvestudent characteristics, instructor characteristics,course content and the availability of instructionalresources. (8)
STUDENTCHARACTERISTICS
CONTENT
INSTRUCTIONALGOALS AND(*ACTIVES
15
IfSTRUCTOaCHARACTERISTICS
AVAILABLE11130VIICIS
TY*EstaIonNoti
PacHltlogfNiarblo
20
FOURTH, take charge of the learning situation (9)
Set the climate for learning
Establish a structure that promotes mutualplanning
Diagnose the learning needs of the students inthis particular class
Formulate learning objectives to help thestudents of this class
Design learning experiences that will mosteffectively impact this class
Manage the planned learning experiences to thebenefit of the students of this class
There are many other prerequisites to good teaching,but these will suffice to reveal that thinking through thelearning process and being prepared are absolutelyessential. If some of your students feel good about theirlearning experience, that is a good reinforcement, butthose good feelings alone do not insure that allstudents are leaving the classroom with moreknowledge, skill, or understanding than when theyentered.
21_
16
The instructional, process isasvital as the content of the ANEMAGOGYcurriculum presented bythe instructor. Adults in the -AND.classroom must be :approached' in a different PEDAGOGYmanner than children. :People change biologically, psychologically, andphysiologically. In recognizing these changes MalcolmKnowles advanced the theory of Andragogy.educational philosophy of "andragogy" !ongbeen recognized by German educators, but thephilosophy had never been formally advanced inAmerica.
Andragogy is the art ofteaching adults.
Pedagogy is the art of teachingchildren.
The differences in thepedagogical and theandragogical approach to learning situations can bedescribed through the following comparisons.
17
ANDRAGOGY
In Andragogy the...
Learner is self-directedand must have a voice ineverything that is beingtaught and how it is beingtaught.
Learner enters into theeducational process with agreater volume of life'sexperiences. Since alllearning is filtered throughprior learning and lifeexperiences, the multipleroles and responsibilities ofadulthood provide a broadrange of experience,knowledge and skillthrough which theeducational process cantake place.
Learner comes ready toaddress a need to know orto do something. The adultenters the educationalprocess with apredetermined assessmentof what is to beaccomplished.
PEDAGOGY
In Pedagogy the...
Learner must be ledthrough the instructionalprocess. The instructordetermines what is to belearned and how.
Learner is relativelyinexperienced with life,and what experiences arepart of the child's life are oflimited value in assisting indetermining theinstructional process.
Learner does not knowwhat needs to be known.The child is willing to acceptsociety's judgment as towhat is the right, or best,educational experience forthem at that particularstage of theirdevelopment..
2318
Learner has a taskcentered -- problemcentered Orientation tolearning. Learning Is a toolthat will provide theadditional knowledge orskill that is needed tosucceed -- though futureknowledge will be based onthis new knowledgelearning for "tomorrow" isnot necessarily the sole orprimary foundation forlearning.
Learner is motivated byself satisfaction -- a betterquality of life. Learning isnot just a promotion, but abetter relationship withthemselves.
Learner learns because'...this is the thing to doas you prepare for a life'scareer..". Learning is notas "today" oriented as it is"tomorrow" directed.Knowledge is still thefoundation upon whichfuture knowledge will bebased.
Learner is motivated byexternals -- grades,parents, teachers -- all holdpromotion over the studentas the goal of education.
This says there are differences between children andadults as learners
Children 10 a classroom will all be
approximately the same age,
at approximately the same stages of social and
psychological development,
and
19 24
capable of participating in limited learning tasks
because of limited life experiences.
However, on the other hand,
adult learners in a classroom will
vary greatly in age,
be vastly different in their psychosocial andphysical skills,
and
be able to relate to multiple life experiences,
thus broadening the realm of available learningsituations.
These adults have traveled, raised families, served inthe armed forces, coped with the pleasures andproblems of children and marital partners, illness anddeath. They have balanced budgets and confrontedcreditors. And, when these adults enter the classroomthey bring all of these experiences with them,whether positive or negative. Thus, as a facilitator ofadult learning, you must remember, adults are not justgrown-up children and therefore should not beapproached as such in the classroom. However,"...there is an ever present tendency for instructors toteach as they were taught, to use the same
202 5
instructional strategies and techniques that theyexperienced as students. Although this is certainlyunderstandable, it is not very effective, for mosteducatioral experiences occurred before they becameadults." 11/
THUS
"1-he education of adults once directed by volunteersis increasingly the responsibility of specialists", (12) soin working with adults you, as a facilitator of learning,.must become a specialist
and:
Believe that learning, and notlecturing/teaching, is theheart of education. Thuslearning is best processedwith an instructor who is afacilitator of learning and notjust a lecturer/teacher.
2821
Believe learning takes placebest in an atmosphere that isrelaxed and informal asopposed to an atmosphere thatis formal and competitive.
Believe learning is studentcentered, and not textcentered. You believe in thestudents and who thestudents are, and what theyknow, and what they arewilling to learn.
Believe learning is a two-waydialogue -"Question me" - I
do not have all the answers. Alesson plan, or curriculum, orclass schedule that is so rigidthat it cannot be altered toprovide opportunities forstudent interaction is too rigid.The student's needs comefirst if learning is to take place.
Believe teaming is theinvolvement of life experiences,both those of the facilitator andthe student. Remember, lifeexperiences are one of theprimary differences betweenpedagogy and andragogy theyoung student has fewexperiences to share in thelearning process, but the adult
student has many, and these life experiences shouldbe utilized to their fullest.
Believe learning isgenerated through a feelingof mutual trust, being openand honest...and that you willnot allow differences -- --- --cultural, ethnic, or economic,to diminish your teachingskills. Instead, you will usethese differences to create anatmosphere of openness toall.
23 -'
(I
Believe teaming isinformation or skills centeredand not "gimmick" driven.Good teaching is not easy,but mediocre teaching can beenhanced with the use of theproper aids. blackboards,video-monitors, charts, evendistributed course syllabi areall teaching aids. However,tools aid the instructor in the
presentation of lesson materials and they are useful tothe learning process, but they must never be thoughtof as "the learning process."
the instructor --the facilitator
will want to be capable of reaching the studentwherever that student may be relative to the particularcourse. To accomplish this goal
e Know Your Students -- their mission, objective,problems, opportunities and needs...
Look Ahead -- plan, anticipate the needs andrequirements of each student at each classsession...
Know Your Resources tailor the resourcesavailable to the needs of your students...
Be Proactive go into each class sessionexhibiting enthusiasm, knowing you are preparedand ready to meet the student's needs, whateverthose naeds might be..
Be Goal Oriented managers are, and YOU arethe manager of this educational process...
Be Activity Oriented it is important for peopleto use what they learneducate by doing..
YOU MUST NOT
Focus On Deficiencies the "can't do" attitudeis left outside the classroom door. The negativesare already known,and the positives are beingsought...
Be Reactive planning will enable you to stayahead and be the leader, but it is not the pathyou have chosen for the class, but the pathdictated by the needs of the students...
Be Activity Driven focus on responsibility,accountability, and only the activity needed toobtain the educational objective...
Now, having laid this foundation, we acknowledgethere are exceptions. For example, a child will havemuch more motivation mid self direction in learning toplay a computer arcade game than will most adults, butthe adult will have much more motivation and selfdirection in learning a computer programminglanguage than will most children.
25 30
IN SUMMARY
So, who are these adults intoday's classroom? Thewriters poets, novelists,dramatists seem always tohave known. They have longrecognized that the full
unfolding of the life cycle, from birth to death ,
encompassed adulthood.But, not so with the behavioralscientist and educator whowere primarily content to limitthe studies of the life cycle tochildhood and adolescenceas though to say "all of thechangeS of life have nowtaken place and the rest of lifeis but a mundane routine:" theimplication -- "you cannotteach an old dog new tricks"
In the years to come it will be even more important forthe educator to recognize and understand the "adultlearner" than it has in the past. K. Patricia Cross, writingfor Innovation Abstracts, published by the NationalInstitutp for Staff and Organizational Development,said, 13)
"I don't know what the world will look likein 15 years. No one does. Perhaps theone thing that we can predict with somecertainty is that the world will continue tochange and that education is the bestway we know to prepare people tochange."
31 26
FOOTNOTES
1. Grabowski, Preparing Educators of Adults,pp. 45-46.
2.. Cross, Adults As Learners, p. ix.
3. Kreitlow, Examining Controversies in AdultEducation, p. xiv.
4. Mager, Developing Attitude Toward Learning,pp. 41 and 69.
5. Wlodkowski, Enhancing Adult Motivation ToLearn, pp. 60-62.
6. Zemke, Ron and Susan. "30 Things We KnowFor Sure About Adult Education", Training,XVII, Number 6 (June1981), pp.44-52.
7. Kalamas, Instruction for Adults. Module N-1,p. 32.
8. Kalamas, Plan Instruction for Adults. Modulep. 36.
9. Knowles, The Modern Practice of AdultEducation. pp. 222-243.
10. Knowles, The Adult Learner: A NeglectedSpecies, p. 116 andihe Modern Practice ofAdult Education, pp. 43-33.
3229
11. Kalamas,_P_Ian Instruction for Adults. Module114, p. 49.
12. Grabowski, Preparing Educators of Adults, p.3.
13. Cross, Innovation Abstracts, Number 18,September 12, 1986, p. 1.
:43
30
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boone, Edgar and Associates. Serving Personal andCommunity Needs Through Adult Education .SanFrancisco: Jossey Bass Publishers, 1980.
Brookfield, Stephen D. Understanding and FacilitatingAduft Learning. San Francisco: Jossey BassPublishers, 1986.
Cross, K. Patricia. Adults As Learners. San Francisco:Jossey Bass Publishers, 1981.
Cross, K. Patricia. "Improving Learning In CommunityColleges", innovation Abstracts. Austin, Texas:Community College Leadership Program, Volume VII,Number 18, September 12, 1986, University of Texas.
Darkenwald, Gordon G. and Sharon B. Merriam. AdultEducation: Foundations of Practice New York: Harperand Row, Publishers, 1982.
Grabowski, Stanley M. and Associates. PreparingEducators of Adults,. San Francisco: Jossey BassPublishers, 1981.
Hoffmann, John R., Editor. TASCSCE ResearchAnnual, 1986. Commerce, Texas: Texas Associationfor Community Service and Continuing Education,1986.
Kalamas, David J. Plan Instruction For Adults. Moduletiz4. The National Center for Research in VocationalEducation. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio StateUniversity,1985.
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32
-Kit lefties, David J. Prepare to Work with Adult Learners.Module 'N-1. The National Center for Research in-VOcational Education. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio StateUniVersity, 1985.
Knowles,, Malcolm. The Modern Practice of AdultEducation: From Pedagogy loAnckagogy. Chicago:Follett Publishing Company, 1980.
Knox, Alan, Editor. Adult Development and Learning.San Francisco: Jossey Bass Publishers, 1978.
Knox, Alan B., Editor. Teaching Adults Effectively, NewDirections For Continuing Education, Number 6. SanFrancisco: Jossey Bass Publishers, 1980.
Kreitlow, Burton W. and Associates. ExaminingControversies in Adult Education. San Francisco:Jossey Bass Publishers, 1$381.
