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ENERGY FLOWS AND BALANCES

Energy Flow- the movement of energy through the ecosystem, from the external environment through a series of organisms backto external environment

Units of Measure1. BTU (British thermal unit) - is the amount of energy necessary to heat one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.2. Calorie- is the amount of energy necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Centigrade.

3. Joule- is a force of one Newton applied over a distance of one meter.4. Newton is a force necessary to produce an acceleration of one meter per sec per sec to a mass of one kilogram5. Kilowatt-hr is the rate of power per unit time.

ENERGY BALANCES AND CONVERSIONThere are many forms of energy, such as chemical, heat, potential energy due to elevation, kinetic, mechanical and

so on. Often the form of energy available is not the form that is most useful, and one form of energy must be converted to anotherform. Example, the water in the mountain lake has a potential energy and can be run through a turbine to convert this potential toelectrical energy that can be converted to heat or light, both forms of useful energy.

Chemical energy in organic matter, stored in the carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds formed by plants can besevered by a process such as combustion, which liberates heat energy that can be used directly, or indirectly to produce steam todrive electrical generators.

Wind has kinetic energy and this can be converted to mechanical energy with a windmill, and this energy can be convertedto electrical energy to produce heat energy.Another example of how one form of energy can be converted to another form uses the calorimeter, the standard mean of

measuring heat energy value of material when they combust.First law of thermodynamics stated that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, it only transform from one form to another.Unfortunately, second law of thermodynamics stated that energy conversions are always less than 100% efficient. Entropy is ameasure in the system of the amount of energy that is unavailable for useful work. Efficiency is the ratio of energy stored in usefulform compared with energy takes in.

ENERGY SOURCES AND AVAILABILITYPower utilities use the most efficient fuels possible since this will produce least ash for disposal and will most likely be the

cheapest to use in terms fuel cost. But the best fuels, natural gas and oil are in finite supply. Estimates vary as to how much natural

gaseous and liquid fuels remain in the earths crust within our reach, but most experts agree that if they continue to be used at thepresent expanding rate, the existing supplies will be depleted within 50 years.

I. RENEWABLE SOURCES- a resource that is naturally recycled or recycled by artificial processes within a time framework usefulfor people, such as:1. Water Power is a form of stored solar energy, because climate, which dictates the flow of water on Earth, is driven in part bydifferential solar heating of the temperature. Today, hydroelectric power used the water stored behind dams. Hydropower can beused to generate either electrical power or mechanical power to run machinery; its use may help the high cost of importing energy.Water power is clean power, it requires no burning of fuel, does not pollute the atmosphere, produces no radioactive or other waste,and is efficient.Environmental Impactsa. Large dams and reservoirs flood large tracts of land that could have had other uses.b. Dams block the migration of some fish, such as salmon.c. Water falling over high dams may pick up nitrogen gas, if the gas enters the blood of fish, it expands and kills them.d. Dams trap sediment that would otherwise reach the sea and eventually replenish the sand on beaches.e. For a variety of reasons, many people do not want to turn Wild River into a series of lakes.

2 Tidal Power a type of water power derived from ocean tides, however, only a few places with favorabletopography such as the north coast of France, the bay of Fundy in Canada, and the northeastern US are the tidessufficiently strong to produce commercial electricity. To harness a tide power, a dam is built across the entrance to bayor estuary, creating a reservoir. As the tide rises (flood tide), water is initially prevented from entering the bay landwardof the dam. Then, where there is sufficient water (form the ocean side high tide) to run the turbines, the dam is opened,and water flows through it into the reservoir (the bay), turning the blades of the turbines and generating electricity. Whenthe reservoir is filled, the dam is closed, stopping the flow and holding the water in the reservoir. When the tide falls (ebb

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Disadvantages of Solar Energya. It has a relatively dispersed, arriving at Earths surface like a fine mist, so that a large land area is required to generate alarge amount of energyb. Highly centralized and high technology solar energy units have a great impact on the land because they needconsiderable space.c. It involves a large variety of metals, glass, plastics, and fluids used in the manufacture and use of solar equipment.Some of these substances may cause environmental problems through production and by accidental release of toxic

materials.

2. Biomass energy is energy recovered from organic matter, such as plant material and animal waste. The energy frombiomass comes from chemical bonds formed through photosynthesis in living or once-living matter. Biomass fuel is organicmatter that can that can be burned directly or converted to a more convenient form and then burned. For example, we canburn wood in a stove or convert it into charcoal to use as fuel

Sources of biomass energy- forest product such as wood chips, agricultural residues such as coconut husk, sugarcane waste, corncobs, peanut shells, energy crops such as sugar cane, corn, sorghum, animal residues such as manure,and urban waste such a waste paper, organic household waste.Environmental impact

a. The use of biomass can pollute the air and degrade the land.

b. A worldwide shortage of firewood is adversely affecting natural areas and endangered species

3. Geothermal energy is natural heat from the interior of the Earth that is converted to heat buildings and generateelectricity. Although most geothermal energy production involves the tapping of high heat sources, people are also usingthe low temperature geothermal energy or groundwater in some application. At present, geothermal energy only a smallfraction of the electric energy produced in United States, however, if developed, could produce at about 20 GW, which isabout 10% of the electricity needed for the western states.

Environmental Impact of Geothermal Energy1. Geothermal development often produce considerable thermal pollution from hot wastewater,

which maybe saline or highly corrosive, producing disposal and treatment problems.2. Exploration and development of geothermal energy degrade the tropical forest as developers

construct roads, build facilities, and drill wells.

II. NON RENEWABLE SOURCES- is a resource that is cycled slowly by natural earth processes within a time framework useful forpeople.1. Nuclear energy is the energy of the atomic nucleus. Two nuclear processes can be used to

release that energy to do work: fission and fusion. Nuclear fission is the splitting of atomic nuclei, and nuclear fusion is thefusing, or combining of atomic nuclei. A by product of both fission and fusion reactions is the release of enormous amountsof energy.ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

a) Uranium mines and mills produce radioactive waste materials that can pollute the environmentb) Uranium 235 enrichment and fabrication of fuel assemblies also produces waste material that must be carefully handled

and disposed of.c) Site selection and construction of nuclear power plants is extensive and expensive, often centering on hazards related to

the probability of such events as earthquakes.d) The reactor is the site of past accidents, including partial meltdowns that have released harmful radiation into the

environment.e) Waste cannot be adequately isolated from the environment for the long period of time that it remains hazardous.2. Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon generally produces with crude oil or from gas wells, an important efficient

and clean burning fuel commonly used in homes and industry.The worldwide estimate of recoverable natural gas is about140 trillion cubic meter which will last approximately 70 years. Natural gas is considered a clean fuel; burning it producesfewer pollution than oil or coal. As a result it is being considered as possible transition fuel to alternative energy

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTSa. Use of land to construct pads for wells, pipelines, and storage tanks and to build a network of roads and otherproduction facilities.b. Pollution of groundwater and surface water from leaks from broken pipesc. Accidental release of air pollution such as hydrocarbon and hydrogen sulfideLand subsidence as oil and gas are withdrawnd. Loss or disruption and damage of fragile ecosystem such as wetlands or other unique landscapes.

e. Oil seepage into the sea

3. Coal is a solid brittle carbonaceous rock and the most abundant fossil in earth. The burning ofcoal produces nearly 60% of the electricity used and about 25% energy consumed in US. However, plant that burns coalare responsible for 70% total emission of sulfur dioxide, 30% of nitrogen oxides and 35% of carbon dioxide

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS1. More and more land will be strip mined and thus will require careful and expensive restoration.2. Burning coal produces large amounts of air pollutants.3. The handling of large quantities of coal through all stages will be resulted to aesthetic degradation, noise, dust, and mostsignificant from a health standpoint- release of harmful or toxic trace elements into the water soil and air.

4. Crude oil naturally occurring petroleum, normally pumped from oil wells in oil fields.Refinement of crude oil produces most of the petroleum products we use today. It is estimated that 2 to 3 trillion barrelsmay be recovered from remaining oil resources. World consumption today is about 27 billion barrels per year. Today forevery 4 barrels of oil we consume, we are finding only one barrel

5. Synthetic oil

ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystems have several fundamentals characteristic:

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1. STRUCTURE. An ecosystem is made up of two major parts, nonliving and living. The non living part is the

physical-chemical environment including the local atmosphere, water, and mineral soil (on land) or other

substrate in water. The living part called ecological community is the set of species interacting within the

ecosystem.

2. PROCESSES. Two basic kinds of processes must occur in an ecosystem: a cycling of chemical elements and

a flow of energy.

3. CHANGE. An ecosystem changes over time and can undergo development through a process called

succession.

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

Photosynthesis is only the beginning of a chain of energy conversions. There are many types of animals that will eat

the products of the photosynthesis process. Examples are deer eating shrub leaves, rabbits eating carrots or worms

eating grass. When these animals eat these plant products, food energy and organic compounds are transferred from

the plants to the animals. These animals are in turn eaten by other animals, again transferring energy and organic

compounds from one animal to another. Examples would be lions eating deer, foxes eating rabbits or birds eating

worms.

This energy transfer from one species to another can continue several more times, but it eventually ends. It ends withthe dead animals that are broken down and used as food or nutrition by bacteria and fungi. As these organisms,

referred to as decomposers, feed from the dead animals, they break down the complex organic compounds into simple

nutrients. Decomposers play a very important role in this world because they take care of breaking down (cleaning)

dead material. There are more than 100,000 different types of decomposer organisms! These simpler nutrients are

returned to the soil and can be used again by the plants. The energy transformation chain starts all over again.

ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT

Ecosystem can be natural or artificial or a combination of both. The ecosystem concept lies at the heart of the

management of natural resources. When we try to conserve species or manage natural resources so that they are

sustainable, we must focus on their ecosystem and make sure that is continues to function. If it doesnt we must replaceor supplement ecosystem functions with our own actions. Ecosystem management however means more that

compensating for changes in ecosystems. It means managing and conserving life on earth by considering chemical

cycling, energy flow, community-level interactions, and the natural changes that take place within ecosystem.

Ecosystem management specifically includes human activities as part of its domain. This is a departure fromthe traditional view that pristine ecosystems are those devoid of human influence. However, the view that humans are

separate from natural ecological systems is still strong: "Returning to the specific issue of benchmarks for managing

ecosystems, the clearest, least ambiguous one is that of no human influence. This fits well with the goal that most

ecological reserves should be managed to minimize human influence as much as possible" (M. Hunter Jr., 1996,

Benchmarks for Managing Ecosystems: Are Human Activities Natural? Conservation Biology 10(3): 695697). Others

argue that all ecosystems bear the mark, recognizable or not, of human influence and that by ignoring that influence in

their management we may create artificially fragile ecosystems vulnerable to the inevitable impact of human activities.

While humans are generally recognized as a part of the ecosystem and have been so for thousands of years, there islittle understanding of that fact's relevance and value.

HUMAN INFLUENCE IN ECOSYSTEM

Human societies derive many essential goods from natural ecosystems, including seafood, game animals, fodder,fuelwood, timber, and pharmaceutical products. These goods represent important and familiar parts of the economy.

What has been less appreciated until recently is that natural ecosystems also perform fundamental life-support services

without which human civilizations would cease to thrive. These include the purification of air and water, detoxification

and decomposition of wastes, regulation of climate, regeneration of soil fertility, and production and maintenance of

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biodiversity, from which key ingredients of our agricultural, pharmaceutical, and industrial enterprises are derived.

This array of services is generated by a complex interplay of natural cycles powered by solar energy and operating

across a wide range of space and time scales. The process of waste disposal, for example, involves the life cycles of

bacteria as well as the planet-wide cycles of major chemical elements such as carbon and nitrogen. Such processes are

worth many trillions of dollars annually. Yet because most of these benefits are not traded in economic markets, they

carry no price tags that could alert society to changes in their supply or deterioration of underlying ecological systems

that generate them. Because threats to these systems are increasing, there is a critical need for identification and

monitoring of ecosystem services both locally and globally, and for the incorporation of their value into decision-

making processes.

Historically, the nature and value of Earth's life support systems have largely been ignored until their disruption or

loss highlighted their importance. For example, deforestation has belatedly revealed the critical role forests serve in

regulating the water cycle -- in particular, in mitigating floods, droughts, the erosive forces of wind and rain, and

silting of dams and irrigation canals. Today, escalating impacts of human activities on forests, wetlands, and other

natural ecosystems imperil the delivery of such services. The primary threats are land use changes that cause losses in

biodiversity as well as disruption of carbon, nitrogen, and other biogeochemical cycles; human-caused invasions of

exotic species; releases of toxic substances; possible rapid climate change; and depletion of stratospheric ozone.

Based on available scientific evidence, we are certain that:

Ecosystem services are essential to civilization. Ecosystem services operate on such a grand scale and in such intricate and little-explored ways that most could

not be replaced by technology.

Human activities are already impairing the flow of ecosystem services on a large scale.

If current trends continue, humanity will dramatically alter virtually all of Earth's remaining natural

ecosystems within a few decades.

In addition, based on current scientific evidence, we are confident that:

Many of the human activities that modify or destroy natural ecosystems may cause deterioration of ecologicalservices whose value, in the long term, dwarfs the short-term economic benefits society gains from those

activities. Considered globally, very large numbers of species and populations are required to sustain ecosystem services. The functioning of many ecosystems could be restored if appropriate actions were taken in time.

We believe that land use and development policies should strive to achieve a balance between sustaining vital

ecosystem services and pursuing the worthy short-term goals of economic development.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

ECOSYSTEM- a community of interdependent organisms together with the environment through which they inhabit

and interact.

AEROBE- a microorganisms which cannot live without oxygenANAEROBE- a microorganisms which flourishes without oxygen

BIOME- a major regional ecological community characterized by distinct life forms and principal plant or animal

species

BIOSPHERE- the highest organizational level, part of the earth in which life exists.

CARNIVORES- meat eaters, that feed directly on herbivores.

DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) a highly toxic derivative of chloral, widely used as an insecticide.

ECOLOGY- the system of relationship of organisms and their environment

EUTROPHICATION- the increase in the concentration of chemical elements required for living things.

FOOD CHAIN- the relationship of organisms considered as food sources, consumer or both.

FOOD WEB- the interaction among various organisms which occupy a tropic level.

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HERVIBORES- organisms that feed on plants, algae, or photosynthetic bacteria

HOMEOSTASIS- the process by which an ecosystem remain in steady state condition

NICHE- the ecological role of species in a community

OMNIVORES- organisms that eat of both plants and animals.

OXYGEN- a highly reactive element essential to life, occurring as an odorless gas in the atmosphere and in chemical

combination in water and rocks, and comprising about 50% of the material in the earths crust.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS- the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water through the agency of sunlight

acting upon chlorophyll.

PHYTOPLANKTON- organisms which are capable of using solar energy to make food by the process ofphotosynthesis.

POPULATION- a group of individual genetically distinct to some degree from other separate group of the samespecies.

RESPIRATION- the process by which an organisms takes in oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide and other waste

product.

SELF-PURIFICATION- the changes in stream quality as the decomposer reduce the oxygen demand material finallyachieving a clean stream.

SPECIES- a group of individual capable of interbreeding.

SUSTAINABILITY- A concept that is emerging in the environmental sciences. With respect to resources, it involves

management that has the objective of ensuring that future generation will have the opportunity to use their fair share of

resources, and will inherit a quality environment. In an economics sense the concept means development that will not

cause irreparable damage to the environment while ensuring that future generations will inherit their fair share of allEarths resources.

SUSTAINABLE ECOSYSTEM- an ecosystem that is subject to some human use, but at a level that leads to no loss of

species or of necessary ecosystem functions

SYMBIOSIS- an interaction between individuals of two different species that benefits both.

SYMBIOTIC- relationship that exist between different organisms that are mutually beneficial

TROPHIC LEVEL- consists of all those organisms in a food web that is the same number of feeding levels away from

original source of energy.

ZOOPLANKTON- organisms which feed directly on the primary producer detritus.

LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION- Individual, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biomes, Biosphere

MAIN GROUPS OF ORGANISMS- Producer, Consumer, Decomposer

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION- Biome, Taiga, Grassland, Dessert ShrubTYPES OF DECOMPOSER- Aerobic, Anaerobic

WATER QUALITY

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Pure water is tasteless, colorless and odorless liquid made up of hydrogen and nitrogen with a chemical formula of H 2O.Because water is almost universal solvent, most natural as well as man-made substances are soluble in it to some extent.Consequently, water in nature contains dissolved substances. In addition as a result of hydrologic cycle, it contains various othersubstances as well as gases. These substances are often identified as the impurities found in water. The impurities are classified asionic and dissolved, nonionic and undissolved and gases.

MEASURES OF WATER QUALITY

1. DISSOLOVED OXYGENIt is a major parameter in water quality in stream lakes, and other watercourse. It is measured with an oxygen probe and

meter. A high DO in the water creates a driving force to get through the membrane, while a low DO would force only limitedoxygen through the reaction and thereby create electric current.

Rapidly moving water, such as in a mountain stream or large river, tends to contain a lot of dissolved oxygen, whilestagnant water contains little. The organic matter degradation carried out by water microorganism consumes oxygen. Thus,excess organic material in lakes and rivers, a situation known as eutrophication, can cause an oxygen-deficient situation tooccur.

Aquatic life can suffer in stagnant water that has a high content of rotting, organic material in it, especially in summer,when dissolved-oxygen levels are at a seasonal low. Adequate dissolved oxygen is necessary for good water quality. Oxygenis a necessary element to all forms of life. Natural stream purification processes require adequate oxygen levels in order toprovide for aerobic life forms. As dissolved oxygen levels in water drop below 5.0 mg/l, aquatic life is put under stress. The

lower the concentration, the greater the stress. Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/l for a few hours can result in large fishkills.Sufficient D.O. is also essential for the proper operation of many wastewater treatment processes. Activated sludge tanks

often have their D.O. monitored continuously. Low D.O values may be set to trigger an alarm or activate a control loop whichwill increase the supply of air to the tank.

2. BIOCHEMICHAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)It is a major parameter indicating the pollution potential of various discharges to watercourse. It is a measure of the

amount of oxygen required by aerobic bacteria and other microorganisms while stabilizing decomposable matters. A low rate ofoxygen use indicates either the absence of contamination or that the microorganisms are uninterested in consuming theavailable organic. A third possibility is that the microorganisms are dead or dying.

The standard BOD test is run in the dark at 20 degree centigrade for five days. The bottle is filled completely with sample,which must be near neutral pH and free of toxic materials. After an initial measurement of the D.O., the bottle is sealed andstored in a dark incubator at 20 C for five days. The D.O. is measured again after this incubation period. The difference is theBOD. (The bottles are kept in the dark because algae which may be present in the sample will produce oxygen when exposedto light). .

The BOD test is almost universally run using standard BOD bottle, about 300 mL volume. It is made of special nonreactive glass and has round stopper with a lip that is used to create a water seal so no oxygen can get in or out of the bottle.The BOD test is almost universally run using standard BOD bottle, about 300 mL volume. It is made of special non reactiveglass and has round stopper with a lip that is used to create a water seal so no oxygen can get in or out of the bottle.

In the case of wastewater analysis, since most of them have BOD's which are much higher than the limited solubility ofoxygen in water, it is necessary to make a series of dilutions containing varying amounts of sample in a nutrient-containing,aerated "dilution water." The measured BOD's are then multiplied by the appropriate dilution factors. A variation of this test,called the carbonaceous BOD, adds an inhibitor which prevents the oxidation of ammonia, so that the test is a truer measure ofthe amount of biodegradable organic material present. Samples which do not contain enough bacteria to carry out the BODtest can be "seeded" by adding some from another source.

SEEDING is a process in which the microorganisms responsible for oxygen uptake are added to BOD bottle with thesample for the oxygen uptake to occur.

3. SOLIDIt is the residue on evaporation at 103 degree centigrade. Solid can be divided into two fractions: dissolved solid and

suspended solid. A Gooch crucible is used to separate suspended solid from dissolved solid. It has a holes on the bottom onwhich a glass fiber filter is placed. Suspended solid can be classified as volatile solid that can be volatilized at 600 degreecentigrade, and fixed solid.

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Total solids (TS) are determined by drying a known amount of a sample at a temperature of 103 to 105 C. Results can beexpressed in mg/l or percent by weight.

If the sample is then burned in a furnace at about 500 C, cooled, and weighed, the fixed (FS) or volatile solids (VS) can bedetermined.

If the original sample is filtered through a tared glass-fiber filter, which is then dried, the weight of the material captured onthe filter is used to figure the total suspended solids (TSS). Burning the filter in the furnace allows measurement of volatilesuspended solids (VSS) or fixed suspended solids (FSS).

The dissolved solids (DS) can be estimated from the difference between the total solids and the total suspended solids,

but the official method calls for drying the filtrate (the liquid which passes through the filter) in a dish at 180C. Of course, thereare TDS, FDS and VDS.

Suspended material can decrease the depth of the body of water. If there is a lot of biodegradable organic material in thesediment, it will become anaerobic and contribute to oxygen depletion. Toxic materials can also accumulate in the sedimentand affect the organisms which live there and can build up in fish that feed on them, and so be passed up the food chain,causing problems all along the way . Also, some of the particulate matter may be grease-- or be coated with grease, which islighter than water, and float to the top, creating an aesthetic nuisance

4. NITROGENIt is a useful measure of water quality in streams and lakes. It can be tied up in high energy compounds such as amino

acids and amines and this form of nitrogen is known as organic nitrogen. One of the intermediate compounds formed duringbiological metabolisms is ammonia nitrogen. Ammonia can be measured using nessler reagent, which is a solution of

potassium mercuric acid, and reacts with ammonium ions to form a yellow brown colloid.Water with nitrite levels exceeding 1.0 mg/l should not be used for feeding babies. Nitrite/nitrogen levels below 90 mg/l andnitrite levels below 0.5 mg/l seem to have no effect on warm water fish

5. BACTERIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS are necessary to determine the potential presence of infectious agent such aspathogenic bacteria and viruses. A number of diseases can be transmitted by water. Pathogens are disease causingorganisms such as shigella that caused shigellosis, salmonella caused salmonellosis, giardia lamblia causedamoebiasis, and cryptosporidium caused cryptosporidiosis. Because of the numbers of pathogenic organismspresent in waste and polluted waters are relatively few and difficult to isolate and identify, the coliform organisms which ismore numerous and more easily tested for is commonly used as an indicator organisms. The presence of coliformorganisms is taken as an indication that pathogenic organisms may also present and the absence of coliform organisms istaken as an indication that water is free from disease producing organisms

WATER QUALITY STANDARD

1. DRINKING WATER STANDARD- two types of standard are primary and secondary. Primary standards relate to humanhealth, includes physical, chemical, and bacteriological standard, while secondary standard are for constituents(chloride, copper, hydrogen sulfide, iron and manganese) that make water disagreeable to use. The principal physicalcharacteristic of water are total suspended and dissolved solid, turbidity, color, taste and odor, and temperatureChemical standard includes inorganic(arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury. Selenium), volatile organics (benzene, carbontetrachloride, trichloroethylene, vinyl chloride), synthetic organics (pesticides, endrin, lindane, methoxychlor),disinfection by product and radioactive.

Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of water. It is measured by passing a beam of light through the water and measuringphotometrically the light scattered at right angles to the beam. Results are expressed in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).Water cloudiness is caused by material suspended in water. Therefore, turbidity is an indirect measure of total suspendedsolids (TSS), even if the correlation will hold only for the particular sample from which it was derived.

Temperature. Human activities should not change water temperatures beyond natural seasonal fluctuations. To do so coulddisrupt aquatic ecosystems. Good temperatures are dependent on the type of stream. Lowland streams, known aswarmwater streams, are different from mountain or spring fed streams that are normally cool. In a warm water streamtemperatures should not exceed 32 C. Cold water streams should not exceed 20 C. Often summer head can cause fish killsin ponds because high temperatures reduce available oxygen in the water.

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pH is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration [H + ] in the solution. For pure water the hydrogenconcentration is 10-7 moles per liter and the solution can be characterized as pH 7. The pH can range from 0 to 14, but mostpotable water will range from 6.5 to 8.5. Any solution with a pH below 7 is acidic; any solution with a pH above 7 is alkaline. pHcan be determined using indicator solutions which change color in different pH ranges. "pH paper", impregnated with suchindicators, are commonplace in testing laboratories. however for accurate measurements and dealing with dilute solutions,electrochemical measurement (a pH-meter) is required.

2. EFFLUENT STANDARD

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) oversees and states operate programs designed to reduce the flow ofpollutants into natural watercourses. Typical effluent standards for a domestic wastewater treatment plant may range from 5 to20 mg/L BOD, for example. The intent is to tighten these limits as required to enhance water quality.3. SURFACE WATER STANDARD

Classification Best Use DO(mg/L) Coliforms(no/mL) Temp (C)

A Drinking water, virgin source, no upstream use permitted >6

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consumer. Some organisms, like the squirrel, are at different levels. When the squirrel eats acorns or fruits (which are

plant products), it is a primary consumer; however, when it eats insects or nestling birds, it is a tertiary

consumer.Consumers are also classified depending on what they eat.

Herbivores. Herbivoresare those that eat only plants or plant products. Examples are grasshoppers, mice, rabbits,

deer, beavers, moose, cows, sheep, goats and groundhogs.

Carnivores. On the other hand, Carnivores are those that eat only other animals. Examples of carnivores are foxes,frogs, snakes, hawks and spiders.

Omnivores.Omnivores are the last type and eat both plants (acting a primary consumers) and meat (acting as

secondary or tertiary consumers). Examples of omnivores are:

Bears --They eat insects, fish, moose, elk, deer and sheep as well as honey, grass and sedges.

Turtles -- They eat snails, crayfish, crickets and earthworms, but also lettuce, small plants and algae.

Monkeys -- They eat frogs and lizards as well as fruits, flowers and leaves.

Squirrels -- They eat insects, moths, bird eggs and nestling birds and also seeds, fruits, acorns and nuts.

Trophic level. Trophic level corresponds to the different levels or steps in the food chain. In other words, the

producers, the consumers and the decomposers are the main trophic levels.

Water quality assessment

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Chemical, physical and microbiological analyses

The quality of water is determined by making measurements in the field or by taking samples

of water, suspended materials, bottom sediment, or biota and sending them to a laboratory

for physical, chemical, and microbiological testing. For example, temperature, acidity (pH),

conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, hardness, suspended sediments, turbidity, colourand taste are measured in the field with portable equipment. Concentrations of metals,

nutrients, pesticides and microbiological contamination are measured in the laboratory with

specialised instruments and procedures.

The most common techniques for analysing water for easily detected factors are colourimetric

and titrametric testing methods.

Especially for the analysis of trace elements and organic contaminants more modern

analytical techniques are used such atomic absorption spectroscopy, chromatography, mass

spectroscopy (for pesticides, PCBs dioxins and other organic compounds), inductively coupled

plasma spectroscopy (for metals), immunochemistry and others. These techniques are

usually expensive and require sophisticated laboratory equipment.

Results are given in terms of concentration, which are usually expressed in units of either

parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per litre (mg/l). These two units are used

interchangeably by most persons, but are technically different. Concentrations greater than

10,000 mg/l are commonly expressed in percentage by weight.

Nowadays the analysis of water and sediment samples detects more substances than a

decade ago, partly because there are more substances present in water, but also because of

improved analytical instruments and consequently lower detection limits. State-of-the-artanalytical instruments can detect down to one part per trillion of some substances -

comparable to tracing one thousandth of a teaspoon of salt dissolved in an olympic-size

swimming pool.

Water sampling for water analyses

The first step for any test is getting a reliable, representative sample. The need for careful

sampling techniques varies according to the constituent being tested, i.e. bacteria and volatile

organics are very sensitive to sample collection procedure while hardness and salts are fairly

insensitive to sampling technique. Storage procedures before analysis and time betweensampling and analysis are also very important but again the importance varies substantially

for each substance.

The following procedures should be followed for general sampling:

1. The sampling bottle should be clean and sterile with nothing except the water to be sampled comingin contact with the inside or cap of the bottle.

2. A faucet without leaks around the handle should be selected for sampling. It must be cleaned anddried.

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3. The water should run for an ample period of time to ensure fresh water from the well beforecollecting a sample. The water should not make contact with any object before running into thebottle. The sample should be capped immediately to preserve volatile compounds in the water andprevent atmospheric contamination.

4. The sample should be analyzed within 24 hours to give accurate results. For best results, on-sitetesting of water is suggested if possible.

Chemical and physical water analyses

Temperature pH Conductivity Turbidity

Dissolved oxygen (D.O) Oxigen demand Hardness Solids

Nitrogen Total Phosphorus Chlorides Chlorine

Oil and grease Metals Cyanide Toxic organic compounds

Temperature. Human activities should not change water temperatures beyond naturalseasonal fluctuations. To do so could disrupt aquatic ecosystems. Good temperatures are

dependent on the type of stream. Lowland streams, known as warmwater streams, are

different from mountain or spring fed streams that are normally cool.

In a warm water stream temperatures should not exceed 32 C. Cold water streams should not

exceed 20 C. Often summer head can cause fish kills in ponds because high temperatures

reduce available oxygen in the water.

pH. pH is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration [H + ] in the

solution. For pure water the hydrogen concentration is 10 -7 moles per litre and the solution can

be characterised as pH 7. The pH can range from 0 to 14, but most potable water will range

from 6.5 to 8.5. Any solution with a pH below 7 is acidic; any solution with a pH above 7 is

alkaline.

It should be remembered that pH measures the concentration of hydrogen or hydroxide ions,

but it may not measure the total amount of acid or base in the solution. This is because most

acids and bases do not dissociate completely in water. That is, they only release a portion of

their hydrogen or hydroxide ions. To measure their total acidity or alkalinity, they have to be

titrated with base or with an acid respectively. That is, a solution of a base or of an acid

whose concentration is known must be added to the water sample slowly until the

neutralization is complete. By measuring the volume of the base added, you can figure out the

original concentration of acid.

pH can be determined using indicator solutions which change color in different pH ranges.

"pH paper", impregnated with such indicators, are commonplace in testing laboratories.

however for accurate measurements and dealing with dilute solutions, electrochemical

measurement (a pH-meter) is required.

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Alkalinity and acidity are determined by titration with strong base or acid, respectively, using

either indicators or a pH meter to mark the endpoint.

Normal rain has a pH of5.6 - slightly acidic because of the carbon dioxide picked up in the

earth's atmosphere by the rain.

Since pH can be affected by chemicals in the water, pH is an important indicator of water that

is changing chemically. Pollution can change a water's pH, which in turn can harm animals andplants living in the water.

Conductivity. Specific conductance is a measure of the ability of water to conduct an

electrical current. It is highly dependent on the amount of dissolved solids (such as salt) in the

water. Pure water, such as distilled water, will have a very low specific conductance, and sea

water will have a high specific conductance. Rainwater often dissolves airborne gasses and

airborne dust while it is in the air, and thus often has a higher specific conductance than

distilled water. Specific conductance is an important water-quality measurement because itgives a good idea of the amount of dissolved material in the water.

It should be noted, however, that many organic materials dissolve in water without producing

ions. So, while a salt solution may have a high electrical conductivity, a concentrated solution

of sugar would go undetected by this method.

Turbidity.Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of water. It is measured by passing a

beam of light through the water and measuring photometrically the light scattered at right

angles to the beam. Results are expressed in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). Water

cloudiness is caused by material suspended in water. Therefore, turbidity is an indirect

measure oftotal suspended solids (TSS), even if the correlation will hold only for the particular

sample from which it was derived.

Dissolved oxygen (D.O.). Dissolved oxygen analysis measures the amount of gaseous

oxygen (O2) dissolved in an aqueous solution. A small amount of oxygen, up to about ten

molecules of oxygen per million of water, is normally dissolved in water. In fact, a saturated

solution at room temperature and normal pressure contains only about 9 parts per million of

D.O. by weight (9 mg/L). Oxygen gets into water by diffusion from the surrounding air, by

aeration (rapid movement), and as a waste product of photosynthesis. This dissolved oxygen

is breathed by fish and zooplankton and is needed by them to survive.

D.O. can be measured by a fairly tricky wet chemical procedure known as the Winkler

titration. The D.O. is first trapped, or "fixed", as an orange-colored oxide of manganese. This

is then dissolved with sulfuric acid in the presence of iodide ion, which is converted to iodine

by the oxidized manganese. The iodine is titrated using standard sodium thiosulfate. The

original dissolved oxygen concentration is calculated from the volume of thiosulfate solution

needed.

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Measurements of D.O. can be made more conveniently with electrochemical

instrumentation. "D.O. meters" are subject to fewer interferences than the Winkler titration.

They are portable and can be calibrated directly by using the oxygen in the air.

Rapidly moving water, such as in a mountain stream or large river, tends to contain a lot of

dissolved oxygen, while stagnant water contains little. The organic matter degradation carried

out by water microorganism consumes oxygen. Thus, excess organic material in lakes and

rivers, a situation known as eutrophication, can cause an oxygen-deficient situation to occur.

Aquatic life can suffer in stagnant water that has a high content of rotting, organic material in

it, especially in summer, when dissolved-oxygen levels are at a seasonal low.

Adequate dissolved oxygen is necessary for good water quality. Oxygen is a necessary

element to all forms of life. Natural stream purification processes require adequate oxygen

levels in order to provide for aerobic life forms. As dissolved oxygen levels in water drop below

5.0 mg/l, aquatic life is put under stress. The lower the concentration, the greater the stress.

Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/l for a few hours can result in large fish kills.

Sufficient D.O. is also essential for the proper operation of many wastewater treatmentprocesses. Activated sludge tanks often have their D.O. monitored continuously. Low D.O

values may be set to trigger an alarm or activate a control loop which will increase the supply

of air to the tank.

Oxygen Demand.The biochemical oxygen demand, abbreviated as BOD, is a test for

measuring the amount of biodegradable organic material present in a sample of water. The

results are expressed in terms of mg/l of BOD which microorganisms, principally bacteria, will

consume while degrading these materials. As the measurement of BOD takes too long time

(20 days at 20C), the determination of BOD after 5 days incubation is preferred (BOD5), the

values of BOD5 being nearly 65% of the total BOD. Another test for measuring the oxygen

demand is the COD, or chemical oxygen demand test. It is a rapid (2 hour) test which

measures the oxygen required for the oxidation of all the substances of the water, included

those one not biologically decomposable. This test is fairly well correlated with BOD. An even

more rapid test, known as the TOC, or total organic carbon test takes only a few minutes,

but requires expensive instrumentation. It transforms the organic matter in CO2 after

removing carbon dioxide from carbonate mineral dissolved or suspended in water. "Organic"

CO2 is then measured using chromatographic methods.

The COD test is done by heating a portion of sample in an acidic chromate solution, which

oxidizes organic matter chemically. The amount of chromate remaining (measured by a

titration), or the amount of reduced chromium produced (measured spectrophotometrically),

is translated into an oxygen demand value. Biodegradability, toxins, and bacteria are not

important, and the test is complete in about two hours. The figure will be higher than the BOD.

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The TOC is done instrumentally. The organic carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide by

burning or by chemical oxidation in solution. The carbon dioxide gas is swept out and

measured by infrared spectrometry or by redissolving it in water and measuring the pH

change (the gas is acidic.) In the case of wastewater analysis, both COD and TOC can often be

correlated with BOD for a certain tipology of wastewater. As a rough guide, the COD of a raw

domestic wastewater is about 2.5 times the 5-day BOD.

The BOD test is performed in a specially designed bottle with a flared cap which forms awater seal to keep out air. The bottle is filled completely with sample, which must be near

neutral pH and free of toxic materials. After an initial measurement of the D.O., the bottle is

sealed and stored in a dark incubator at 20 C for five days. The D.O. is measured again after

this incubation period. The difference is the BOD. (The bottles are kept in the dark because

algae which may be present in the sample will produce oxygen when exposed to light). In the

case of wastewater analysis, since most of them have BOD's which are much higher than the

limited solubility of oxygen in water, it is necessary to make a series of dilutions containing

varying amounts of sample in a nutrient-containing, aerated "dilution water." The measured

BOD's are then multiplied by the appropriate dilution factors. A variation of this test, called the

carbonaceous BOD, adds an inhibitor which prevents the oxidation of ammonia, so that thetest is a truer measure of the amount of biodegradable organic material present. Samples

which do not contain enough bacteria to carry out the BOD test can be "seeded" by adding

some from another source. Examples of samples which would need seeding are industrial

wastewaters which may have been at high temperatures or high or low pH, or samples which

have been disinfected. (If there is residual disinfectant present, it must be neutralized before

testing.)

For reasons discussed earlier, the depletion of oxygen in receiving waters has historically been

regarded as one of the most important negative effects of water pollution. Preventing these

substances from being discharged into our waterways is a key purpose of wastewatertreatment. Monitoring BOD removal through a treatment plant is necessary to verify proper

operation. However, because the test takes too long to be useful for short-term control of the

plant, the chemical or instrumental surrogate tests are often used as guides.

Hardness.The amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in water determines its

"hardness."

Water hardness can be calculated as shown in the equation :

Hardness (mg/l) = 2,5 [conc. of Ca2+ (mg/l)] + 4,1 [conc. of Mg2+ (mg/l)]

The most frequently used standard classifies water supplies is shown in the following table.

Hardness Scale

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ClassificationRange of hardness (ppm)Soft0 - 60Moderately Hard61 - 120Hard121 - 180Very Hard>180

Solids. Water normally contain solid material, both in dissolved and suspended forms.

Solids are also further classified as fixed or volatile. Fixed solids are basically the ash left

over after burning the dried solids; volatile solids are those that are lost in this procedure. The

sum of the two is referred to as total. Volatile solids are often used as an estimate of theorganic matter present.

Total solids (TS) are determined by drying a known amount of a sample at a temperature of 103 to

105 C. Results can be expressed in mg/l or percent by weight.

If the sample is then burned in a furnace at about 500 C, cooled, and weighed, the fixed (FS) or

volatile solids (VS) can be determined.

If the original sample is filtered through a tared glass-fiber filter, which is then dried, the weight of the

material captured on the filter is used to figure the total suspended solids (TSS). Burning the filterin the furnace allows measurement of volatile suspended solids (VSS) or fixed suspended solids

(FSS). The dissolved solids (DS) can be estimated from the difference between the total solids and the

total suspended solids, but the official method calls for drying the filtrate (the liquid which passesthrough the filter) in a dish at 180C. Of course, there are TDS, FDS and VDS.

Suspended material can decrease the depth of the body of water. If there is a lot of

biodegradable organic material in the sediment, it will become anaerobic and contribute to

oxygen depletion. Toxic materials can also accumulate in the sediment and affect the

organisms which live there and can build up in fish that feed on them, and so be passed up

the food chain, causing problems all along the way . Also, some of the particulate matter may

be grease-- or be coated with grease, which is lighter than water, and float to the top, creating

an aesthetic nuisance.

Nitrogen. Nitrogen occurs primarily in the oxidized forms ofnitrates (NO3-) and nitrites

(NO2-) or the reduced forms ofammonia (NH3) or organic nitrogen - where the nitrogen is

part of an organic compound such as an amino acid, a protein, a nucleic acid, or one of many

other compounds. All of these can be used as nutrients, although the organic nitrogen first

needs to decompose to a simpler form. High levels of nitrate can be found in water bodies

which receive runoff or percolation from heavy or improper fertilized soils. Nitrite level are

normally very low as bacteria in water quickly convert nitrites to nitrates.

Ammonia can be measured colorimetrically, after distillation from an alkaline solution to

separate it from interferences. It can also be determined by an electrode method,

sometimes without distillation, since there are fewer interferences. Organically-bound,

reduced nitrogen can be determined by the same methods after a digestion (the Kjeldahl

digestion) which converts the nitrogen in those compounds to ammonia. The combination of

ammonia and organic nitrogen is known as "Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen," or TKN. Nitrite is

determined colorimetrically. Nitrate can also be determined this way; the most popular way is

by first reducing nitrate to nitrite chemically using cadmium, then analyzing the nitrite. There

is an electrode method for nitrate, but it is not considered too accurate. Finally, ammonia (as

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the positively charged ammonium ion, NH4+), nitrate, and nitrite can be measured by ion

chromatography, as well.

Nitrogen is important in natural waters because, in excess, it can cause nuisance growth of

algae or aquatic weeds. In wastewater treatment, a deficiency of nitrogen can limit the

effectiveness of biological treatment processes. In some plants treating industrial

wastewaters, ammonia must be added as a supplement.

Water with nitrite levels exceeding 1.0 mg/l should not be used for feeding babies.

Nitrite/nitrogen levels below 90 mg/l and nitrite levels below 0.5 mg/l seem to have no effect

on warm water fish.

Total phosphorus.Phosphorus is found in water as phosphates which can exist in three

forms: orthophosphate,metaphosphate (or polyphosphate) and organically bound

phosphate. Each compound contains phosphorous in a different chemical formula. Ortho

forms are produced by natural processes and are found in sewage. Poly forms are used for

treating boiler waters and in detergents. In water, they change into the ortho form. Organic

phosphates are important in nature. Their occurrence may result from the breakdown oforganic pesticides which contain phosphates. They may exist in solution, as particles, loose

fragments, or in the bodies of aquatic organisms.

Phosphate can be measured by ion chromatography, also. Greater sensitivity, at lower cost,

is obtained by colorimetric methods which measure dissolved orthophosphate. Some

insoluble phosphates and condensed phosphates - so called "acid-hydrolyzable phosphate" -

can be included by heating the sample with acid to convert these forms to orthophosphate. If

the organic phosphate is to be included, to measure "total phosphate", then the sample must

be digested with acid and an oxidizing agent, to convert everything to the orthophosphate

form.

As nitrogen, phosphorus is important in natural waters because, in excess, it can cause

nuisance growth of algae or aquatic weeds. In wastewater treatment, a deficiency of

phosphorus can limit the effectiveness of biological treatment processes. In some plants

treating industrial wastewaters, phosphoric acid must be added as a supplement.

Chlorides.Chloride is a salt compound resulting from the combination of the gas chlorine and

a metal. Some common chlorides include sodium chloride (NaCl) and magnesium chloride

(MgCl2). Small amounts of chlorides are required for normal cell functions in plant and animal

life.

Public drinking water standards require chloride levels not to exceed 250 mg/l.

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Chlorine. The pure element exists as the molecule, Cl2, which is a gas or a liquid at normal

temperatures, depending on the pressure. When dissolved in water, most of it reacts to form

hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) which make the water more acidic.

Disinfection can be done using solutions of sodium hypochlorite, which produce the same

substances in solution. Hypochlorite ion is not considered as strong a disinfectant as HOCl, so

the pH can affect the disinfectant efficiency. Dissolved chlorine, hypochlorous acid, and

hypochlorite ion, taken together, are all known as free chlorine. Free chlorine can react with

ammonia in solution to form compounds called chloramines, which are weaker disinfectants

than free chlorine, but have the advantage of not being used up by side reactions to the

extent that free chlorine is. Free chlorine (and chloramines) also react with organic nitrogen

compounds to form organic chloramines, which are even weaker disinfectants. The

chloramines are termed combined chlorine and the sum of the free and combined forms are

called total chlorine.

There are several choices for chlorine measurement, some of which can distinguish between

free chlorine and the various chloramines. There are titrations involving visual, color-

indicator endpoints, as well as electrochemically measured endpoints. Some of them can be

used to differentiate among the various forms of chlorine depending on whether iodide ion isadded to the testing mixture. Amperometric titration is a sensitive electrochemical

method.

Chlorine is the most commonly used disinfecting agent for drinking water and wastewater. It is

coming into some disfavor because of toxic and carcinogenic byproducts, such as chloroform,

which are formed when it reacts with organic matter present in the water. Unless reduced to

chloride, chlorine itself is toxic to aquatic life in receiving waters. Pure chlorine liquid or gas is

also a storage and transportation hazard because of the possibility of accidental releases to

the atmosphere. Some treatment plants are switching to hypochlorite solution because it is

safer to handle.

Oil and Grease.They represent a class of materials which can be extracted from water

using certain organic solvents. They can be of biological origin (animal fat, vegetable oil) or

mineral (petroleum hydrocarbons) or they can be synthetic organic compounds. Fats and

greases from restaurants and food processing industries can clog sewers, causing blockages

and backups. Petroleum products can be toxic and flammable, and can coat surfaces and

interfere with biodegradation by microorganisms in wastewater treatment plants. They are

mostly biodegradable, especially biological oils and greases, but are a problem due to forming

a separate phase from the water.

The major method of analysis is liquid-liquid extraction. Currently, the chlorofluorocarbon

known as CFC-113 is used, but is due to be phased out in favor of the hydrocarbon, hexane,

because of the damage done by CFC's to the stratospheric ozone layer. In the procedure, the

sample is acidified, and then shaken several times with the solvent. The solvent portions are

combined and evaporated, and the residue is measured by weight. In a CFC solution, the

concentration of the oil/grease can also be measured by infrared spectrophotometry

without having to evaporate the solvent. To determine petroleum hydrocarbons alone, the

extract solution can be treated with the material, silica gel, which absorbs the more polar

biological compounds. A newer method, solid phase extraction, passes the water sample

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through a small column or filter containing solid sorbent material which absorbs the oil and

grease. It is then desorbed from the sorbent using a solvent and analyzed as above.

Metals. Chemically, metals are classified as elements which tend to lose electrons in a

chemical reaction. As solids, they have easily movable electrons, which makes them good

conductors of electricity and reflectors of light. In compounds, they tend to be positively

charged, because they have lost electrons (which carry a negative charge), and they tend to

bind with non-metals. This tendency makes some of them, such as iron and magnesium,

biologically useful as part of biochemically active compounds like enzymes. Others, such as

lead, cadmium, and mercury are highly toxic because they interfere with the normal operation

of these biological compounds.

There are numerous colorimetric methods for metals. Most of them are more useful in a

purer medium, such as drinking water, than they are in wastewater, because of the presence

of interfering substances. The most popular methods in use today involve one form or another

ofatomic spectroscopy. Another technique, X-ray spectroscopy, is useful primarily for

solid samples. There are also electrochemical methods, like polarography and anodic

stripping voltametry (ASV) which are quite sensitive; but due to their complexity, they areusually thought of as being confined mostly to research purposes.

Cyanide. Cyanide is the name of an ion composed of carbon and nitrogen, CN-. It is used in

the mining and metal finishing and plating industries - usually as the sodium or potassium

salts, NaCN or KCN - because of its ability to bind very strongly to metals to form water-soluble

complex ions. This same property makes it highly toxic to living things because it prevents the

normal activity of biologically important, metal-containing molecules. It is, however,

biodegradable by some bacteria in low concentrations; and they can become acclimated to

higher concentrations if given enough time. For unacclimated microorganisms in a wastewater

treatment plant, however, a cyanide dump by an industry can lead to inhibition or even death,which can cause a severe plant upset.

Cyanides are usually measured by a sensitive colorimetric / spectrophotometric procedure

which can detect levels down to about 5 parts per billion in water. Since much of the cyanide

in a sample is likely to be bound to metal ions, a digestion/distillation procedure is necessary

to measure total cyanide. Cyanide can also be measured by ion chromatography or an

electrode method, though the latter is not considered too accurate.

Toxic Organic Compounds. An organic compound is any compound which contains carbon,

with the exception of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, carbonates, or cyanides. There are

millions of possible compounds, with many useful properties. Many are biologically active,

since all living things are made up of organic molecules. Industries use and produce thousands

of organic compounds in manufacturing such items as plastics, synthetic fibers, rubber,

pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and petroleum products. Some of the compounds are starting

materials; some are solvents; some are byproducts. Many organic compound can be

dangerous pollutants. One of the major groupings is volatile organic compounds (VOC's),

many of which are chlorine-containing solvents. The "semi-volatile" group include solvents,

PAH's (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, like naphthalene and anthracene which are coal

constituents), as well as pesticides (especially chlorinated pesticides) and PCB's

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(polychlorinated biphenyls, which were formerly used in electrical transformers and other

products).

Most of these are analyzed routinely by gas chromatography (GC), often followed by mass

spectrometry (MS) for identification. HPLC is also used for some analytes. A technique

which is becoming available for field measurements for some of these compounds is the ELISA

immunoassay (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay).

Microbiological analysis

Pathogenic microorganisms. Sewage contains large numbers of microbes which can cause

illness in humans, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and worms (and their eggs or

ova). They originate from people who are either infected or are carriers. While many of these

can be measured directly by microscopic techniques (some after concentration), the analyses

most commonly performed are for so-called indicator organisms. These organisms, while

not too harmful themselves, are fairly easy to test for and are chosen because they indicate

that more serious pathogens are likely to be present. For instance, wastewater treatment

plants are often required to test their effluents for the group known as fecal coliforms, whichinclude the species E. coli, indicative of contamination by material from the intestines of

warm-blooded animals. Water supplies test for a more inclusive group called "total coliforms",

and in some cases, for general bacterial contamination (heterotrophic plate count, or HTP).

The two most commonly used methods of analysis for indicator organisms are the multiple

tube fermentation te chnique and the membrane filter procedure.

In the first method, a number of tubes containing specific growth media are inoculated with

different amounts of the sample and incubated for a particular time at a prescribed

temperature. The appearance of colors, fluorescence, or gas formation indicates the presence

of bacteria belonging to the target group. The number of organisms per 100 ml in the original

sample is estimated from most probable number (MPN) tables, which list the values of

MPN for different combinations of positive and negative results in tubes which contained

different initial volumes of the sample. Often, positive results must be confirmed by further

inoculation of small amounts of material from the positive tubes into tubes containing a

different media, which can extend the test to several days.

The second technique involves filtering a known volume of sample through a membrane filter

(made of a material such as cellulose acetate) which has a small enough pore size to retain

the bacteria. The filter is then placed in a dish of sterile nutrient media, either soaked into an

absorbent pad or in a gel such as agar, and sealed. The dish is incubated for the prescribedtime and temperature. The media contain a colored indicator which will identify the target

bacteria. Each bacterium in the original sample will result in a colony after incubation, which is

large enough to see without a great deal of magnification. The concentration in the sample

can be determined by direct count of the colonies, knowing the volume of sample used. In

some cases, these colonies require further confirmation.

Detection and enumeration of specific pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella, E. coli, or

Enterococcus can be done by similar methods, but utilizing specific growth media for each

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type. Viruses are usually measured by concentration, followed by addition to cultures of

cells which they infect and counting the number of plaques formed due to cell destruction.

Pathogenic protozoa and ova of multicelled organisms are determined by concentration

and direct counting under the microscope, often with the aid of fluorescent staining

compounds.

Besides, direct observation, identification of pathogenic microorganisms can be done by

standard techniques used in clinical laboratories involving observing reactions in a battery of

different indicating media. Some newer methods use chromatography to identify patterns of

compounds which serve as "fingerprints" for certain bacteria; DNA analysis is another recent

innovation. Most wastewater treatment plants, however, confine their testing to simply

counting the numbers indicator bacteria.

WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT

Hydrologic cycle is a continuous circulation of water between the oceans, atmosphere, biosphere, and the soils androcks of the geosphere. Over 1.4 billion cu km of water exist on Earth. The vast majority of this water (96.5%) is saline (salty) waterin the oceans. Of the remaining 3.5% that is fresh water, most (59%) is held in long term storage in cold regions as polar ice sheets,glaciers, and snow, while 30% lies beneath the earths surface as groundwater. Lakes account for a further 0.25%, rivers a tiny0.006%, and the atmosphere contains just 0.04%.

The water cycle begins when water evaporates from oceans into the atmosphere. Atmospheric water returns to theearths surface as precipitation in the form of drizzle, rain, glaze, hail, rime, snow, sleet . Precipitation is often typed according tothe factor mainly result from the lifting of air converging into a low pressure area, or cyclone (cyclonic precipitation), ascendingdue to atmospheric instability (convective precipitation), or being forced to rise due to air movement over high ground(orographic precipitation). Cloud droplets then grow to form raindrops, snowflakes, or hailstones by the accretion of further watervapor or by colliding with one another.

When precipitation reaches the ground it usually seeps (infiltrates) into the soil, either percolating down to the watertable to become groundwater, or flowing slowly downhill as run-off. A large proportion of the precipitation received in an areareturns directly to the atmosphere by evaporation from moist surfaces, puddles, ponds, and lakes. This water return to theatmosphere via the leaves and bark by process termed transpiration. The water cycle is completed when the run-off from adrainage basin flows along a river to the ocean or a lake in order to replace that has evaporated.

Condensation

Precipitation

Zone of aerationInfiltration

Run off transpirationWater table

Percolation Zone of saturation evaporation

LakeRiver

Ocean

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HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Sources of water1. Water on the surface of the earth that is exposed to the atmosphere is called surface water2. Groundwater-water that lies beneath the surface of the earth

Processes of Hydrologic cycle

Evaporation: is when the sun heats up bodies of water,the water turns into vapor or steam. The vapor or steam leaves the bodyof water and goes into the air, where it becomes a cloud.

Where does evaporated water come from? It comes from oceans, lakes, streams, ponds, and rivers.

The rate of evaporation depends on three things: 1) Temperature of the air and the water body. 2) Absoulte humidity of the airabove the free surface of the water body. 3) The wind speed- high winds keeps absoulte humidity low and stirs up the free surface.

How does water evaporate from humans and animals?

Lets take a look and see how water evaporates from humans and animals. Evaporation causes us to lose heat energy by removingwater from our skin and converting it to water vapor. When we sweat, evaporation has occured.

How does water escape from plants? Through transpiration and evapotranspiration.

Transpiration: is a process by which a plant loses water through its leaves.

Evapotranspiration: is the loss of water from the surface of a landscape by evaporation and transpiration.

Condensation

Clouds are categorized into five groups. Each cloud type is sectioned into a certain group depending on their appearance and thecloud base height. English scientist, Luke Howard,in 1803 devised a system to organize all types of clouds. The classification ofclouds is based on Latin translation of each clouds appearance. Here is a chart with the Latin name and it's meaning.

Latin Root Translationcumulusheapstratuslayercirruscurl of hairnimbusrain

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PrecipitationWhat is precipitation? Precipitation is water particles that form either rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Precipitationforms when air rises, expands, and becomes colder, and since air can't hold as much moisture as warm air the water condensesto form clouds and sometimes even forms rain or snow. This is caused by a combination of many different processes that cause airto rise. To see more on the different properties of water check out this coollink.

Why do we need precipitation? At times, different forms of precipitation, may seem to do more damage

than good. For example, extreme rain causing flooding or snow storms that keep us locked up in ourhouses. But did you ever think of the positive aspects of precipitation? Rain helps keep our crops growingso we have food and ice acts as an shield for the fish living in the waters during the winter. Precipitation hasit's advantages and disadvantages..

What are the different forms of precipitation?

Hail: Hail is formed when updrafts raindrops upwards into extremely areas of the atmosphere where they frand merge into lumps of ice. Whenlumps become to heavy they fall to

earth. Hail can vary in size, from the sia small stone to that of a baseball. It cavery dangerous too, so watch out ifhere that you may be having a hailstHere's a really good site on hail, talook!

The picture on the left shows a hailstorm taking place in a small downtown.You can see the huge drops the hail ismaking. The picture on the right shows afew different sizes that hail can be.Those things are huge!

http://www.ec.gc.ca/water/en/nature/prop/e_prop.htmhttp://www.ec.gc.ca/water/en/nature/prop/e_prop.htmhttp://www.chaseday.com/hail.htmhttp://www.ec.gc.ca/water/en/nature/prop/e_prop.htmhttp://www.chaseday.com/hail.htm

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This is a picture of sleet hitting a truck!

Sleet: Sleet is frozen raindrops. Sleet beginsas rain and falls through a deep layer of coldair that contains temperatures below freezingthat exist near the surface. Rain that fallsthrough this extremely cold layer has enoughtime to freeze into soft pellats of ice

This is a picture of freezing rain that has fall onto the ground! Look atthat fence!!

Freezing Rain: Freezing rain is normal rain, or liquid wdroplets, that fall from the atmosphere. Only these droplets been supercooled as they fall and when they hit the groundfreeze. Freezing rain has many similar properties as sleet sleet falls from the atmosphere already frozen

You see, precipitation comes in all different types of forms, it isn't just rain and snow, it also includes hail and sleet. Sometimesprecipitation can be dangerous, like when there is hailstorm and the hail is the size of baseballs or when we have sleet and itcauses the roads to become very slippery. We do need precipitation for life here on earth though. It may cause a lot of problems,but it is something we just can live without.

Evaporation is the process of loss of water from the surface of the earth.Precipitation is the term applied to all forms of moisture originating in atmosphere and falling to the groundTranspiration is the process of loss of water from the plantsCondensation takes place as soon as the air contains more water vapor than it can receive from a free water surfaceRun-off is the portion of precipitation on the land that ultimately reaches streamsPercolation is the movement of water through the soilInfiltration is the movement of water from the surface of the soil to the soil

Meteorological factors that affects evaporation: Solar radiation; air temperature; wind speed; humidity; available soilmoisture to the plants

Water table is the locus point in unconfined material where the hydrostatic pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure

GROUNDWATER SUPPLYZone of aeration is above the water table where the soil pores is filled with either water and airZone of saturation is below the water table where the soil pores is filled with water

Types of soil- sand, clay, silt

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Nature of evaporating surface: vegetation, building, paved streetTypes of plants: Mesophytes; xerophytes; phreatophytes; hydrophytes

Permeability is the property of soil which allow water to move through soil massPorosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the total volume of the formationSpecific yield is the ratio of the volume of water that will drain freely from a soil to the total volume of water in the soil.

GEOLOGIC FORMATION

Aquifer is a geologic formation which contain water and transmits it from one point to anotherAquiclude is a formation which contains water but cannot transmit it rapidly enough to furnish significant supply to a well or spring.Aquifuge has no interconnected openings and cannot hold or transmit waterArtesian is a groundwater that is overlain by two impervious layers that is usually under pressure because of the weight of theoverburden

raw chlorine

awater sand

finished water

to the community

A TYPICAL WATER TREATMENT PLANT

Key 1.Chemical Mixing basin (coagulation), 2. Flocculation basin (flocculation), 3. Settling tank, 4. Rapid sand filter,5. Disinfection with chlorine, 6 Clean water storage (clear well), 7. PumpWATER TREATMENT PROCESS1. Coagulation is the chemical alteration of colloidal particles to make them stick together forming a larger particles called flock.

When aluminum sulfate is added to the water containing colloidal material, the alum initially dissolves to form aluminum ion andsulfate ion. But the aluminum ion is unstable and forms various types of charged species of aluminum oxides and hydroxides. Thespecific forms of these compounds are dependent on thepH of the water, the temperature and method of mixing.

Two mechanisms important in the process of coagulationCharge neutralization is the mechanism whereby the aluminum ions are used to counter the charge on thecolloidal particlesBridging involves the sticking together of the colloidal particles by virtue of the macromolecules formed by thealuminum hydroxides

2. Flocculation is a physical process that assists the growth of particles. The intent of the process of flocculation is to producedifferential velocities within the water so that particles can come into contact.3. Settling simply allow the heavier-than water particles to settle to the bottom. Settling tank is designed to approximate a plug flowreactor.

Variables that influence the movement of particles in settling tank- particle size, particle shape, particledensity, fluid density, fluid viscosityFactors that cause non-uniform flow in settling-wind, density, temperature currents, inadequate baffling at the

tank entrance.4. Filtration and backwashing-water from the settling basins enters the filter and seeps through the sand and gravel bed, througha false floor and out into a clear well that stores the finished water. Backwashing is the process by which the solids that clogged atthe rapid sand filters must be cleaned.5. Disinfection - following filtration and before storage in the clear well, the water is disinfected to destroy whatever pathogenicorganisms might remain. Commonly, disinfection is accomplished with chlorine, purchased as a liquid under pressure and releasedinto the water as chlorine gas using a chlorine feeder system. The presence of a residual of active chlorine in the water is an

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indication that no further organics remain to be oxidized and that the water can be assumed to be free of disease-causingorganisms.6. Storage in a clear well7. Distribution of water- water pumped into the distribution systems usually contains a residual of chlorine to guard against anycontamination in the distribution system. This is why water from drinking fountains or faucets often has a slight taste of chlorine.From the clear well in the water treatment plant, the finished water is pumped into the distribution systems. Such systems are underpressure, so that any tap into a pipe, whether it is a fire hydrant or domestic service, will yield water.SUSTAINABLE WATER USE

From a water supply use and management perspective, sustainable water use can be defined as the use of waterresources by people in a way that allows society to develop and flourish into an indefinite future without degrading the variouscomponents of the hydrologic cycle or the ecological system that depend on it. Some general criteria for water use sustainability areas follows:

Develop water resources in sufficient volume to maintain human health and well-being.

Provide sufficient water resources to guarantee the health and maintenance of ecosystems.

Ensure minimum standards of water quality for the various users of water resources.

Ensure that actions of humans do not damage or reduce long-term renewability of water resources

Promote the use of water-efficient technology and practice.

Gradually eliminate water pricing policies that subsidize the ineff