[ARC 1413]/ [BLD 60203]ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

AIR QUALITY RELATED ISSUES AND THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS

MEMBERS STUDENT ID

LOH KHAI JHUNG 0318908

CHONG CHUI WERN 0321359

OOI KAI YANG 0315663

TUTOR

Mr Sivaraman

CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page1 Introduction

-What is Air Pollution-Air Quality related Issues-Air Pollution Index

1-4

2 Basic Causes and Effects 5-6

3 Global Issues 7-8

4 Local Issues 8-11

5 Built Environment base Air Pollution

11

6 Impacts of Air Pollution 12-13

7 Solutions 14-16

8 Conclusion 16-17

Introduction

In our fast growing world, we neglect the things around us as we continue to invent new

technologies to keep up with the current market and economy demand, and for the comfort

of our own. Though we depend on them to keep us alive, for our own benefit, we have

neglected the natural resources which keep us alive. Among them is the air we breathe at

this very second.

What is Air Pollution?Air pollution occurs when the air contains gases, dust, fumes or odour in harmful amounts. Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and the gas particle in the air. The Earth

is surrounded by a halo of atmosphere. All life depends on the integrity of this thin layer of

air. Large quantities of all kinds of materials are pouring into the atmosphere without

knowledge of long-term effects due to human’s activities. Ozone depletion, greenhouse warming, acid rain and ground-level pollution are only a few of the identified hazards.

Chemicals from factories, car emission and air-conditioner are examples of air pollution

caused by humans ourselves. However, a part of air pollution is also caused by nature itself,

such as the smog released from volcano. (Turco, Richard P., 1997)

Air Quality related IssuesHaze is caused by tiny particles suspended in the atmosphere. At high concentration, the

particles absorb sunlight causing horizontal visibility to diminish. Some light is absorbed by

particles. Other light is scattered away before it reaches an observer. More pollutants mean

more absorption and scattering of light, which reduce the clarity and colour of what we see.

Some types of particles such as sulphates scatter more light, particularly during humid

conditions. (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1999)

Clear view Haze view

Figure 1: the comparison view of KLCC without and with haze

The term 'Greenhouse Effect' refers to the way certain gases trap heat in the atmosphere,

much as the glass in a greenhouse prevents rising warm air from escaping. The increase in

the greenhouse gases make the temperature rises are more drought and flooding, less ice

and snow, more extreme weather incidents and rising sea level due to melting of ice.

Greenhouse gasses include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and others.

(Christiana Honsberg & Stuart Bowden, 2014)

Figure 2: Correlation of the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration with the rise in

average temperature.

(Source: Kerr RA. Sun’s Role in Warming Is Discounted. Science. 1995; 268:28 – 29)

Urban Heat Island (UHI) the rise in temperature of any man-made area, resulting in a well-

defined, distinct "warm island" among the "cool sea" represented by the lower temperature

of the area’s nearby natural landscape. Though heat islands may form on any rural or urban

area, and at any spatial scale, cities are favoured, since their surfaces are prone to release

large quantities of heat. The UHI is one of the air conflicts which related closely with built

environment. Without careful planning the placement of high-rise buildings and city structure,

most development of these structure tend to be built relatively close with each other. This

causes the gather and the expansion of city area thus became the main cause of Urban

Heat Island. (Camilo Pérez Arrau & Marco A. Peña, 2011)

Figure 3: Basic phenomenal graph of Urban Heat Island

(Source: City West Water, 2015)

Air Pollution IndexAPI is used in Malaysia to measure air quality. It’s calculated based on the 5 major

pollutants, Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, Particulate Matter With Diameter < 10 micron, and lastly, ground level ozone. It is measured by automatic air

quality stations placed all over the country.

Table1: Air pollution index level and its health effects

API Air Pollution Level Health Effects

0 - 50 Good Good

51 - 100 Moderate None

101 -

200

Unhealthy Mild aggravation of symptoms among susceptible persons

201 -

300

Very Unhealthy more widespread symptoms of transient irritation in the

healthy population

301 -

400

Hazardous Early onset of certain diseases in addition to significant

aggravation of symptoms in susceptible persons

> 500 Emergency PSI levels above 400 may be life-threatening to ill and

elderly persons

Highest API value recorded was 839 in Kuching, Sarawak in 23/9/1997.

(Source: National Environment Agency, Singapore, 2015)

In Malaysia, main sources of air pollution comes from industries, development activities,

motor vehicles, power generation, land clearing, open burning and forest fire. There are 2

kinds of pollution which is primary and secondary. Primary air pollutant is emitted directly

from a source. Secondary pollutants are primary pollutants which reacted in the

atmosphere, they are not directly emitted. (Ahmad Fadzil Ahmad Shuhaili, Sany Izan Ihsan

& Waleed Fekry Faris, 2013)

Basic Causes and Effects

There are several aspects which we can tackle to further understand the causes and effects

of most air quality related pollution.

For instance, in the field of people, the high population of people in an area leads to high

demand of both energy consumption and resources usage. More people lead to more

vehicles being used on the road thus leads to a higher amount of unhealthy gases being

released into the atmosphere. When during traffic peak hours, especially in Malaysia, the

amount of engines that is running on the road could fill the entire surrounding with

dangerous gases like carbon monoxide, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide.

Statistics in Malaysia show that from 8.9 million motor vehicles registered in 1998,

approximately 2 million tons of carbon monoxide, 237 000 tons of oxides of nitrogen,

111 000 tons of hydrocarbons, 38 000 tones sulphur dioxide and 17 000 tones particulate matters are emitted into the atmosphere. Up at December 31, 2011, there

were 21,401,269 vehicles registered. (Ahmad Fadzil Ahmad Shuhaili, Sany Izan Ihsan &

Waleed Fekry Faris, 2013)

Table: The effects of different air pollutants released by motor vehicles.

Pollutants Effects

Carbon Monoxide Bind with red blood cells to lower the oxygen transfer in our body

Exposing too long to CO could cause dead

Particulate Matter Reduce visibility

Cause unpleasant breathing and dry skin

Sulphur Dioxide Irritates respiratory tissue

Aggravates asthmatic and other respiratory conditions

Nitrogen Dioxide Cause respiratory problem

Main cause of haze

(Source: Eldon D. Eger and Bradly F. Smith, 2014)

From the field of economy and society, the high demand of resources and energy

combining with the industrial revolutions and developments bring for a lot of factories and

industrial construction. While these structures undergo construction, a lot of unhealthy gases

will be released into the atmosphere during the construction of those factories. All

construction sites generate high levels of dust (typically from concrete, cement, wood, stone,

silica) and this can carry for large distances over a long period of time. Construction dust is

classified as PM10 - particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter, invisible to the

naked eye. When these matters reach an unpleasant level, not only visibility of the

surrounding but also respiratory system or humans’ body will be affected badly. (Source:

Eldon D. Eger and Bradly F. Smith, 2014)

Global IssuesSingapore

From late July to the beginning of October 1997, countries of Southeast Asia

experienced severe smoke haze pollution from uncontrolled forest fires mainly in the

Indonesian states of Kalimantan and Sumatra. In Singapore, the impact of the 1997 haze

was felt in the period from the end of August to the first week of November 1997 as a result

of prevailing winds.

The Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) developed by the USEPA is used for the

reporting of daily air pollution concentrations. Intervals on the PSI scale are related to the

potential health effects of the daily measured concentrations of the five major air pollutants:

sulfur dioxide, particulate matter (PM10), nitrogen dioxide, ozone and carbon monoxide.

Attention during the period of the haze was focused on conditions related to health effects of

the haze. Data sources for the monitoring of the lung health effects of the haze included

morbidity from public sector outpatient care facilities, accidents and emergency departments.

As for the result findings from the health impact of the haze showed that there was a

30% increase in outpatient attendance for haze-related conditions. An increase in PM10

levels from 50 microg/m3 to 150 microg/m3 was significantly associated with increases of

12% of upper respiratory tract illness, 19% asthma and 26% rhinitis. During the same period,

there was also an increase in accident and emergency attendance for haze-related

conditions. There was no significant increase in hospital admissions or in mortality.

(Emmanuel SC, Impact to lung health of haze from forest fires: the Singapore experience.

Retrieved May 13, 2015.)

CaliforniaCentral and northern California experienced thousands of forest and brush fires,

giving rise to a week of severe fire-related particulate air pollution throughout the region and

had experience of the health impact of exposure to elevated levels of PM10–2.5 and PM2.5 and

about the specific toxicity of PM arising from wildfires in this region.

Concentrations of PM were not only higher during the wildfire episodes, but the PM

was much more toxic to the lung on an equal weight basis than was PM collected from

normal ambient air in the region. They had concluded that the wildfire PM contains chemical

components toxic to the lung.

(Teresa C. Wegesser, 2009.)

Southeast Asia

 In Southeast Asia, haze poses a threat more dire than a nuclear-tipped missile.

Particulate-filled smoke from burning forests and peat on the Indonesian island of Sumatra

moved east to envelope Singapore and parts of Malaysia. At one point, Singapore’s

Pollutant Standards Index soared to 401. Any reading above 100 is considered unsafe to

breathe. Air pollution of this magnitude represents a serious health hazard. It cause the

business shut down where the area is affected, school is close, people stay in the indoor all

the time and can’t have any outdoor activity. The costs to Indonesia, Singapore and

Malaysia in increased health expenses, lowered productivity, absenteeism. The haze also

triggered diplomatic tensions in the region. Singapore lodged complaints, then more pointed

protests. Malaysia called for an emergency meeting of the Association of Southeast Asian

Nations (ASEAN).

(Robert Hathaway, 2013.)

Local IssuesLocal Haze Issue

Indonesia is the only member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations which

has still not ratified its Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, brokered in 2002, all

the other countries involved has agreed to it.

(Haze from Indonesian fires returns to Malaysia, 2013.)

Almost annually, haze caused by forest fire in Indonesia will affect Malaysia. One of

the severe cases of the haze caused is in June 2013. The Malaysian Government declared

emergency status in the districts of Ledang and Muar in Johor, where Malaysia's Air Pollution Index (API) spiked to 746. Schools in parts of Malacca, Selangor, Kuala Lumpur,

Pahang and Negeri Sembilan were instructed to close due to unhealthy air. Any areas with

API above 300 are forced to close until the API level drop.

(StraitsTime, 2013.)

Hospitals and clinics in areas badly affected by haze in recent days had recorded a

rise of more than 100 percent in asthma cases. Cheah Tuck Wing, the executive director

of the Malaysia-Australia Business Council, said companies in Johor quotes that "People are

not well and it will definitely affect production that goes without saying. It has definitely

impacted business, especially factories where a huge number of people are working.

(Singapore, Malaysia face economic hit from prolonged smog, 2013.)

In March 2015, about 150ha in five locations in Selangor were being consumed by

forest or bush fires, contributing to the hot and hazy situation in the state. Pauzan said his

office received about 75 calls on open burning daily. Department of Environment director-

general Datuk Halimah Hassan reminded the public that a ban on open burning was in effect

in Selangor. This shows that the haze is not only cause from Indonesia, but locals are

also contributing to the pollution happening in the area and the country.

(LIM, S., 2014.)

To sum it up, with unhealthy air or air pollution can happen in and out of the country.

It effects the education, health, and the economics of a county.

Health Risks of Air Pollution on Mortality in Klang Valley, MalaysiaShort-term exposures to polluted air were associated with daily mortality rates in

some major cities in Asia. However, there are limited numbers of health effects of air

pollution studies in Malaysia due to lack of capacity in environmental epidemiology. A case

study was conducted by Sahani Mazrura, Wan Rozita Wan Mahiyuddin, Rasimah Aripin,

Talib Mohd Latif, Thuan Q. Thach and Chit-Ming Wong to fully analyse and understand the

effects of different pollutants in Klang Valley.

As a result, they found out that the main air pollutants in the Klang Valley region

were ozone and PM10. The risks on respiratory and cardiovascular mortality were also

found.

The study confirms the association between mortality risks and air pollutants,

particularly for ozone and PM10, as with magnitude similar to those by other studies

worldwide.

(ISEE 22nd Annual Conference, Seoul, Korea, 2010)

CO2 Emission in MalaysiaIn Malaysia, transportation system, electricity generation, industrial sectors and

residual have been mentioned as the main contributors of CO2 emission. According to

statistics from Asian Pacific Energy Center (APEC), the outlook period for CO2 emission

from energy consumers in Malaysia is projected to grow about 4.2% annually reaching 414 million tone of dioxide carbon in 2030. Based on Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning

system (LEAP), the rate of CO2 emission from fossil fuel-based sectors for the period of

2000 to 2020 can be modelled. (HC Shin, JW Park, et al, 2005)

Figure: The schematic for LEAP model. Figure: CO2 emission from different resources in

Malaysia

(Source: Seyed Ehsan Hosseini, Mazlan Abdul Wahid, Nasim Aghili, The scenario of greenhouse

gases reduction in Malaysia, 2013)

To reduce the rate of CO2 formation from fossil-fuel power plants some applicable

strategies should be taken into account. CO2 capturing method and employing carbon

sequestration, switching the fuel and application of alternative fuel especially biofuel and

biogas and increasing the efficiency of the power plants are the best methods to approach

low CO2 emission in Malaysia. (H Hashim, P Douglas,2005)

In Malaysia, palm plantation and permanent forest have played crucial role in CO2

removing. The rate of CO2 removal was reported 167 Mt and 82 Mt by forest and palm

plantation respectively and they were still the main CO2 removers for Malaysia up to now.

(Renewable and Sustainable Energy, Volume 28, 2013)

Table: Strategies planned for greenhouse gases reduction regarding to the forest.

Objective Sub-objective Solution Action

Reduce greenhouse gases emission from forest

Reduce

deforestation

(decrease

depletion of carbon

stocks)

Reduce forest fire Improve forest fire

management

Reduce conversion to

other land uses

Develop alternative

income opportunities

Reduce logging Decrease net log

production volume

Increase

reforestation

(carbon

Accelerate natural

forest regeneration

Decrease waste in log

production

Accelerate forest Improve land

sequestration) regeneration artificially management

Plant trees

(Source: Seyed Ehsan Hosseini, Mazlan Abdul Wahid, Nasim Aghili, The scenario of greenhouse

gases reduction in Malaysia, 2013)

Built Environment base Air Pollution

Construction activities that contribute to air pollution include: land clearing, operation

of diesel engines, demolition, burning, and working with toxic materials. Wastes associated

with building construction include unused and excess material generated during site

excavation, site clearance, construction, and renovation activities. All construction sites

generate high levels of dust (typically from concrete, cement, wood, stone, silica) and this

can carry for large distances over a long period of time. Construction dust is classified as

PM10 - particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter, invisible to the naked eye.

(Pollution Prevention, 1995)

Research has shown that PM10 penetrate deeply into the lungs and cause a wide

range of health problems including respiratory illness, asthma, bronchitis and even cancer.

Another major source of PM10 on construction sites comes from the diesel engine exhausts

of vehicles and heavy equipment. This is known as diesel particulate matter (DPM) and

consists of soot, sulphates and silicates, all of which readily combine with other toxins in the

atmosphere, increasing the health risks of particle inhalation. (Sustainable Build, 2015)

Diesel is also responsible for emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide. Noxious vapours from oils, glues, thinners, paints,

treated woods, plastics, cleaners and other hazardous chemicals that are widely used on

construction sites, also contribute to air pollution. (Sustainable Build, 2015)

Question needed to ask before undergoing any construction.

Will the chemical demilitarization facility be sited to avoid or reduce impacts to air quality?

Are procedures in place to minimize impacts to the air quality during construction and

decommissioning of chemical demilitarization facilities?

Impacts of Air Pollution

Air pollution can harm us when it accumulates in the air in high enough on

concentrations. Millions of Americans live in areas where urban smog, particle pollution, and

toxic pollutants pose serious health concerns. People exposed to high enough levels of

certain air pollutants may experience:

Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, dried and cracked skin, wheezing, coughing, chest

tightness and breathing difficulties, worsening of existing lung and heart problems, such as

asthma, and increased risk of heart attack.

Dried Skin Haze Asthma

Eyes Irritation Damaged Lungs

(Source: Heather, 2015)

Heart Attack

Figure 2: Health impacts by air pollution

In addition, long-term exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and damage to the

immune, neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems. In extreme cases, it can even

cause death.

Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can impact

wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans, animals can experience health problems if they

are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air toxics over time. Studies show that air toxics

are contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and disease in animals. (United States

Environment Protection Agency, 2011)

Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of ways. Ground-level ozone

can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and

survivability of tree seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and other

environmental stresses (such as harsh weather). (Prezi, 2015)

Haze, greenhouse effect, UHI and others conflicts cause by unhealthy air could also

leads to dramatic climate changes.

Poor air quality threatens not only the well-being of city-dwellers but our long -term

productivity, as well, especially in terms of the quality of life, material and vegetation

damage, reduced tourism to the country, discouraged foreign investments, among others.

Further, loss of productivity due to pollution-related illnesses becomes a direct economic cost also. (Source: 2002 (November). World Bank. Philippine Environment Monitor 2002.

Philippines.)

Figure: The drop in profit of economical activities.

SolutionsIndividually, each of us should learn some basic knowledge on air quality and ways

to prevent and sustain it from further being polluted. Ways to create a more liveable place

with better air quality include paying more attention to air quality related issues, instil self

with how to avoid damaging the air quality, do not get addicted to smoking, reduce driving

alone, if alone, take a public transport instead. (British Columbia Air Quality, 2015)

Carpool No Smoking

Figure 3: Pictures or poster encouraging individual solutions to reduce air pollution

(Source:http://www.cibolaapartments.com/carpool/&http://www.freestockphotos.biz/stockphoto/

16150 )

Communities should take actions to address air-quality and climate-change issues.

They should be working towards more liveable, sustainable communities through

responsible land use and development, and greener transportation. Major community

actions include enhancing public transit, improving the overall transportation system to

encourage alternative, low-polluting forms of transportation, such as public transit, cycling

and walking, developing smog-management plans, greening municipal fleets (using more-efficient vehicles and cleaner fuels), developing outreach activities to promote community involvement

(British Columbia Air Quality, 2015)

Business and industry can also help improve air quality and reduce greenhouse

gas emissions by introducing better technology and industrial practices. Beyond compliance

with existing regulations, permit conditions and local bylaws, industrial operations can

undertake voluntary measures, reduce emissions when modernizing or expanding

production processes, participate in and support air shed planning and implementing

sectorial initiatives such as Responsible Care; ISO standards

(British Columbia Air Quality, 2015)

Of course, the community has taken action to help reduce the use of private

transports. Residents in Shah Alam, Subang Jaya and Klang will be able to enjoy free public

bus service beginning July, The Star Metro reported today. The bus service, introduced by

the Selangor government, will benefit about 24,000 people. Teng said the free bus service

was decided after studying the free bus service in Petaling Jaya, known as the PJ City Bus.

is aimed at getting more people to use public transport to get around Petaling Jaya,

especially during peak hours in the morning and evening. The operating hours are from 6am

to 9pm daily to cater to schoolchildren and working adults. (The Malaysian In sider, 2015)

Also, a bike path has been open in Kuala Lumpur in April 2015. The bike path is to

provide the public with an alternative way of travel within the city in a bid to lessen the

number of vehicles on the road which contributes to daily traffic congestion. It is also aimed

to lessen pollution in the Malaysian capital. Besides that, it could also help to instill a culture

of cycling amongst Malaysians, especially those residing in the city, which is in line with the

aim and implementation of Fit Malaysia in shaping a healthier nation.

(Source: Astro Awani, KL's first bicycle path opened to public, 2015)

ConclusionThere are many causes of air pollution and there are many to blame. Air pollution is

not only harmful to us, humans, but also to the animals and plants on the planet. With the

rapid growth in economy and the industrial sector, it is inevitable that air pollution will happen

in every parts of the globe. In many countries, we see citizens walking around on the streets

with masks on, just waiting and wishing for the haze or smog to go away. Everyone has to

play a role in the effort to reduce air pollution. If nothing is done, such air quality will be

passed on to generations and generations to come. We at this age may or may not suffer

the worst possible consequences of these polluting actions, however, our fellow human in

the future in years to come, will. Do you want to take your girlfriend on a romantic date in the

park with only smog n haze in sight but not the natural scenery of the park? Do you want

your grandchildren to live in a world where they can’t play out door without getting lungs

diseases? Do you want to walk out of your doorstep only to see a thick layer of haze

covering up the path?

No? Then, change! We are the key to curing this situation. We humans are the cause

of all these suffering we brought upon ourselves and we are capable of taking it into our own

hands to stop the pollution.

We, even as an individual are capable of saving the earth, but none of us are taking

the initiative to. Just by sacrificing a little bit of our comfort, perhaps taking the public

transport or car pool, maybe less of air condition when we drive? If we were to do that on a

daily basis, we could’ve saved the world from tons of pollution. Many individuals, however,

are not willing to give up just that little bit of comfort. What goes around, comes around. As

we enjoy the cooling air-conditioning in our room, the earth gets hotter and hotter. We said

the weather is too hot so we refuse to take the bikes, but as we drive, the temperature

continues to increase. At the end of the day, we are the one to pay the consequences.

“Be the change you want to see in this world,” a very famous quote which relates to

this whole situation very well. There’s no pointing fingers to the smokers who smokes, or the

factory which lets all the smog out, because we as individuals, in everyday of our lives, we

contribute to air pollution. Just take the first step out of our comfort zone, and we can make

a change. Let us all be part of the solution, not part of the pollution.

References

-Enger, E., & Smith, B. (2014). Environmental Science: A study of interrelationships. (14th

ed.). Boston, Mass: McGraw-Hill. Retrieved May 10, 2015.

-Richard P, T. (1997). Earth under siege: From air pollution to global change. Retrieved May

10, 2015, from http://hdl.handle.net/1969.3/25784

-Pérez Arrau, C., & A. Peña, M. (2011, August 26). The Urban Heat Island (UHI) Effect.

Retrieved May 10, 2015, from http://www.urbanheatislands.com/

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http://www.sustainablebuild.co.uk/pollutionfromconstruction.html

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http://www.bcairquality.ca/101/improve-air-quality.html

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Retrieved May 13, 2015.

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Toxicity,(2009, February 2. Retrieved May 13, 2015.

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2015

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Retrieved May 13, 2015.

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May 13, 2015.

-LIM, S. (2014, March 13). Forest fires contributing to haze in Selangor. Retrieved May 13,

2015.

-HC Shin, JW Park, et al. Environmental and economic assessment of landfill gas electricity

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Other References’ Website http://www.epa.gov/ttn/oarpg/t1/fr_notices/haze.pdf

http://www.epa.gov/oecaerth/resources/policies/nepa/pollution-prevention-checklist-nepa-

pg.pdf

http://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/introduction/greenhouse-effect

http://www.sideofsneakers.com/2011/06/08/air-quality-index/

http://healthyurbanhabitat.com.au/responding-to-the-urban-heat-island-optimising-the-

implementation-of-green-infrastructure/

http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/citynews/greater-kl/article/shah-alam-subang-jaya-

klang-to-get-free-bus-service-beginning-july

http://english.astroawani.com/malaysia-news/kls-first-bicycle-path-opened-public-12955?cp