ESSENTIALS OF ESSENTIALS OF COMPARATIVE COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICS

BRANCHES OF COMPARATIVE BRANCHES OF COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICS

Comparative LinguisticsComparative Linguistics

phoneticalphonetical morphologmorphological, and ical, and syntacticsyntactic

lexicallexical

ASPECTS OF COMPARATIVE ASPECTS OF COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICS

COMPARATIVE COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICS

synchronical diachronical

PRACTICAL AIMS OF PRACTICAL AIMS OF COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICSCOMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS

1) translation practice;1) translation practice;2) compiling dictionaries;2) compiling dictionaries;3) teaching foreign languages.3) teaching foreign languages.

METHODS OF COMPARATIVE METHODS OF COMPARATIVE LINGUISTIC RESEARCHLINGUISTIC RESEARCH

SPECIFIC METHODS:SPECIFIC METHODS:

1)1) contrastive;contrastive;2)2) historical and historical and

comparativecomparative..

OTHER METHODSOTHER METHODS:: 1) descriptive; 2) experimental; 1) descriptive; 2) experimental;

3) statistic; 4) 3) statistic; 4) transformational; 5) transformational; 5) substitutional; 6) intermediate substitutional; 6) intermediate and ultimate constituents and ultimate constituents analysis; 7) inductive analysis; 7) inductive (comparing language data on (comparing language data on the ground of certain criteria); the ground of certain criteria); 8) deductive (working out 8) deductive (working out criteria for comparison) criteria for comparison) methodologymethodology..

TERMINOLOGY OF COMPARATIVE TERMINOLOGY OF COMPARATIVE LINGUISTIC RESEARCHLINGUISTIC RESEARCH

Language UniversalsLanguage Universals Language TypeLanguage Type Typological dominant featuresTypological dominant features Typological recessive featuresTypological recessive features Isomorphic Isomorphic (common) and (common) and allomorphicallomorphic (divergent) features (divergent) features MetalanguageMetalanguage An Etalon LanguageAn Etalon Language A World LanguageA World Language Artificial LanguagesArtificial Languages Language NormLanguage Norm Speech NormSpeech Norm

History of Comparative History of Comparative LinguisticsLinguistics

the end of the 18the end of the 18thth century up to the century up to the middle of the 19middle of the 19thth century, which is called century, which is called the beginning of comparative research;the beginning of comparative research;

the end of the 19the end of the 19thth century – the period of century – the period of neogrammarian studies, when linguists neogrammarian studies, when linguists started comparing living languages;started comparing living languages;

the beginning of the 20the beginning of the 20thth century up to century up to the present – the period of structural and the present – the period of structural and functional approaches to language.functional approaches to language.

W. von HumboldtW. von Humboldt’s Classification ’s Classification of Languagesof Languages

isolating (like Chinese);isolating (like Chinese); agglutinative (like Turkish);agglutinative (like Turkish); flexional (like Russian, Ukrainian);flexional (like Russian, Ukrainian); incorporating (languages of incorporating (languages of

American Indians).American Indians).

LANGUAGE LANGUAGE CLASSIFICATIONSCLASSIFICATIONS

NUMBER OF NUMBER OF SPEAKERSSPEAKERS

(estimated statistics in the early 1980-s)

Indo-European Sino-Tibetan Niger-Congo Afro-Asiatic Ausronesian

Dravidian Japanese

Altaic Austro-Asiatic

Korean Tai

Nilo-Saharan Amerindian

Uralic

2,000,000,0001,040,000,000 260,000,000 230,000,000 200,000,000 140,000,000 120,000,000 90,000,000 60,000,000 50,000,000 50,000,000 30,000,000 25,000,000 23,000,000

THE INDO-EUROPEAN THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILYFAMILY

The Indo-Iranian GroupThe Indo-Iranian Group The Baltic GroupThe Baltic Group The Slavic GroupThe Slavic Group The Hellenic groupThe Hellenic group The Romance GroupThe Romance Group The Germanic GroupThe Germanic Group The Celtic GroupThe Celtic Group The Albanian LanguageThe Albanian Language The Armenian LanguageThe Armenian Language

THE SLAVIC LANGUAGESTHE SLAVIC LANGUAGES

GROUPSGROUPS

WesternWestern

Polish, Czech, Slovak, Sorbian, and Kashubian

EasternEastern

Russian, Ukrainian,

and Byelorussian

SouthernSouthern

Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian,

Macedonian, and Slovene

THE GERMANIC LANGUAGESTHE GERMANIC LANGUAGES

GROUPSGROUPS

WesternWesternEnglish, German, Dutch, Flemish,

Afrikaans, Yiddish, and Frisian

EasternEastern

Gothic

(dead)

NorthernNorthernSwedish, Danish,

Norwegian, Icelandic, and

Faeroese

TABLE OF TYPOLOGICAL TABLE OF TYPOLOGICAL FEATURESFEATURES

(according to V. Skalichka)(according to V. Skalichka)

TYPES OF LANGUAGESTYPES OF LANGUAGES(morphological classification)(morphological classification) agglutinativeagglutinative ; ; inflecting (fusion)inflecting (fusion);; isolating ;isolating ; polysyntheticpolysynthetic;; introflexional introflexional (Arabic, Hebrew). (Arabic, Hebrew).

Agglutinative LanguagesAgglutinative Languages Words are built up out of a long sequence of units, with each unit

expressing a particular grammatical meaning, in a clear one-to-one way, e.g., one for each category of person, number, tense, voice, and mood. Affixes may be “glued” to the stem of word to add to its meaning or to show its grammatical function, e.g., in Swahili wametulipa “they have paid us” consists of

wa + me + tu +lipathey perfective us pay

marker Languages which are highly agglutinative include Finnish, Hungarian,

Japanese, Swahili, and Turkish, although there is no clear-cut distinction between agglutinative, inflecting, and isolating languages.

Inflecting (fusion) Inflecting (fusion) LanguagesLanguages

The form of a word is changed to show a shift in meaning The form of a word is changed to show a shift in meaning or grammatical function. Often there is no clear distinction or grammatical function. Often there is no clear distinction between the basic part of the word and the part which between the basic part of the word and the part which shows a grammatical function such as number or tense. shows a grammatical function such as number or tense. For e.g.: For e.g.: mice (= mouse + plural); came (= come + past tense). Greek, Latin, English, Russian, and Ukrainian are Greek, Latin, English, Russian, and Ukrainian are inflecting languages, though English is analytical, whereas inflecting languages, though English is analytical, whereas other languages mentioned are synthetical (with more other languages mentioned are synthetical (with more inflections and fewer auxiliaries).inflections and fewer auxiliaries).

ANALYTICAL & SYNTHETICAL ANALYTICAL & SYNTHETICAL LANGUAGESLANGUAGES

SYNTHETICAL LANGUAGESSYNTHETICAL LANGUAGES Grammatical meaning is

synthesized with the lexical one within the word form. Grammatical meaning is realized by means of inflections and word-forming affixes, sound interchange (ablaut), and suppletivity.

ANALYTICAL LANGUAGESANALYTICAL LANGUAGES Lexical meaning is realized by

notional words, while grammatical – by auxiliaries, word order, and intonation. Analytization is extremely intensive and is manifested in the functional synonymy of case-inflections, reduction of the noun-paradigm, word-order fixation, predominance of adjoinment in word-phrase relations, abundance of paradigmatic forms (Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous), predominance of conversion, postposition formation and phrasing among word-building patterns, abundance of function-words.

Isolating LanguagesIsolating Languages They lack inflexions. Word forms do not change, and in which They lack inflexions. Word forms do not change, and in which

grammatical functions are shown by word order and the use of grammatical functions are shown by word order and the use of function words, e. g. in Mandarin Chinese:function words, e. g. in Mandarin Chinese:

júzi wõ chi leorange I eat (function word)

“I ate the orange”wõ chî le júzi le

I eat (f.w.) orange (f.w.)“I ate an orange”

Languages, which are highly isolating include Chinese, Samoan, and Languages, which are highly isolating include Chinese, Samoan, and Vietnamese.Vietnamese.

Polysynthetic (Incorporating) Polysynthetic (Incorporating) LanguagesLanguages

Different parts of the utterance are united in the form of Different parts of the utterance are united in the form of amorphous word-stems (roots). Their unity gets auxiliary amorphous word-stems (roots). Their unity gets auxiliary elements. Compound words look like sentences. Words are elements. Compound words look like sentences. Words are very long, containing a mixture of agglutinative and very long, containing a mixture of agglutinative and inflectional features. In Tiwi inflectional features. In Tiwi ngirruunthingapukaningirruunthingapukani (‘I kept (‘I kept on eating’)on eating’) is: is:

ngi – rru – unthing – apu – kaningi – rru – unthing – apu – kani I past tense for some time eat repeatedlyI past tense for some time eat repeatedly Chukot, Eskimo, Papuan, and the languages of American Chukot, Eskimo, Papuan, and the languages of American

Indians & Australian aborigines possess such features.Indians & Australian aborigines possess such features.

SYNTACTIC CLASSIFICATION OF SYNTACTIC CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAUGESLANGUAUGES

(I. I. Meshchaninov’s classification)

11) passive; ) passive; 2) nominative; 2) nominative; 3) ergative .3) ergative .

PHONETIC CLASSIFICATION OF PHONETIC CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGESLANGUAGES

(O. Isachenko’s Classification)

Vocalic Languages;Vocalic Languages; Consonantal Languages.Consonantal Languages.

LANGUAGE CHANGELANGUAGE CHANGE

REASONSREASONS

INTERNALDemocratic Society;Learning;Printing;Mass media;Language contacts.

EXTERNALCommunication;Communication;Expressive & Expressive & information functions;information functions;Language norm;Language norm;Language potential.Language potential.