Ethical Theories & Professions · !Protect human life, property and liberty. !prescribe a system or...

Ethical Theories & Professions

Chapter 2, 3 & 4 in “Ethical & Social Issues in the Information Age”, 5th edition.

Topic#2

By: Dr. Najla Al-Nabhan & Ms. Asma AlKhamis

The Outline

´  Low.

´  Ethical Theories.

´  Codes of ethics.

´  Reflections on Computer Ethics.

´  Technology and values.

´  Evolution of Professions.

´  Pillars of Professionalism.

´  Professional Decision Making and Ethics.

´  Guilt and Making Ethical Decisions.

´  Harassment and Discrimination .

Ethical and Social Issues - J.M. Kizza

3 Law

´ Rules of conduct or actions recognized by customs or decreed by a formal body and enforceable by some instrument.

´ Laws are derived from moral codes

´ We obey two types of laws: Natural and Conventional


4 Natural Law

´  Unwritten but universal ´  consists of rights:

´ Self-defense (preservation) ´  Individual property ´ Liberty

´  It is a higher form of human law, therefore, independent of human preferences and applies to all rational creatures of nature

´ Before organized human societies, humans existed because of natural law.

´ Civilization is based on it.


5 Conventional Law

´ It is a system of rules created by and for human beings – through, though not always, public deliberations

´ It varies from society to society ´ Its purpose is to:

´ Protect human life, property and liberty. ´ prescribe a system or punishments for unlawful acts –

Penal Code

The Penal Code

´  Retributive

´  Corrective

´  Deterrent

Ethical and Social...J.M.Kizza

7 Recall: Traditional Definition of Ethics

´ Ethics comes from a Greek word “ ethos” which means character.

´ A set of theories of value, virtue or of right action ´ A set of theories to provide general rules/

principles to be used in making moral decisions ´ to provide justification for those rules

´ Every human action is judged to be good/bad based on these theories


8 Functional Definition of Ethics

1 if good/right ´ f(A,B) = { 0 if bad/wrong where a Є A = { set of all human actions } b Є B = { set of all ethical theories } ´ The function f is an ethical decision function that

assigns to every pair (a,b) a unique binary value of 1 for good or 0 for bad.


9 Ethical Theories

´ A system of justices developed, tested, revised, and debated over the years by groups/societies.

´ Codes of Ethics are based on these theories ´ Processes of reasoning, explanation, and

justification used in ethics are based on these theories.


10 Ethical Theories

´ Some of the theories are: (1) Consequentialism

-  actions are judged good/bad depending on the outcome/ results of such actions

-  There are three types of Consequentialism: -  (I) Egoism- putting an individual’s interests and happiness above

everyone else’s. -  (ii) Utilitarianism – putting a group’s interests and happiness above

self. -  (iii) Altruism – actions are judged good if the consequences are

favorable to all except the actor


11 Ethical Theories…

(2) Deontology – (duty theory - militaristic) – an action is good if done as a duty.

(3) Human nature – actions are judged good based on the capabilities of the actor (guilty by reasons of insanity)

(4) Relativism – this takes right and wrong to be relative to society ( hence no universal norms).


12 Ethical Theories…

(5) Hedonism - this seeks maximum pleasure for all.

(6) Emotivism – this states that ethical statements are neither true nor false but depend on individuals.


13 Ethical Theories …

´ These theories are used as engines to help understand and justify human actions

´ Theories have not changed with time and technology although the premises for human actions have changed

´ Theories are used in layers of reasoning to justify all human actions.


14 Codes of Ethics

´  The main domains in which ethics is defined are governed by a particular and definitive regiment of rules called “code of ethics”.

´  Although the use of codes of ethics is still limited to professions and high visibility institutions and businesses, there is a growing movement toward widespread use.

´  The wording, content, and target of many codes differ greatly. Some codes are written purposely for the public; others are targeting employees, and yet others are for professionals only.


15 Codes of Ethics …

´  Depending on the domain, ethical codes can take any of the following forms: 1.  Principles, which may act as guidelines, references, or bases for

some document

2.  Public policies, which may include aspects of acceptable behavior, norms, and practices of a society or group.

3.  Codes of conduct, which may include ethical principles.

4.  Legal instruments, which enforce good conduct through courts.


16 ACM Code of Ethics & Professional Conduct.

´  See ACM Web Page Http://www.acm.org

´  See also the textbook pages 39-47.


17 Objectives of Codes of Ethics

´  Disciplinary: By instilling discipline, the group or profession ensures professionalism and integrity of its members.

´  Advisory: The codes are usually a good source of tips to members and offer advice and guidance in areas where there are fuzzy moral issues.

´  Educational: Ethical codes are good educational tools for members of the domain,

´  For the new members: to learn the do’s and don’ts of the new profession.

´  For the older members: to refresh and polish their possibly waning morals.


18 Objectives of Codes of Ethics

´  Inspirational: Besides being disciplinary, advisory, and educational, the codes should also carry subliminal messages to those using them to inspire them to be “good.”

´  Publicity: One way for professions to create a good clientele is to show that they have a strong code of ethics and, therefore, their members are committed to basic values and are responsible.


19 Reflections on Computer Ethics

´ What makes computer ethics the same/different from traditional ethics: ´  Changing premises

´  Different temptations(see page 48)

´  Different means of delivery

´  Complacency

´  Ethical muddles


20 Technology and values

´ Technology is influencing the ethical and moral values of societies.

´ Successful technological advances have created tempting situations by: ´ Adding value

´ Removing value

´ Changing value


21 Technology and Values…

´ To keep society’s values we need to: ´ formulate new laws to strengthen existing values

´ Construct a new conceptual model in which to apply the changing value system

´  Launch massive education campaigns (for the new)

Ethical and Social... J.M.Kizza

22 Evolution of Professions …

´ Professionalism today requires: ´ A set of highly developed skills and a deep

knowledge domain

´ Autonomy

´ Observance of a code of conduct –

´  there are four intertwined sets of codes a professional must abide by. These are:


23 Evolution of Professions …

´ Sets of codes a professional must abide by:

(i) Professional code

(ii) Personal code

(iii) Institutional code

(iv) Community/(civil) code

Codes governing human actions


24 Pillars of Professionalism

´  Professionals must have: 1. Commitment (see page 57)

´  The person making the commitment must do so willingly without duress.

´  The person responsible must try to meet the commitment, even if help is needed.

´  There must be agreements on what is to be done, by whom, and when.

´  The commitment must be openly and publicly stated. ´  The commitment must not be made easily. ´  Prior to the committed date, if it is clear it cannot be met, advance

notice must be given and a new commitment negotiated.


25 Pillars of Professionalism …

2. Integrity with three maxims of: ´  Vision

´  Love

´  Commitment

3. Responsibility (see pages 58-59)

´  Provider

´  Service responsibility

´  Product responsibility

´  Consequential responsibility


26 Pillars of Professionalism …

4. Accountability ´ A set of outcome measures that reliably and

objectively evaluate performances – minimum set of measures that must be met.

´ A set of performance standards defined in terms of these outcome measures – common standards.

´ A set of incentives for meeting the standards and/or penalties for failing to meet them.


27 Making an Ethical Professional

´ Formal Education ´ Licensing

´ Professional codes of Conduct must include: ´ Enforcement ´ Reporting of grievances ´ Hearing procedures ´ Sanctions ´ Appeals


28 Professional Decision Making and Ethics

´  Professional dilemmas in decision-making are caused by:

´  Conflicting codes of conduct

´  Advances in technology

´  Incomplete/ misleading information (prisoner’s dilemma)

´  Guilt in decision-making may lead to:

´  Withdrawal

´  Making and Evaluating Ethical Arguments

´  The process of ethical reasoning must avail the decision maker with a safe or valid alternative from a multitude of alternatives presented by the ethical problems


29

´  As the process of reasoning progresses, the following information will start to emerge:

´  Information to confirm whether the problem is really an ethical problem or not.

´  Information on whether further description of the facts can add anything to the resolution process of the problem

´  Information to identify the key ethical theories, principles, and values that fit the safe alternatives being pursued

´  information on the strength and validity of the ethical theory chosen and whether there are possible conflicts in the ethical theories, principles and values with the reasoning processes and facts.

Professional Decision Making and Ethics


30

´  Once a final decision have been made, an evaluation of that decision is needed.

´  The goal of evaluating an ethical argument is to make sure that each of the alternatives being considered is “weighted” against all others using the facts at hand.

Evaluating Ethical Decisions


31 Guilt and Making Ethical Decisions ´  In an ethical decision making process, decisions are

made based on and reflect consequences, individual liberties, and justice.

´ To achieve this, individuals can use any other ethical theories to frame or make ethical choices that reflect the selected criteria.

´  However, whatever theory used, the outcome falls in one of the following three criteria: ´ Utilitarian criterion ´ Rights criterion ´ Justice criterion


32 Guilt and Making Ethical Decisions ´ Decisions are based on the outcome of an

individual’s deliberations, considering all input parameters and attaching values to these premises for a thorough examination of each premise by the individual


33

Making Ethical Decisions

´ The process of decision making is aided by the individual reflecting on these basic steps: 1.  Examining the ethically relevant issues, principles, standards,

and practices. 2.  Determining the different parties (and their special interests)

who will be affected by your decision. 3.  Deciding on an alternative course of action if and when the

outcome of the decision is not what is expected. 4.  Considering the probable consequences (short and long

term) of each alternative on each of the different parties involved.


34

Making Ethical Decisions ...

5.  Thinking of consulting with a trusted colleague if the situation is complex, risky, or there is undue personal involvement.

6.  Determining how personal values, biases, beliefs, or self-interests influenced the decision (either positively or negatively) and whether the consequences of the decision have been evaluated.

7.  Being prepared to” (1)  assume responsibility for the consequences of the

action, including correction of negative consequences, if any,

(2)  re-engage in the decision-making process if the ethical issue is not resolved, and

(3)  evaluate the system(s) within which the issue arose, in order to identify and remove the circumstances that might facilitate and reward unethical practices.


35 Harassment and Discrimination

´ Harassment is to verbally or physically create an bad environment: ´ that is hostile, intimidating, offensive, severe, pervasive, or

abusive based on a number of parameters including one’s race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, national origin, age, disability, political affiliation, marital status, citizenship, or physical appearance.

´ Discrimination on the other hand is a process of making decisions that negatively affect an individual, like denial of a service, based wholly, or partly, upon the real or perceived facts of: ´ one’s race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, national origin, age,

disability, political affiliation, marital status, or physical appearance.


36 ´ The following steps are needed in fight

against harassment and discrimination. (i) Awareness –

´ There are no clear signs of harassment but in most cases, harassment is manifested into the following signs: unhappiness, anxiety, discomfort, stress, and lifestyle changes.

(ii) Prevention- ´ The main tool for prevention of harassment and discrimination is

for an organization to have an enforceable clearly and simply write policy framework setting out the procedures that must be taken if harassment and discrimination occurs.

´ The procedures must include: awareness/education, complaint process, sanctions, and redress.

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