Ethical TheoriesUnit 9

Ethical Awareness

What Are Ethical Theories?

- Explaining what makes an action right or wrong

- Having an overview of major ethical theories.

- Knowing the pros and cons of theories.

Some Major Ethical TheorySome Major Ethical Theory

• Consequentialism• Deontology • Virtue Ethics• Emotivism• Natural Law• Relativism

1. ConsequentialismThe rightness/wrongness of an action is determined by its

consequences.Consequentialism is the class of normative ethical

theories holding that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness or wrongness of that conduct.

Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right act (or omission from acting) is one that will produce a good outcome, or consequence. In an extreme form, the idea of consequentialism is commonly encapsulated in the English saying, "the ends justify the means", meaning that if a goal is morally important enough, any method of achieving it is acceptable.

ConsequentialismUtilitarianism

The right action is the one that promotes the greatest happiness of the greatest number (maximizes social utility).

Ethical EgoismThe right action is the one that promotes the greatest happiness of the self-interest (maximizes the individual’s utility).

2. DeontologyThe rightness/wrongness of an action is determined by

inherent features of the action itself, or by an inherently valid rule.

Deontological ethics or deontology is the normative ethical position that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to a rule or rules. It is sometimes described as "duty" or "obligation" or "rule-based ethics”, because rules "bind you to your duty.“

Deontological ethics is commonly contrasted to consequentialism and virtue ethics. Deontological ethics is also contrasted to pragmatic ethics. In this terminology action is more important than the consequences. Humans decide right or wrong.

DeontologyIf an action is of the wrong kind, it is forbidden,

no matter how good its consequences are.

Deontology rejects both Utilitarianism and Ethical Egoism.

“The end doesn’t justify the means.”

Deontology

Example: KantianismRight actions must be universal and must treat rational agents as ends, not mere means (trade-offs forbidden)

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Kant’s Deontology

Universalism: must be possible to will the principle of your action for everybody without inconsistency.

Lying violates universalizability because lying presupposes

and exploits a general practice of telling the truth

Kant’s Deontology

Ends, not mere means: don’t treat rational agents (others or yourself) as mere objects to be used or exploited.

Personhood is the basis of ethical value and can’t be subordinated to other values.

“Must not sacrifice the few even to benefit the many.”

3. Virtue EthicsThe rightness/wrongness of an action is determined by the

character traits it expresses.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle’s belief in individual character and integrity established a concept of living your life according to a commitment to the achievement of a clear ideal—

what sort of person would I like to become, and how do I go about becoming that person?

“Emphasize what kind of person you should be”

Virtue-ethicists tend to side with deontologists against consequentialists – though not always

4. EmotivismEmotivism: is the view that moral judgments do not

function as statements of fact but rather as expressions of the speaker’s or writer’s feelings.

According to the emotivists, when we say “You acted wrongly in stealing that money,” we are not expressing any fact beyond that stated by “You stole that money.” It is, however, as if we had stated this fact with a special tone of abhorrence, for in saying that something is wrong, we are expressing our feelings of disapproval toward it.

5. Natural Law

A system of right or justice common to all humankind and derived from nature rather than from the rules of society, or positive law.

The concept can be traced to Aristotle, who held that what was “just by nature” was not always the same as what was “just by law.” In one form or another, the existence of natural law was asserted by the Stoics.

Natural Law Theory

If an action has two results, one good one bad, it’s permissible only if a) the good outweighs the bad the bad is only foreseen, not intended.

- Actions individuated by their intentions.

- Often combine deontology & virtue ethics.

Example of a Natural Law Theory

So collateral damage OK (civilian deaths foreseen but not part of plan), however, Hiroshima not OK (civilian deaths part of plan).

- Too strict for many consequentialists.- Too strict for many consequentialists.

- Too permissive for many - Too permissive for many deontologists.deontologists.

6. Relativism

The rightness of an action depends on the approval of some person/group/culture.

Allows conflicting moralities: such-and-such is right for group A (because group A approves of it) but wrong for group B (because group B disapproves of it).

End of Unit 9