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Ethics for theEthics for theInformation AgeInformation Age
Chapter 2 – Introduction to Chapter 2 – Introduction to EthicsEthics
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TopicsTopics IntroductionIntroduction Useful TerminologyUseful Terminology Ethical Theory OverviewEthical Theory Overview Subjective RelativismSubjective Relativism Cultural RelativismCultural Relativism Divine Command TheoryDivine Command Theory
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TopicsTopics KantianismKantianism Act UtilitarianismAct Utilitarianism Rule UtilitarianismRule Utilitarianism Social Contract TheorySocial Contract Theory Comparing WorkableEthical TheorComparing WorkableEthical Theor
iesies
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IntroductionIntroduction Communities facilitate exchange of Communities facilitate exchange of
goods and servicesgoods and services Individuals can focus and specializeIndividuals can focus and specialize Specialization engenders higher Specialization engenders higher
productivityproductivity Communities can be more secure Communities can be more secure
against external threatsagainst external threats
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IntroductionIntroduction Communities may prohibit some Communities may prohibit some
actions and mandate othersactions and mandate others Not obeying rules results in Not obeying rules results in
punishmentpunishment
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Useful TerminologyUseful Terminology SocietySociety
– Association of peopleAssociation of people– Designed to advance good of Designed to advance good of
membersmembers– Organized under a system of rulesOrganized under a system of rules– Rules are known as moralityRules are known as morality
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Useful TerminologyUseful Terminology EthicsEthics
– Study of moralityStudy of morality– Rational, systematic analysis of Rational, systematic analysis of
conductconduct– Focused on voluntary, moral choicesFocused on voluntary, moral choices– Observation is based on observer’s Observation is based on observer’s
viewpointviewpoint
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Ethical Theory OverviewEthical Theory Overview Subjective RelativismSubjective Relativism Cultural RelativismCultural Relativism Divine Command TheoryDivine Command Theory KantianismKantianism Act UtilitarianismAct Utilitarianism Rule UtilitarianismRule Utilitarianism Social ContractSocial Contract
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Subjective RelativismSubjective Relativism No universal right or wrongNo universal right or wrong Each person decides what is right or Each person decides what is right or
wrongwrong ProsPros
– Allows for disagreement on issuesAllows for disagreement on issues– Ethical debates are pointlessEthical debates are pointless
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Subjective RelativismSubjective Relativism
ConsCons– Line between belief and behavior is fuzzyLine between belief and behavior is fuzzy– No moral distinctionNo moral distinction– Inconsistent to state that I will do what I Inconsistent to state that I will do what I
think is right as long as no one is harmedthink is right as long as no one is harmed– Not the same as toleranceNot the same as tolerance– Idea of what is right may be based on Idea of what is right may be based on
anything, not necessarily reasonanything, not necessarily reason
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Cultural RelativismCultural Relativism Based on society’s moral guidelinesBased on society’s moral guidelines Morals vary between societiesMorals vary between societies ProsPros
– Morals adapt to different social contextsMorals adapt to different social contexts– It is arrogant for one society to judge It is arrogant for one society to judge
anotheranother– Morality is reflected in behaviorMorality is reflected in behavior
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Cultural RelativismCultural Relativism
ConsCons– There is no judgment of wrongdoing by other There is no judgment of wrongdoing by other
societiessocieties– Difficult to know what the society’s morals areDifficult to know what the society’s morals are– Does not explain evolution of moralsDoes not explain evolution of morals– No framework for resolving intercultural moral No framework for resolving intercultural moral
conflictsconflicts– Certain core values do existCertain core values do exist– Only indirectly based on reasonOnly indirectly based on reason
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Divine Command TheoryDivine Command Theory Based on directions from GodBased on directions from God PresumesPresumes
– Good actions are God’s willGood actions are God’s will– We know what God wants us to doWe know what God wants us to do
ProsPros– We owe obedience to our CreatorWe owe obedience to our Creator– God is good and omniscientGod is good and omniscient– God is the ultimate authorityGod is the ultimate authority
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Divine Command TheoryDivine Command Theory
ConsCons– Many holy books disagree with each otherMany holy books disagree with each other– Even within the same religion, differences Even within the same religion, differences
existexist– Does not work in a multicultural, secular Does not work in a multicultural, secular
societysociety– Some issues are not addressedSome issues are not addressed– Good is not necessarily equivalent to GodGood is not necessarily equivalent to God– Based on obedience, not reasonBased on obedience, not reason
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KantianismKantianism Actions should be guided by moral Actions should be guided by moral
lawslaws Moral laws are universalMoral laws are universal Morality must be based on reasonMorality must be based on reason Can explain why something is right or Can explain why something is right or
wrongwrong
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KantianismKantianism What is always good without What is always good without
qualification?qualification?– IntelligenceIntelligence– CourageCourage– Both can be used for wrong purposesBoth can be used for wrong purposes
Good will is universally goodGood will is universally good DutifulnessDutifulness
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KantianismKantianism Categorical Imperative – First Categorical Imperative – First
FormulationFormulation– Act only from moral rules that you can at the Act only from moral rules that you can at the
same time will to be universal moral laws.same time will to be universal moral laws. Categorical Imperative – Second Categorical Imperative – Second
FormulationFormulation– Act so that you always treat both yourself Act so that you always treat both yourself
and other people as ends in themselves, and and other people as ends in themselves, and never only as a means to an end.never only as a means to an end.
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KantianismKantianism ProsPros
– It is rational and explains why something is It is rational and explains why something is moralmoral
– Produces universal moral guidelinesProduces universal moral guidelines– All people are treated as moral equalsAll people are treated as moral equals
ConsCons– Sometimes a single rule is not enoughSometimes a single rule is not enough– Conflicts between rules can not be resolvedConflicts between rules can not be resolved– There are no exceptions to the moral lawsThere are no exceptions to the moral laws
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Act UtilitarianismAct Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart MillJeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill An action is good if it benefits someone An action is good if it benefits someone
and bad if it harms someoneand bad if it harms someone ““An action is right (or wrong) to the An action is right (or wrong) to the
extent that it increases (or decreases) the extent that it increases (or decreases) the total happiness of the affected parties.”total happiness of the affected parties.”
Does not examine motivesDoes not examine motives Consequentialist theoryConsequentialist theory
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Act UtilitarianismAct Utilitarianism ProsPros
– Focuses on happinessFocuses on happiness– Straightforward, down to earth, practicalStraightforward, down to earth, practical– ComprehensiveComprehensive
ConsCons– Difficult to tell where to draw the lineDifficult to tell where to draw the line– Requires a great deal of time and effortRequires a great deal of time and effort– Ignored innate sense of duty or obligationIgnored innate sense of duty or obligation– Susceptible to the problem of moral luckSusceptible to the problem of moral luck
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Rule UtilitarianismRule Utilitarianism We should adopt those rules that will We should adopt those rules that will
lead to the greatest increase in total lead to the greatest increase in total happinesshappiness
ProsPros– The evaluation is simpler than act The evaluation is simpler than act
utilitarianismutilitarianism– Not every moral decisions requires Not every moral decisions requires
analysisanalysis– Solves the problem of moral luckSolves the problem of moral luck
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Rule UtilitarianismRule Utilitarianism ConsCons
– Uses a single scale to evaluate different Uses a single scale to evaluate different types of consequencestypes of consequences
– Ignores unjust distribution of good Ignores unjust distribution of good consequencesconsequences
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Social Contract TheorySocial Contract Theory Thomas Hobbes’ LeviathanThomas Hobbes’ Leviathan
– Without rules and enforcement people have Without rules and enforcement people have no incentive to create anything of value as no incentive to create anything of value as they are not sure they can keep or profit from they are not sure they can keep or profit from itit
– State of natureState of nature Cooperation is essentialCooperation is essential Only possible when common guidelines are followedOnly possible when common guidelines are followed Moral rules are necessary to insure the ‘benefit of Moral rules are necessary to insure the ‘benefit of
social living’social living’
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Social Contract TheorySocial Contract Theory
Requires agreement toRequires agreement to– Establishment of a set of moral rulesEstablishment of a set of moral rules– Government capable of enforcing the rulesGovernment capable of enforcing the rules
Rousseau’s Rousseau’s The Social ContractThe Social Contract– No man has natural authority over othersNo man has natural authority over others– Force alone bestows no rightsForce alone bestows no rights– Legitimate authority must be based on Legitimate authority must be based on
agreementsagreements
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Social Contract TheorySocial Contract Theory
Critical problem is finding form of Critical problem is finding form of association thatassociation that– Guarantees everyone safety and propertyGuarantees everyone safety and property– Enables each person to remain freeEnables each person to remain free
Rousseau states the answer is for each to Rousseau states the answer is for each to give themselves and their rights to the give themselves and their rights to the communitycommunity
Community makes and enforces the rulesCommunity makes and enforces the rules Everyone is equal in the communityEveryone is equal in the community
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Social Contract TheorySocial Contract Theory
““Morality consists in the set of rules, Morality consists in the set of rules, governing how people are to treat one governing how people are to treat one another, that rational people will agree another, that rational people will agree to accept, for their mutual benefit, on to accept, for their mutual benefit, on the condition that others follow those the condition that others follow those
rules as well.”rules as well.”
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Social Contract TheorySocial Contract Theory
Based on universal moral rulesBased on universal moral rules Rules can be derived through a Rules can be derived through a
rational processrational process Negative rightsNegative rights Positive rightsPositive rights Absolute rightsAbsolute rights Limited rightsLimited rights
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Social Contract TheorySocial Contract Theory
Rawls’s Theory of JusticeRawls’s Theory of Justice– Recognizes the harm of concentration of Recognizes the harm of concentration of
wealth and powerwealth and power– Each person may claim ‘fully adequate Each person may claim ‘fully adequate
rights’ so long as they are consistent with rights’ so long as they are consistent with other’s claims to those rightsother’s claims to those rights
– Social and economic inequalities must be Social and economic inequalities must be associated with positions that anyone can associated with positions that anyone can hold and to be to the ‘greatest benefit to hold and to be to the ‘greatest benefit to the least-advantaged’the least-advantaged’
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Social Contract TheorySocial Contract Theory
ProsPros– Framed in the language of rightsFramed in the language of rights– Explains actions of rational people in the Explains actions of rational people in the
absence of a common agreementabsence of a common agreement– Provides clear analysis of the relationship Provides clear analysis of the relationship
between people and the governmentbetween people and the government
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Social Contract TheorySocial Contract Theory
ConsCons– None of use signed the social contractNone of use signed the social contract– Some actions can be characterized Some actions can be characterized
multiple waysmultiple ways– Does not resolve conflicting rightsDoes not resolve conflicting rights– May be unjust to those unable to uphold May be unjust to those unable to uphold
their side of the contracttheir side of the contract
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Comparing WorkableComparing WorkableEthical TheoriesEthical Theories Faced with a moral problem, what is the Faced with a moral problem, what is the
motivation for taking a particular action?motivation for taking a particular action?– Kant, social contract – do the right thingKant, social contract – do the right thing– Utilitarian theories – do goodUtilitarian theories – do good
How do they determine if an action is How do they determine if an action is ethical or unethical?ethical or unethical?
Is the focus on the individual or the Is the focus on the individual or the group?group?
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Comparing WorkableComparing WorkableEthical TheoriesEthical TheoriesTheoryTheory MotivationMotivation CriteriaCriteria FocusFocus
KantianismKantianism DutifulnessDutifulness RulesRules IndividualIndividual
Act Act UtilitarianismUtilitarianism
ConsequencConsequencee
ActionsActions GroupGroup
Rule Rule UtilitarianismUtilitarianism
ConsequencConsequence/Dutye/Duty
RulesRules GroupGroup
Social Social ContractContract
RightsRights RulesRules IndividualIndividual
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SummarySummary
Communities are for mutual benefitCommunities are for mutual benefit Relativistic theories assume people Relativistic theories assume people
invent moralityinvent morality Subjective relativism assumes that Subjective relativism assumes that
morality is an individual creationmorality is an individual creation Cultural relativism – each society Cultural relativism – each society
determines its own moralitydetermines its own morality Objectivism – morality already exists, Objectivism – morality already exists,
we discover itwe discover it
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Questions & DiscussionQuestions & Discussion
