Ethnobotanical profile of Tehsil Takht-e-Nasratti, District Karak, Pakistan
Musharaf Khan1*, Farrukh Hussain1 and Shahana Musharaf2
1Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Pakistan.
2Department of Chemistry, Government Girls Degree College, Sheikh Malton, Mardan, Pakistan.
Accepted 2 November, 2012
The present study was carried out to extract ethnobotanical data through interview, using semi-structured questionnaire and personal observation in Tehsil Takht-e-Nasratti, District Karak, Khyber Pakhtun khawa, Pakistan. We documented the use of 161 plants belonging to 57 families including 22 trees, 23 shrubs, 104 herbs, 9 grasses and 3 parasite species in present investigation. The locals used 118 (73.3%) species as folk medicinal plants, 114 (70.8%) fodder species, 47 (26.7%) fuel species, 16 (9.94 %) timber woods, 23 (14.3 %) vegetable species, 50 (31.06%) veterinary use plants and 90 (55.9%) honey bee species. The fruit plants included 33 (20.5%) species, 17 (10.6%) species were used for making agricultural tools, 19 (11.8%) species were used for fencing field borders and 18 (11.18%) were used for making furniture. Poaceae and Asteraceae were the most important families in the area. The area was investigated for the first time, and information about the traditional remedies with special reference to their medicinal uses were collected and documented before they were lost. From the economic and botanical point of view, the study area has great potentiality. Key words: Ethnobotany, conservation, medicinal and honey bee flora, Takht-e-Nasratti.
INTRODUCTION Harshberger used the term “Ethnobotany” in 1896 to indicate plants used by the aboriginals. It is considered as a branch of ethnobiology. It deals with the study and evaluation of plant-human relations in all phases and the effect of plant environment on human society. Takht-e-Nasratti has rich biodiversity consisting of a large number of plants, some of which are used for their medicinal value. Most of the population of the area still depends on the folk medicines, as they live in far flung areas where the facilities of the medical treatment are scarcely available. The area has a rural culture of old traditions and the local people have their own principle and choice for a village site house, family, dress and ornaments, weddings, childbirth, death ceremonies, cultural functions, festivals and socio-religious beliefs. So, they get indigenous knowledge about the local plants. Ethnobotanical studies in various areas of Pakistan have
also been carried out (Shinwari and Khan, 2000; Shinwari and Gilani, 2003; Hussain et al., 2006; Shinwari, 2010; Murad et al., 2011; Khan et al., 2011). The present research was aimed to collect, document and compile diverse and disperse traditional local information of century’s experienced therapeutic uses of medicinal plants of Takht-e-Nasratti, District Karak. Such a study will provide evidence for their authenticity in a particular disease, and hence it will give a very interesting and rewarding prepharmacological ground for undertaking its investigation on scientific basis. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Research area
The Tehsil Takht-e-Nasratti is situated at 32.47° to 33.28° North
Figure 1. Map of Tehsil Takht-e- Nasratti showing research spots.
and 70.30° to 71.30° East. The Tehsil is bounded by Tehsil Banda Dawood Shah on the North West, Tehsil Karak on the North East, District Mianwali and District Lakki Marwat on the South East, and Tribal area adjoining District Bannu on the South West (Figure 1). The total area of Tehsil is about 613.66 km
2. Majority of the area
consists of rigged dry hills and rough fields areas that is, 323.97 km
2 and agriculture land is about 289.7 km
2. The major income
source of the people is agriculture, which is rain dependent. The area is situated at 340 m above sea level. Some serious ecological operating problems facing the area are as follows:
Deforestation A serious ecologically operating problem is rapid cutting of plants (Figures 2 and 3).
Over grazing Grazing, browsing, and trampling by domestic livestock is a serious problem in the area (Figures 4 and 5). Grazing has caused a decline in vegetation where palatable species have been reduced and non-palatable species increased.
Shortage of water
Water shortage is one of the most threatening factors for irrigation
and drinking because the rainfall is scanty in the area and it is transported from far off places by donkey, Camel etc. or on heads (Figures 6 and 7). Soil salinity Some areas like Warana is facing salinity hazard. The water is neither suitable for cultivation nor for drinking. It has poor sparse vegetation. Soil erosion Soil erosion by the seasonal torrential stream water/wind in the plain and by rainwater in sloping area is also a threat to habitat (Figures 8 and 9). In the year 2001 to 2010, 121.6 mm of rainfall per 10 year was recorded. The area is very hot in summer and very cold in winter. June and July are the hottest months, whereas December and January are the coldest months. In the year 2001 to 2010, the mean maximum temperature was 39.5°C in the month of June whereas the mean minimum temperature was as low as 4.26°C in the month of January (Table 1). Survey and questionnaire
The study was conducted by frequent surveys in winter, spring and summer during 2009 to 2010. Ethnobotanical information was gathered from each site by using a semi-structured questionnaire,
1638 J. Med. Plants Res.
Figure 2. Cutting of trees in the area is a common ecological problem.
Figure 3. Cutting of Acacia modesta for fuel and fodder purposes is common in the area.
and the information about the medicinal uses of the plants was obtained from local experienced people through personal interview. Information about the local uses of the plants as medicinal, fuel wood, timber and fodder etc. were obtained through random sampling by interviews from different walks of life because different age group and gender use these plant for different purposes. Individual questionnaire was filled from plant collectors, housewives, shopkeepers, elders, plant traders and local healers (Hakims), who were the actual users and have a lot of indigenous knowledge about the plants and their traditional uses. The data was classified, tabulated, analyzed and concluded for final report. Plants specimens were collected, dried and identified with the help of local available literature, using the herbarium, Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Pakistan. All plant species were divided into tree, shrubs and herbs, mentioning botanical name, local name, family, parts used, floral period, method of preparation and application.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The investigated area possesses a very rich ethno-botanical heritage in the far plunge area. Even today, the inhabitants are using various plant species for various purposes. In the investigated area, the locals used 161 plants belonging to 136 genera and 57 families. The ethnobotanical important plants included 22 trees, 23 shrubs, 104 herbs, 9 grasses and 3 parasite species. It was documented that the locals used plants for simple or multiple purposes. Most of the plants had multiple uses. These multiple purpose plants included Acacia modesta and Zizyphus maurtiana (10 local uses), A. nilotica, Albizia lebbeck, Dalbergia sissoo, Morus alba, M. nigra,
Khan et al. 1639
Figure 4. Over Grazing has caused Zizyphus maurtiana to assume bushy habitat.
Figure 5. Grazing of trees by goat.
Prosopis farcta and Salvadora oleoides (9 local uses), Capparis decidua, Phoenix dactylifera, Tamarix aphylla, T. decidva and Z. nummularia (8 local uses), Calligonum polygonoides, Gymnosporia royleana and Monotheca buxifolia (7 local uses), Brassica rapa, Cicer arietinum and Eucalyptus lanceolatus (6 local uses). There were 5 reported local uses for Arachis hypogaea, C. spinosa, Chenopodium album, Che. murale, Convolvulus arvensis, Coriandrum sativum, Cucurbita maxima, Cu. pepo, Eruca sativa, Eu. globulus, Melia azedarach, Mentha arvensis, Parkinsonia aculeate, Prosopis juliflora, Punica granatum, Saccharum bengalense, Tribulus terrestris, Vitex trifolia, Withania coagulans and Z. oxyphylla. Our result agrees with Durrani et al. (2009) who reported 72 multi-purpose species in Chilton National Park. Sher et
al. (2011) recorded 124 important plant species from Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Our result is also similar with that of Khan (2007) who reported the important medicinal plant of Tehsil Karak, Khyber Pakhtun Khawa, Pakistan. Plant used as a folk medicinal For curing various diseases, the locals partially depend on the medicinal plants. Each plant has some medicinal value. In the present study, 118 medicinally important plants were reported which make 73.3% of the local plant life.
These folk medicinal plants generally used in the
1640 J. Med. Plants Res.
Figure 6. Drinking water is a serious problem in the area.
Figure 7. Open storage water tank for collection of rain water.
investigated area are A. modesta, A. nilotica, A. lebbeck, Allium cepa, Al. sativum, Aloe barbadensis, Amaranthus viridis, C. decidua, Chenopodium album, Cistanche tubulosa, Citrullus colocynthis, Convolvulus arvensis, C. sativum, Crotalaria medicaginea, Cucurbita maxima, C. pepo, Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Dalbergia sissoo, Fago-nia cretica, G. royleana, Helianthus annus, Heliotropium europaeum, H. strigosum, Hordeum vulgare, Kickxia ramosissima, Lactuca sativa, Launaea procumbens, M. arvensis, Momordica charantia, Monotheca buxifolia, Ocimum basilicum, Orobanche ramose, Peganum harmala, Phoenix dactylifera, Plantago ciliata, P. ovate,
Rhazya stricta, Rumex dentatus, Salvadora oleoides, Tamarix decidva, Trianthema portulacastrum, T. terres-tris, V. trifolia, W. coagulans, W. somnifera and Zizyphus maurtiana (Table 2 and Figure 10).
The commercially significant medicinal plants include A. modesta, C. tubulosa, C. colocynthis, C. medicaginea, F. cretica, H. europaeum, K. ramosissima, M. buxifolia, P. dactylifera, P. harmala, R. stricta, T. terrestris, V. trifolia, W. coagulans, W. somnifera and Z. maurtiana. The result agrees with Sher and Hussain (2009) who reported 50 recipes of medicinal plants belonging to 30 families of Malam Jaba. Hussain et al. (2004, 2005, 2007), Jan et al.
Khan et al. 1641
Figure 8. Soil erosion is common ecological problem in the area. See exposed hard bed rock.
Figure 9. Plant species like Saccharum bengalense is affected by wind erosion in plain
area.
(2010), Sher et al. (2011) and Mahmood et al. (2012) also documented valuable medicinal plants from different parts of the country. Our findings concerning medicinal uses were similar with them. Khan et al. (2011) also documented similar ethnobotanical work from Tehsil Karak. They reported 33 plant species belonging to 18 families of medicinal importance, and some of them have been reported in the present study. They also stated the importance of R. stricta and W. coagulans in the area. Mood (2008) reported 160 species belonging to 128
genera and 37 families from Birjand, located near the Afghanistan border in eastern Iran, of which 40% are used as medicinal plants.
People of the investigated areas are poor and those living in the isolated partition depend on the use of medicinal plants and prepared crude drugs in form of juice, paste, infusion, decoction, water extract and powder pills. Such type of study was also taken by Hussain et al. (2006). Ragunathan and Abey (2009) conducted an ethnomedicinal survey on folk drugs used
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Table 1. Meteorological data of Tehsil Takht-e-Nasratti for the year 2001 to 2010.
Month Temperature (°C) Humidity (%) Rainfall
(mm)
Soil temperature
(°C) average
Wind speed (km/h) Max Min Max Min
January 19.18 4.26 75.80 35.24 27.43 7.03 2.9
February 21.69 7.29 77.39 42.23 37.72 9.14 3.2
March 28.20 12.06 75.38 35.23 37.17 13.89 3.5
April 34.74 17.94 66.12 29.42 36.54 19.02 5.2
May 38.32 22.33 59.66 30.73 31.6 21.87 5.4
June 39.50 25.9 59.96 32.89 74.24 25.78 5.5
July 38.44 25.76 73.33 38.76 121.6 26.77 5.2
August 36.66 25.29 75.68 42.61 108.3 26.37 4.1
September 35.47 21.95 77.21 39.29 61.58 23.49 3.7
October 32.33 16.79 71.55 35.51 15.13 20.09 3.5
November 26.71 10.01 71.56 36.66 5.80 14.10 3.2
December 21.93 5.67 75.20 35.90 15.38 8.96 3.1
Mean 31.1 16.27 71.57 36.21 47.71 18.04 4.04
Source: Agricultural Research Farm Ahmad Wala Karak. Table 2. Ethnobotanical profile of plant species of Tehsil Takht-e-Nasratti, District Karak.
S/N Species Medicinal Fodder Fuel Timber vegetable Veterinary Honey bee
by different ethnic groups in Bahirdar Zuria district northwestern Ethiopia. Most of the herbal remedies were given in the form of fresh juice. In the investigated area, the people used the plants for different medicinal purposes like anthelmintic problems, digestive problems, jaundice, respiratory ailments, urinary diseases, skin diseases and diabetes. Ullah et al. (2010) documented
the traditional knowledge of 34 medicinal plant species used in Darra Adam Khel North west frontier (NWFP) Pakistan which also supported our findings. Rethy et al. (2010) described 18 species for curing diseases from Dehang-Debang Biosphere Reserve of Upper Siang district with similar result. Species of Withania such as W. coagulans and W. somnifera had multiple medicinal
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Uses Figure 10. Ethnobotanical profile of plant species of Tehsil Takth-e-Nasrati, District Karak.
Figure 11. Uprooting of medicinal plant that is. Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook. f.
values. Our results agree with Khan et al. (2011) who reported uses of Withania as folk therapeutic plants in southern area of Pakistan. Our result agrees with Amiri et al. (2012) who documented the ethnobotanical potential of 52 plants species from Zangelanlo District, Northeast Iran with similar results. In the investigated area, the basic health facilities were rare. The locals depend on traditional uses of folk medicinal plants. During investi-gation, it was observed that the elders, mostly the women
had more information about traditional exercises of plant species. The locals collected plant species and sold them (Figure 11). Such people have prosperous knowledge in therapeutic health problems through plants. The investi-gated area is floristically prosperous and there had also special medicinal plants. The locals of the area wish that if government should support them financially for cul-tivation of medicinal plants, it will bring green revolution and help in national economy.
Fodder species
The result showed that there are 114 (70.81%) plant species being used as fodder for grazing animals, which includes goat, sheep and cattle. The important fodder species included A. modesta, A. nilotica, Achyranthus aspera, Aerua persica, Arachis hypogaea, Astragalus psilocentros, Avena sativa, Cenchrus biflorus, C. ciliaris, Cicer arietinum, C. arvensis, C. pluricaulis, Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Cynodon dactylon, Dalbergia sissoo, Eragrostis poaoides, Eruca sativa, Euphorbia prostrata, Fagonia cretica, Gymnosporia royleana, H. europaeum, Hordeum vulgare, Launaea procumbens, Melia azeda-rach, Morus alba, M. nigra, Pennisetum typhoideum, Prosopis farcta, Punica granatum, Salvadora oleoides, Tamarix aphylla, Tribulus terrestris, Trifolium alexandrianum, T. aestivum, Vicia sativa, Zea mays, Z. maurtiana and Z. nummularia (Table 2 and Figure 10).
Grasses and herbaceous plants are abundant in early winter. The people harvest the grasses for storage and later usage during winter. A number of fodder species are valued which are preferred by goat, sheep and cattle due to high nutritive values. The highly valued fodder species used in winter season include A. modesta, A. psilocin-tros, A. sativa, C. ciliaris, C. arvensis, C. jwarancusa, C. dactylon, E. poaoides, E. prostrata, H. europaeum, P. farcta, P. granatum, S. oleoides, V. sativa, Z. maurtiana and Z. nummularia. Most of fodder plants belonged to family Poaceae. Our finding agrees with Hussain et al. (1995) who stated that C. arvensis is used as fodder in Swat. It is also reported in the study area and has similar uses. Ibrar et al. (2007) recorded 37 forage species from Ranyal hill, District Shangla. Dilshad et al. (2009) reported 25 fodder species similar to the current study used for some cattle diseases. Sardar and Khan (2009) also recorded many fodder species. Barkatullah et al. (2009) mentioned 18 fodder or forage species from Charkotli Hills, Batkhela District. All the above researchers had mentioned the same fodder species but only some of them were used in the investigated area. Sher et al. (2011) recorded 66 fodder plant species from Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Fuel wood species
The result reveled that the locals cut and collect 43 species (26.7%) including 22 tree, 15 shrub and 6 herb species for fuel purposes. These plants are harshly used by the locals due to lack of gas facility and some other alternate resources. The plant species used as fuel included A. modesta, A. nilotica, A. persica, A. lebbeck, Alhagi maurorum, A, psilocentros, Brassica rapa, Calligo-num polygonoides, Calotropis procera, Capparis decidua, C. spinosa, C. jwarancusa, Dalbergia sissoo, Dodonaea viscosa, E. globulus, E. lanceolatus, G. royleana, Monotheca buxifolia, M. alba, M. nigra, Otostegia limbata,
Khan et al. 1647 P. aculeate, P. typhoideum, Periploca aphylla, P. dactylifera, Phragmites karka, Prosopis farcta, P. juliflora, P. granatum, Rhazya stricta, Ricinus communis, Saccharum bengalense, S. spontaneum, S. oleoides, T. aphylla, T. decidva, V. trifolia, W. coagulans, Z. maurtiana, Z. nummularia and Z. oxyphylla (Table 2 and Figure 10). These plant species have high fuel value and are therefore preferred.
In winter, temperature drops to low level in the area and life activities become limited to home. The locals have sorted the plant species as fuel on the basis of easy availability and heat value. They preferred those species which have high heat value, burn for longer time and produce less smoke such as A. modesta, A. nilotica, A. lebbeck, D. sissoo, M. alba, M. nigra, P. farcta, T. aphylla, T. decidva and Z. maurtiana. Sher et al. (2011) recorded 51 fuel wood species from Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Some people smuggled plant species and cut them ruthlessly due to which the species become lost in the mountain areas. In the hilly areas, more than 80% of the people depend upon surrounding hills for fuel plants collection. Deka et al. (2007) reported 10 indigenous fuel wood species.
According to Scurlock and Hall (1990), fuel wood species is the major source for three quarters of the world population who live in developing countries. Nowadays, in the innovation in science and production of new resources of fuel energy, plants still remain key foundation of fuel and energy in the developing countries, including Pakistan. The daily ramble in modern fuel, low production, lack of accessibility might be causes of utilization of plants as a fuel. Siddique and Ayaz (1997) stated that sub standard of living and low revenue forced the people to rely on traditional uses; this is supported by the present study. The results showed that 43 plants were being used as fuel wood in the area, which included herb, shrub and tree species. Toledo (1996) reported 80 plant species and stated that 20 species of trees were used as fuel wood by the local people. Singh and Pandey (1998) stated that due to easily availability and access to plant species in Rajistan, India, the locals used more than 60 plant species for burning purposes. All these statements agree with our findings because plant species are still easily and freely available in the investigated area.
Timber wood species Timber wood species is the key source of making livelihood in the investigated area. All construction assets are completed from plant resources. In the present study, it was seen that timber wood was obtained from 16 (9.94%) species which includes A. modesta, A. nilotica, A. lebbeck, D. sissoo, E. globulus, E. lanceolatus, G. royleana, M. alba, M. nigra, P. aculeate, P. dactylifera, P. farcta, S. oleoides, T. aphylla, T. decidva and Z. maurtiana (Table 2 and Figure 10).
1648 J. Med. Plants Res.
Since long time, wood is used for construction by human being. Although in many cases, synthetic materials industries are replacing wood, yet in the investigated area, wood is easily available and is an economical resource of construction. The quality of timer wood species varies due to strength, durability, appearance, density and structure. Traditional identifi-cation of timber wood had various physical properties like color, fragrance and wood’s appearance. The present study recorded 16 plant species as cited above on the basis of people uses. Some timber species like A. nilotica, D. sissoo, Z. maurtiana, P. farcta and M. alba are used commonly in the area. Our result is similar with Sher et al. (2011) who recorded 21 timber species from Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Vegetable species 23 wild species, as well as cultivated, were used as vegetables (14.3 %) by the locals in the area and they include Abelmoschus esculentus, A. cepa, A. sativum, Amaranthus viridis, B. rapa, C. annum, C. album, C. murale, C. arietinum, C. arvensis, C. sativum, Cucurbita maxima, C. pepo, Daucus carota, E. sativa, L. sativa, Lactuca serriola, Lens culinaris, Luffa acutangula, L. aegyptiaca, Mentha arvensis, Raphanus sativus and Spinacia oleracea (Table 2 and Figure 10). Vegetables form an integral part of the economy and culture. There are a variety of cooking species. The leaves, especially the young shoot of wild plants are used as vegetable including A. viridis, C. album, C. murale C. arvensis and S. oleracea. These vegetables are generally called saag and are very delicious. The younger generation is unaware and had poor awareness about wild vegetables plant species, so it is important to save these data of traditional delicious food. Similar works were reported by Hamayun (2005) that supported the present findings.
In some parts of the investigated area, the regularly cultivated plants including A. esculentus, A. cepa, A. sativum, B. rapa, C. annum, C. arietinum, C. sativum, C. maxima, C. pepo, Daucus carota, E. sativa, L. sativa, L. serriola, L. culinaris, L. acutangula, L. aegyptiaca, Mentha arvensis and R. sativus. Our result is similar with Sher et al. (2011) who recorded 36 vegetable/pot-herb species. C. arietinum and B. rapa leaves are boiled and eaten with P. typhoideum (Bajra) bread and shoomley. This is special food of old and a tradition of the area, especially in winter season. Our result agrees with the Durrani et al. (2009), Razaq et al. (2010), Badshah and Hussain (2011), Hazrat et al. (2011) and Sher et al. (2011) who had similar results. Plants used as veterinary medicines The local used 50 (31.06%) plant species in which 32
herb, 10 shrub and 8 tree species were used for curing different diseases of animals. Majority of species are used for curing stomach disorders. These plants include both wild and cultivated ones. They include A. modesta, Albizia lebbeck, Aloe barbadensis, Boerhaavia diffusa, B. rapa, C. polygonoides, C. decidua, C. album, Chenopodium murale, Citrullus colocynthis, C. arvensis, C. sativum, C. jwarancusa, D. sissoo, E. sativa, H. europaeum, Kickxia ramosissima, Launaea procumbens, M. arvensis, O. basilicum, Peganum harmala, Rhazya stricta, R. dentatus, Saccharum bengalense, Salvadora oleoides, Sesamum indicum, Solanum incanum, Sonchus asper, T. aphylla, T. decidva, Taraxacum officinale, Tribulus terrestris, Trifolium alexandrianum, V. sativa, Vitex negundo, V. trifolia, W. coagulans, W. somnifera, Z. maurtiana and Z. nummularia (Table 2 and Figure 10).
Tabuti et al. (2003) documented veterinary medicine plants from Uganda used for different diseases of livestock. Some of the plant species with similar uses are the same as reported by the present study. For making easy life, the locals generally rely on their domestic animals. In the grazing animals, especially in goats and sheep, the mouth and foot diseases are very common. The locals used fluid of R. stricta leaves for their treatment. Similarly, cutting of animals’ body due to high weight, especially in donkey and camel, is treated with the ash of T. aphylla leaves. Such type of study was also done by Kamatenesi-Mugisha et al. (2006), Lindsey et al. (2006), Bonet and Valles (2007), Ajaib et al. (2010), Yousifzai et al. (2010) and Qureshi et al. (2011) who reported the plants used in veterinary medicines. The current study documented the exploitation of plant life knowledge resting in the area. This is the first effort to clarify and search the ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in the area. This practice is continuing since long ago. It is a dire need to preserve the knowledge. Honey bee plants Honey production was widespread in the investigated area. It is a major source of income in the area. In the investigated area, 90 honeybee plant species including 19 tree, 15 shrub and 56 herb species were present. The most important indigenous flora for honey production includes A. esculentus, A. modesta, A. nilotica, A. aspera, A. lebbeck, A. viridis, A. hypogaea, A. psilocentros, A. sativa, B. rapa, C. arvenis, C. decidua, C. spinosa, Carthamus oxycantha, Cassia angustifolia, C. album, C. murale, Cicer arietinum, C. colocynthis, C. arvensis, C. pluricaulis, C. sativum, C. maxima, C. pepo, C. rotundus, C. scarlosus, D. sissoo, D. carota, R. stricta, R. indica, R. dentatus, S. oleoides, S. moorcroftiana, S. indicum, S. surattense, T. decidva, T. officinale, T. terrestris, T. alexandrianum, V. negundo, V. trifolia, W. coagulans, W. somnifera, Z. maurtiana and Z. oxyphylla (Table 2 and Figure 10).
In Muslim society, honey is very consecrated and used as a self medicine. Apiculture is a source of revenue of the inhabitants of the area. In the investigated area, it is a common and valuable practice. It plays an important role in the economy of the inhabitants. It is common due to the important honey bee flora. The inhabitants nurture the honey bee as a source of food and income. Ber honey is very popular in the area. Due to the fine quality of Ber honey, it is exported to markets at international level. Most of the honey entrepreneurs producing Ber honey are outsiders. They sell it for Rs. 1000 to 1500/kg, depending upon the quality which depends on flowers’ nature, collection time and seasons of the year. Rehman (1997) recorded 130 honeybee plant species from Peshawar and adjoining area. Zabihullah et al. (2006) reported 5 species.
Honey production is relatively high and people focus on using it as a permanent income source. The production of wild honey nurtured in farms has more value and is sold 10 to 20 times more expensive than domesticated bees’ honey. The prices of honey vary in diverse seasons of the year. Its productivity depends on the availability of flowers. According to Iqbal and Hamayun (2003), 31 honeybee plant species were found in Kindukush Kimalayan region Malam Jaba. Sher et al. (2011) reported 9 honeybee plant species from Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. This small scale industry needs to present scientific and technical sources for the locals to improve the quality of honey and health conditions of bees. The following suggestion should be given to improve the quality, quantity and health of honey and honeybees. 1. The hives should be formed in open places; 2. The wooden boxes should be used; 3. The honey should be extracted in right time in right place; 4. The marketing method, packing and collection of honey should be improved. Fruit yielding plants The people of the area get fruit from 33 (20.49%) species including 13 trees, 8 shrubs and 12 herbs. Some of the fruits are also exported to the various parts of the country. Among them, there are 18 (54.55%) wild and 15 (45.45%) cultivated plants; they include A. modesta, A. nilotica, A. lebbeck, A. hypogaea, C. decidua, C. spinosa, C. annum, C. angustifolia, C. arietinum, C. colocynthis, C. maxima, C. pepo, D. sissoo, L. acutangula, L. aegyptiaca, L. esculentum, Monotheca buxifolia, M. alba, M. nigra, Peganum harmala, P. dactylifera, P. farcta, P. granatum, T. terrestris, T. aestivum, V. vinifera, V. negundo, V. trifolia, W. coagulans, W. somnifera, Z. maurtiana, Z. nummularia and Z. oxyphylla (Table 2 and Figure 10). In the investigated area, the locals do not
Khan et al. 1649 know proper processing, collection and packing of these precious fruits, and there is urgent need to preserve the wild species. Moreover, there is also need to develop grafting and budding in Z. maurtiana. It is essential to protect these plant species and to improve its nurturing. Lubna (2001) stated that forests covered 4.8% area of land in Pakistan. Ali and Tor (2004) reported that forest property is under stress from successive land degrada-tion and deforestation. Ibrar et al. (2007) reported 18 edible species from Ranyal Hill, Shangla. Sher and Al-Yemni (2011) reported 14 wild fruit species from higher altitude coniferous forest of Malam Jaba, Swat. Our result is similar with the above sited work.
Plants used for fencing field
Locals of the area protect their fields and crops by fencing the borders by using species such as A. modesta, A. nilotica, C. polygonoides, C. decidua, E. globulus, E. lanceolatus, M. alba, M. nigra, Opuntia ficus indica, Parkinsonia aculeate, P. dactylifera, P. karka, P. farcta, P. juliflora, S. bengalense, S. spontaneum, S. oleoides, Z. maurtiana and Z. nummularia (Table 2 and Figure 10). Mostly, spiny and bush making species are chosen. This type of fencing materials is economical and lasts long. Our results are similar with those of Zabihullah et al. (2006), Ibrar et al. (2007), Barkatullah et al. (2009), Durrani et al. (2009), Sher et al. (2011) and Sher and Al-Yemni (2011) who reported similar use of plants from other parts of the country. Field fencing is common near villages to protect successively their field from shortcut path and grazing.
Species used for making agricultural appliances Agriculture is the back bone of the area. The locals have small farmlands which are cultivated using indigenous agricultural tools. They use camel, bullocks and donkey to plough their fields. Various agriculturists’ tools are made of A. modesta, A. nilotica, A. lebbeck, C. polygonoi-des, C. decidua, D. sissoo, G. royleana, M. buxifolia, M. alba, M. nigra, P. farcta, P. juliflora, S. oleoides, T. aphylla, T. decidva, Z. maurtiana and Z. nummularia (Table 2 and Figure 10). Some of the tools used in agriculture practices are shovels, rakes, harrows, hoe, scythe and trowel, and larger equipment such as larger racks and plough that are either drawn by human or animals. Zabihullah et al. (2006), Ibrar et al. (2007), Durrani et al. (2009), Sher et al. (2011) and Sher and AlYemni (2011) had also reported plants used in making agricultural tools from various parts of the country. For traditional agriculture uses, it is common to have wooden tools or partly wooden tools. The wood may differ in different parts of the country for the same use. The wood of Z. maurtiana is used for making handles and plough of axes.
1650 J. Med. Plants Res. Furniture plants Locally, furniture is made from 18 (11.18%) plant species. The valued species for making furniture are A. modesta, A. nilotica, A. lebbeck, D. sissoo, E. lanceolatus, E. helioscopia, G. royleana, M. azedarach, M. buxifolia, M. alba, M. nigra, P. aculeate, P. farcta, S. oleoides, T. aphylla, T. decidva and Z. maurtiana. Furniture made in this area is used only for local people’s requirements (Table 2 and Figure 10). Our findings agrees with Durrani et al. (2009), Sher et al. (2011), Sher and Al-yemni (2011) who documented similar plant uses from different parts of the area. Health authorities in Pakistan were not able to provide services to greater part of the rural population. According to World Health Organization (WHO) reports, more than 80% of Asia’s population could not afford formal health care facilities and therefore relies on wild medicinal plant species owing to their cultural familiarity, easy access, simple use and effectiveness (Anonymous, 2008). Many of the important medicinal plants were sold at higher prices in the market. Most of the plants used by the local people were not conserved but were over exploited. CONCLUSION The present study showed that the people of the area possess good knowledge of herbal drugs but as people are going to modernization; their knowledge of traditional uses of plants may be lost in due course. The investigated area has a rich diversity of medicinal plants and provides a conducive habitat and ideal conditions for their growth. Native healers should be encouraged to accurately share their knowledge with others. Such studies may also provide some information to biochemist and pharmacologist in screening of individual species and in rapid assessing of phytochemical constituent and bioanalysis for authentic treatment of various diseases. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The paper is a fraction of PhD thesis published as a mandatory towards the award of PhD degree. Authors are grateful to the local people of area who have revealed the precious information about plant species and assistance. We cannot forget all our class fellows and friends for all support they accorded us during the period we carried out this study. REFERENCES Ajaib M, Khan ZD, Khan N, Wahab M (2010). Ethnobotanical studies on
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