EUN_Master's Treatise_FINAL

Mother Hens and Queen Bees 1

Mother Hens and Queen Bees:

The Impact of Mentorship on Women Entering the Workplace

Kat Eun

A treatise submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

Master of Science in Applied Psychology

University of Southern California

Dr. Ellen Leggett and Dr. Luke Thelen

May 14, 2015


Abstract

Although women hold half of management/professional positions in the United States,

they are but a mere 5% of the nation’s top earners, 15% of board members, 8% of the highest

titles, 2% of CEOs, and 17% of U.S. Congress seats (Hoyt, Simon, & Reid, 2009). Research has

shown that organizational leadership is overwhelmingly male-dominated, associated with

“masculine” characteristics and continuing to be an area in which being a woman is often a

disadvantage (Barreto, Ryan, & Schmitt, 2009). With fewer female leader role models than

males, the scarcity of women in leadership may send the subliminal message to women that there

is no place for them there—whether it be based on a lack of competence or a societal construct

(McDorman, 1998). Furthermore, stereotypes are powerful constructs in threatening a woman’s

sense of self-efficacy, locus of control and confidence, ultimately affecting her workplace

expectations and performance. Various studies have demonstrated support for Albert Bandura’s

social learning theory (1977), which states that behaviors are learned by watching others,

including what we see in the media (Anderson, de Brujin, Angus, Gordon, & Hastings, 2009).

The present study investigated the role that media portrayals of women in mentoring roles may

have on generalized self-efficacy and internal locus of control in terms of their professional

career growth by observing the impact that media and mentorship have on women. Female

participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions in which they saw either a positive

or negative portrayal of female-to-female mentorship. The findings suggest that both media and

mentorship are correlated with attitudes of self-efficacy and locus of control, respectively. These

results are critical to bring to light in understanding how to better prepare women to enter the

workplace.


Stereotype Threat: Overview

Stereotype threat is a phenomenon that occurs when one identifies with a certain group

that has negative stigma attached to it, thus increasing their risk of fulfilling that stereotype

(Steele & Aronson, 1995). Much like the self-fulfilling prophecy has shown that students who

are expected to excel are more likely to succeed academically, stereotype threat places a

subliminal constraint on those who are perceived as inferior and having less potential. Stereotype

threat occurs because the victim is aware of how the group they identify with is being targeted.

In order to illustrate the power of stereotyping, a group of researchers ran an experiment

on 61 (30 men, 31 women) University of Waterloo undergraduates, in which participants were

randomly assigned to watch a commercial that portrayed either gender-neutral or gender-

stereotypic material (Davies, Spencer, & Steele, 2005). They were then asked to rate their degree

of interest in becoming a leader or problem-solver in an upcoming group task. Although the male

participants showed no preference in interest for either condition, the female participants did

show a difference. Those who watched the gender-neutral commercial preferred to take on a

leadership role, whereas those who watched the gender-stereotypic commercial strongly

preferred to be a problem-solver.

These commercials all had previously aired on major U.S. and Canada broadcasts,

suggesting that the results found in the laboratory study may have been replicated on a much

larger scale to a television audience. Unfortunately, the real world does not offer a neutral

condition in which people are immune to certain types of advertisements like an experiment

conducted in a laboratory setting. From billboards and television networks to the music on the

radio, we are bombarded with unfiltered content. Among the most commonly stereotyped groups

are racial minorities and gender (Entman & Rojecki, 2000).


Effects on Perception of Women in the Workplace

Gender roles have impacted the way humanity functions since the beginning of time.

From an evolutionary standpoint, women—being the natural childbearers— were forced into

domesticated roles (Puts, Hodges, Cárdenas, & Gaulin, 2007). Men, on the other hand, trained

their bodies to take on the roles of hunter, protector and provider of the family (Paustian-

Underdahl, Walker, & Woehr, 2014). Unfortunately, the stereotypes against women don’t end

there. The media plays a powerful role in perpetuating and expanding on these stereotypes as

well.

A recent report released by The Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media surveyed the

role of women in popular films across 11 countries (Smith, Choueiti, & Pieper, 2014). Taking

into account the percentage of women in each respective country, the ratios of women to men

represented in films were severely imbalanced. Based on the study, men made up approximately

75% of leading characters in American films. If one were to assume the gender makeup of

America based on this representation, one would conclude that men make up approximately 75%

of the population. In reality, the ratio of men to women is nearly 1:1 (Smith, Choueiti, & Pieper,

2014).

Not only did the survey report that females have fewer roles in film in general, but they

were also less likely than men to play characters with professional careers (e.g., politicians,

professors, doctors). Several areas in the film industry were researched to determine the ratio of

men to women. Among the categories that were researched, men outnumbered women in all of

them. These included roles from writers, producers, directors, actors, and more.


Although the vast underrepresentation of women in film does not reflect the world’s real

gender ratio, there is a parallel with the reality of leadership in the workplace. A recent survey

shows that although women hold 50% of management/professional positions, they are but a mere

5% of the nation’s top earners, 15% of board members, 8% of the highest titles, 2% of CEOs,

and 17% U.S. Congress seats (Hoyt, Simon, & Reid, 2009). At a young age, children pick up on

these cues, quickly learning what is considered masculine and feminine, and are inherently

taught to fulfill the appropriate characteristics set out for them (Brasted, 2010). This becomes a

problem when people feel restricted to act, think, or feel certain ways that do not come naturally

for them. It can also cause others to look down on them, viewing them as abnormal or deviant.

Another study orchestrated by Ely (1994) sought to reveal the effect of women in

leadership on lower-level female employees. Two groups were observed: male-dominated

business firms and firms in which female leaders were more common. A total of 30 women (15

from each group) who had entered the firm at low positions participated in a series of in-depth

interviews and questionnaires. Through a combination of qualitative and quantitative research,

the interviewer developed a greater understanding of their workplace relationships and how they

viewed other women in upper-level positions.

The results of the study showed a difference in perspectives between the women in male-

dominated business firms and those in firms where female leaders were more common. Those in

male-dominated business firms were more likely to view women in leadership in one of two

negative lights. These leaders were criticized for being weak and cowardly, oft described as

having the tendency to “shed their feminine identity” and use their sexual appeal to seduce their

way to the top. Otherwise, they were perceived as too masculine, having their success attributed

to manipulative tactics rather than being earned through hard work. As long as they were in a


male-dominated environment, they were not received positively. In the firms with more female

leaders, however, the entry-level women perceived them as role models and peers. The female

leaders were described as supportive, down-to-earth allies.

Although somewhat dated, this study implies that when the number of women in

leadership is scarce, the leader role is believed to be unusual and, therefore, the women are likely

to be perceived as taking unusual measures to attain higher positions. On the other hand,

presenting women in leadership as a social norm could make women less likely to question it and

more likely to follow the trend. Social norms— behaviors that are deemed acceptable by

society— have shown strong effects in being able to predict behavior. There is a long history of

psychology research indicating that the desire to conform has strong effects on the decisions we

make (Asch, 1955). When women in leadership are portrayed as a common norm, however, their

fellow women may perceive them as warm and competent figures (Ely, 1994).

Warmth and competence are two dimensions often used regarding gender roles. De

Lemus, Moya, Lupianez, and Bukowski (2014) believe these two constructs have been shown to

translate into workplace settings. While an office is considered a place for businesses, a kitchen

is associated with hospitality. Throughout the course of history, women have seemingly taken

ownership of the kitchen, marking them with warmth. This has put women at a disadvantage

when attempting to move into the workplace—representative of competence— and work their

way up their corporate ladder.

Such an unbalanced expectation of what to expect from men and women may create a

double-bind dilemma for women in male-dominated organizations. When presented as too

passive or meek, women may be seen as weak and incompetent and their feminineness is

emphasized (Denissen, 2010). Presented as too powerful, however, women may be perceived as


overly authoritative, bossy, and masculine. Based on data collected from in-depth interviews, this

study revealed that women were likely to adopt the gender identity that was most advantageous

for each situation. This ostensible need to constantly adapt and fulfill a given role based on

benefit is undoubtedly tiresome and poses a tremendous threat to the potential heights women

can reach, ultimately impacting businesses.

A particularly relevant research study showed that racial diversity enhanced productivity

among bank firms, adding value to competitive advantage by generating fresh ideas and

stimulating alternative viewpoints (Richard, 2000). The same implications may be true for

gender diversity. Of course, businesses should not hire women simply for the sake of increasing

diversity; they should hire women because they are just as competent as men while offering their

own unique perspectives.

Women in Leadership

Unfortunately, women in leadership have come to be associated with one of two

leadership styles: the Queen Bee or the Mother Hen. The Queen Bee syndrome, coined in the

1970s, occurs when women in high-management positions prevent other women from climbing

the corporate ladder in order that they might maintain control of their own power (Ellemers, Van

den Heuvel, de Gilder, Maass, & Bonvini, 2004). Research studying the Queen Bee syndrome

has narrowed the character down to three attributes. Queen Bees are less supportive of other

women’s advancement (Garcia-Retamero & Lopez-Zafra, 2006), express more gender-bias

perceptions (Ellemers, Van Den Heuvel, De Gilder, Maass, & Bonvini, 2004), and are less

supportive of equal-opportunity programs in organizations (Ng & Chiu, 2001). Unfortunately,

such women— who have fought relentlessly to earn the positions they hold today— may now be


playing a part in perpetuating the same restraints placed on other women whose shoes they once

filled.

Research has also revealed another type of female leader—the Mother Hen. Unlike

Queen Bees, Mother Hens take on the mentorship role of investing in developing the talent of

and providing support to other women. A case study conducted in 2010 illustrated the benefits of

such a relationship by providing a Mother Hen mentor to a new female faculty member in an

academic setting (Searby & Collins, 2010). The mentor provided encouragement (e.g.,

“Welcome, colleague!”) and shared candidly on what to expect in regards to promotions, tenure,

department politics, etc. Both women were instructed to record their thoughts and reactions in a

journal. Overall, both roles reported enjoying the experience. The mentee expressed feeling

supported in competence and confidence throughout the process, while the mentor expressed the

reward of being able to learn from each other and discuss concerns freely. According to these

findings, a simple mentor-mentee partnership can make a world of difference for a women

transitioning into a new role.

To gain a better understanding of what influences women to become Mother Hens, a

study conducted by Catalyst (2012) revealed that most have received support from other women

in the past and that they are proactive in their own career advancement. These findings suggest a

number of things. First, receiving career support may increase one’s likelihood of paying it

forward and mentoring others in the future. Another explanation for their guidance may be that

they have experienced what it’s like to succeed and therefore know how to properly guide and

support others who are going through a similar process. Lastly, it is also possible that those who

experienced working under a Queen Bee felt deterred in their own advancement and now feel

inspired to help others avoid the restraints they felt.


Women Empowering Women

Just as research suggests that activating stereotype threat can hinder an individual’s

performance, there is also research to support that possessing certain characteristics can increase

performance. Judge and Bono (2001) conducted a meta-analysis on the literature surrounding the

relationship between personality traits and job performance and pinpointed four traits that have

yielded consistent effects. These four traits are self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy (feeling of

competence to accomplish certain tasks), locus of control (concept of having power over your

circumstances), and emotional stability. By threatening women’s self-concept, stereotypes affect

their workplace expectations and, ultimately, performance (Roberson & Kulik, 2007). While

exposure to stereotype threat puts certain groups at risk of failure by putting limits on their

potential, the fostering of these four characteristics may play a role in combatting the threat.

There is reason to believe that one’s career decision-making self-efficacy (CDMSE) is

related to one’s locus of control. Based on Bandura’s (1977) theory of self-efficacy, which states

a relationship between one’s efficacy expectations and confidence in successfully mastering

certain tasks, Taylor & Popma (1990) conducted a study to observe how career decisions are

made from a self-efficacy perspective. A total of 407 college students (203 female, 204 male)

participated in a series of five questionnaires, including the CDMSE test, the Occupational Self-

Efficacy Scale (OSES), the Internal-External Scale, the Career Salience Questionnaire (CSQ),

and the Career Decision Scale (CDS). The results supported a correlation between one’s locus of

control and confidence in career decision-making tasks. Additionally, research has shown that

those with an internal locus of control– that is, they feel in control of their own destiny rather


than their fate being largely determined by external forces— tend to be happier, less depressed,

and less stressed (Judge & Bono, 2001).

A laboratory study was designed to identify the specific factors that play a role in

exacerbating or reducing the effects on job performance and satisfaction (Stangor, Carr, &

Kiang, 1998). Fifty-six female undergraduates were given seven minutes to complete three word

puzzles. After a four-minute buffer period, the experimenter checked their results and gave either

ambiguous (“You did well on some aspects and not so well on others”) or positive (“You did

very well on all aspects of the task”) feedback. Those who received ambiguous feedback rated

their initial performance significantly lower than their actual performance, whereas those who

received positive feedback predicted their performance as being better. The results supported the

idea that stereotype threat can be buffered if the individual is affirmed in their abilities.

Eliminating all potentially threatening elements is impossible, but creating identity-safe

environments could reduce risk of experiencing stereotype. The key here, however, is providing

constructive feedback that is accurate so that the recipients are able to learn.

In another study on reducing stereotyping, a group of researchers observed 116 (58 male,

58 female) undergraduates at the University of Waterloo to determine how leadership is

impacted by commercials (Davies, Spencer, & Steele, 2005). They sought to measure how

watching gender-stereotyped or gender-neutral commercials affected one’s desire to take on a

role of leader or follower. After watching the gender-stereotypic commercials, women reported

that they strongly preferred taking on a follower role and had little interest in being a leader.

When the same commercials were accompanied by an identity-safe phrase (e.g., “Research has

revealed absolutely no gender differences in either ability on this particular task”), however, this

effect was erased and neither the leader nor the follower roles were significantly preferred over


the other. This finding illustrates the power of words and the impact that outside influences have

on one’s self-efficacy.

In 1961, Albert Bandura published a study that supported his Social Learning Theory,

stating that behavior is learned by watching how others act. The experiment tested 72 young

boys and girls who were divided equally into three conditions: aggressive role model, non-

aggressive role model, and a control group. After controlling for pre-experimental aggressive

behavior, the results indicated that children assigned to watch the aggressive model displayed

more aggressive behavior than those in the other two conditions. The idea here is that people

mirror what they see—whether consciously or not. A very large literature in psychology has

affirmed the importance of social learning theory on aggression, specifically examining the role

of aggression in television and film and their effect on aggression in children’s behavior

(Freedman, 2003; Gentile & Bushman, 2012; Anderson & Dill, 2000).

With all these research implications in mind, the present[ study sought to look more

closely at the relationships among media, mentorship, self-efficacy and internal locus of control.

Can one’s self-esteem and internal locus of control be impacted by the media’s depiction of

mentors’ conduct? Can even short media exposures yield positive or negative effects on the

audience? Can one’s prior experience with mentorship serve as a buffer to the negative examples

they see in the media?

The present study observed the differences in impact that media depictions of Queen

Bees and Mother Hens have on women’s locus of control and self-efficacy in order to answer

these questions. These two measures were chosen based on previous research finding a

correlation between them and workplace performance (Judge & Bono, 2001). Additionally, this


study explored women’s general perceptions of mentoring, their previous experiences with

mentors and their expectations for what a good mentor looks like.

There were three hypotheses for this study. First, that participants who see positive

Mother Hen (MH) mentoring behavior modeled will have higher means of self-efficacy, locus of

control and more positive reactions to the video than those in the Queen Bee (QB) negative

mentoring condition. Second, it was also possible that women who had more positive

experiences working with mentors would report higher levels of self-efficacy and locus of

control than those with prior negative experience working with mentors. The third hypothesis

was that those in the Mother Hen condition who expressed personal experiences that resonated

positively with the video would report higher means of self-efficacy and locus of control than

those in the QB condition who reported having prior personal experiences that resonated with the

video they saw.

Methods

Participants Female participants were recruited through online posts, word-of-mouth, and the

Department of Psychology’s undergraduate subject pool at the University of Southern California.

A range of websites were used to advertise the study, including the University of Southern

California’s student portal, and various social media sites, such as Facebook, LinkedIn and

Twitter. All participants were asked to fill out a screening questionnaire at the beginning of the

survey to determine whether or not they matched the targeted subject population. This was done

in order to ensure that previous work experience, language barriers, gender factors and working


with minors did not threaten the validity of the study. Participants were required to meet the

following criteria:

• Female • Does not currently hold a full-time job • Intends to hold a full-time job within the next two years • At least 18 years old • Working proficiency of the English language

Participation in this study was completely voluntary and offered no proposed benefits for

the participants. All responses were kept anonymous in confidentiality and no identifiable

information was collected. The study recruited a total of 137 participants who matched the above

criteria and completed the survey in its entirety. Of the total, 69 were randomly assigned to the

Mother Hen (MH) condition and 68 were randomly assigned to the Queen Bee (QB) condition.

Dependent on which condition they were assigned to, participants watched a popular video clip

that depicted the particular mentorship style.

Design

The study was designed and made available using Qualtrics online survey software. Each

participant underwent an identical procedure except for the video they were given to watch.

Participants were randomly assigned to watch one of two videos. Each video clip was taken from

popular media and selected by the researcher to be representative of Queen Bees or Mother Hens

in a job or performance-related setting. Participants were only allowed to watch the video once.

Immediately afterward, they were asked to fill out two surveys, for which they were allowed to

skip any question they do not wish to answer. The surveys were followed by a demographic

questionnaire and short debrief explaining the purpose of the study (Figure A-7, Figure A-8).


Materials

MH Video. The positive video clip was 3 minutes and 23 seconds long. It contained short

clips from the television shows “Parks and Recreation” and “Nashville,” in addition to a scene

from the movie The Princess Diaries 2. The video clips depict three different women’s

relationships with a supervisor figure they work with. Each of them face confusion and pressure,

but they have a fellow female they trust to guide and encourage them in their respective

situations.

• “Parks and Recreation” (television)

Characters:

Leslie: female director of city’s parks & recreation department

Grant: male politician assisting Michelle Obama with her campaigns; encouraging

Leslie to work on Michelle Obama’s Midwest bureau national parks campaign

Michelle Obama: herself

o Leslie is starstruck by networking with politicians

o Grant encourages Leslie to see them as peers rather than stars; reminds her that she

must make a decision quickly and to seize the opportunity

o Leslie admits she’s struggling with leaving her old job

o Michelle Obama enters

o Leslie is starstruck once again and loses her composure

o Obama encourages Leslie to come work for her

• “Nashville” (television)

Characters:

Juliette: female singer who is struggling with writing new songs and being pregnant


Rayna: female record label founder/president

o Juliette approaches Rayna about her new songs

o Rayna tells Juliette the songs are not her best work

o Juliette begins ranting about how her personal struggles are limiting her work

performance

o Rayna encourages Juliette to write about her reality because that will produce better

songs and tells her that taking care of herself is the most important thing

• The Princess Diaries 2

Characters:

Mia: female princess

Queen: Mia’s grandmother

o Mia is panicking about whether or not to get married as a duty to her country

o Queen finds her and expresses how following the rules has prevented her from living

life to the fullest; encourages Mia to follow her heart

o Still confused and on the verge of tears, Mia embraces the Queen

QB Video. The negative video clip was 3 minutes and 32 seconds long. It contained

several different clips from the movie The Devil Wears Prada, as well as a scene from the movie

Freedom Writers. The clips portray women in a work setting, in which they receive neither

support nor direction from their supervisors. Their questions are returned with mocking and

belittlement, while their tasks go unappreciated and unacknowledged.

• The Devil Wears Prada (film)

Characters:

Andy: 20-something female


Miranda: President of Runway magazine (female)

o Andy interviewing with Miranda for assistant position

o Miranda refuses to make eye contact or take any interest in Andy.

o Miranda criticizes Andy’s physical appearance and lack of knowledge/experience

Cut.

o Miranda addresses Andy as Emily (previous assistant)

o Andy corrects her and is ignored

o Andy asks a clarification question on task and is ignored again

Cut.

o Miranda doesn’t acknowledge Andy’s work

o Miranda threatens to fire Andy if she’s unable to complete a seemingly impossible

task

Cut.

o Miranda floods Andy with non-stop tasks without expressing gratitude or respect

o Andy must complete tasks without direction or supervision

• Freedom Writers (film)

Characters:

Erin: new high school teacher seeking support for class materials (female)

Brian: high school teacher (male)

o Erin approaches Brian to be her ally in persuading the school department chair for

bigger budget to purchase books for her students

o Brian mocks Erin and shuts her down, blaming the students for being lost causes and

unworthy of a bigger budget


o Erin walks away

Surveys. The first survey was a 29-item compilation of statements, derived from existing

scales (Levenson, 1973; Lefcourt, 1981), as well as some designed specifically for this study.

Fourteen statements assessed self-efficacy (Appendix A, Figure A-3) and 14 statements assessed

internal locus of control (Appendix A, Figure A-4). These traits were measured by observing

one’s sense of negotiation and competency, as well as other actions of empowerment and self-

confidence. The last question asked to what extent they believed they were impacted by

portrayals in the media. Participants were asked how much they agreed or disagreed with each

statement on a Likert scale of 1-5 designed specifically for this study (e.g., “I can’t control my

destiny so I just let whatever happens happen;” 1= completely disagree, 5= completely agree).

The second survey collected both qualitative and quantitative data. In order to check on

perceptions of the video clips chosen and to more fully understand participants’ prior similar

experiences, respondents were asked to express their reaction to the video clip they saw

(Appendix A, Figure A-5) as well as reflect on their own experiences with mentors (Appendix A,

Figure A-6). There were two open-ended questions used to gauge participants’ reactions to and

resonance with the video:

• “How did you feel after watching the video?”

• “Did the video resonate with any of your personal experiences? Please explain.”

They were also given a checklist to assist in categorizing their emotional responses.

• “Please check any of the following you related to during/after watching the video.”

o Happy

o Sad

o Mad


o Glad

o Inspired

o Demeaned

o Grateful

o Disrespected

Finally, six statements were developed by the author to assess previous mentor experience, and

participants were asked to agree or disagree on a 5-point Likert scale, as follows:

• I have had an experience in which I wanted to give up, but someone I looked up to

persuaded me to keep going.

• I have had an experience in which I believe the outcome would have been improved if

someone I looked up to had advised me along the way.

• I have had an experience in which someone I looked up to told me something that was

hard to hear, but I was able to grow from it.

• I have been excited about an idea before, only for it to be shut down by someone I looked

up to.

• I have had someone I look up to help me pursue an important personal goal.

• I have had an experience in which I was harshly criticized by someone I look up to for

not meeting their expectations.

Procedure. The study was made available online and participants were able to take it

anonymously from any location. To eliminate as many confounding variables as possible both

random selection and random assignment were used. In order to prevent biased responses, the

explicit purpose of the study was not given until the end of the survey. At the beginning of the


survey, participants were informed that they would be watching a video depicting conversations

including women in a job or performance-related setting, and that they would be asked to relay

their reactions to the video. The entire process took approximately 10-15 minutes to complete in

its entirety and finished with a debrief explaining the intention of the study as well as an

overview of the advances women have made— and are continuing to make— in the workplace.

This was a critical element to include in ensuring all participants ended the study on a positive

note regardless of which condition they were assigned to.

Results

Of the total sample of 137 females, the ethnic backgrounds of the participant sample were

largely white (36%) and Asian (45%), with others identifying as Hispanic (12%), Black (7%),

Pacific Islander (1.5%), American Indian (1.5%), and other (7%) (Figure 1). Most of the

respondents identified as being between the ages of 18-23 (n=122) (Figure 2). The majority of

participants had completed at least some college education (n=120) (Figure 3) and had either

held a summer job (n=91), part-time internship (n=62), or a part-time job (n=88) at some point

(Figure 4).

First, the emotional reactions to the videos in the two conditions were assessed. Of those

assigned to the MH condition, 75% (n=52) responded with positive emotions (e.g., happy, glad,

inspired, grateful), while 56% (n=38) of those in the QB condition responded with negative

emotions (e.g., sad, mad, demeaned, disrespected), as seen in Figure 11. A 2 (Condition) x 2

(Emotion) Chi-square test revealed that the difference in emotions between the two conditions

was significant (X= 13.91, p=.000). This confirmed that the video clips chosen for the study

were discretely different in arousing reactions from viewers.


After data collection was complete, two statements were removed from analysis as being

invalid measures; one used to assess self-efficacy (“I care and am affected by what others think

of me”) and one used to assess locus of control (“I deserve what I get—good or bad”). Both were

measures created by the author. Upon further review, both statements were deemed too

ambiguous; unable to determine whether the responses were positive or negative measures of

self-efficacy and locus of control. It was impossible to predict whether the means of these

statements indicated high or low levels of self-efficacy and locus of control because of the

unclear nature of each statement. Both were situational. For example, there are situations in

which it is beneficial to learn from what others think about you, and others in which taking

others’ opinions too personally may be unhealthy. Likewise, one may feel proud or encouraged

when they are rewarded for their accomplishments, but in other situations it can be harmful to

believe that extreme punishment is deserved. Thus, 13 statements were used to assess each

measure.

Total means were calculated for both self-efficacy and locus of control by adding the

means of the respective 13 statements and dividing by 13. Of the 13 statements that were used to

measure locus of control, the means were higher than neutral (3.0 on a 5-point Likert scale) on

all individual statements as well as cumulatively (M=3.3, SD=0.4). Of the 13 statements intended

to measure self-efficacy, twelve received an average score higher than neutral, resulting in a

cumulative average of M=3.8 (SD=0.4). The one statement that was below neutral was, “I am

confident I could negotiate a raise” (M=2.7, SD=1.0). This suggests the sample was relatively

high in both self-efficacy and internal locus of control. Cronbach’s alphas for the 13 self-efficacy

and 13 locus of control items were 0.79 and 0.68, respectively. Table 1 below presents every


statement and their mean scores, calculated by taking the average of all the responses for each

given statement.

Table 1: Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control Means

Statement Mean

I am confident in approaching my boss. (self-efficacy)

3.64

I am confident I could negotiate a raise. (self-efficacy)

2.66

I have the ability to change my circumstances. (self-efficacy)

3.96

I have no problem asking for help. (self-efficacy)

3.88

You can’t work your way out of every situation. (self-efficacy)

3.35

It is my responsibility to confront my supervisor with issues that may arise. (self-efficacy)

4.12

I have the potential to be a role model to others. (self-efficacy)

4.30

I learn by asking questions. (self-efficacy)

4.22

I feel confident in my abilities. (self-efficacy)

3.82

I care and am affected by what others think of me. (self-efficacy: removed)

3.95

There is such thing as failure. (self-efficacy)

3.97

I know I have the potential to be successful in whatever I do. (self-efficacy)

4.26

There is no limit to what I can achieve. (self-efficacy)

3.94

I don’t know if I have what it takes to be successful. (reverse scored) (self-efficacy)

2.56 (3.44)

When I get what I want, it’s because I worked hard to earn it.

4.09


(locus of control) I make my own luck. (locus of control)

3.43

If I fail, it is my fault. (locus of control)

3.43

I deserve what I get—good or bad. (locus of control: removed)

3.27

Some people are just born unlucky. (reverse scored) (locus of control)

2.55 (3.45)

I relentlessly pursue what I want. (locus of control)

3.72

I always do what I’m told. (locus of control)

3.09

I am responsible for my own life. (locus of control)

4.24

I have no control over my fate. (reverse scored) (locus of control)

2.35 (3.65)

I have no problem asking questions for clarification. (locus of control)

3.93

All employees—regardless of time served at a company—should feel free to approach their supervisor freely. (locus of control)

4.42

Those in power have earned their position and their authority should not be questioned. (reverse scored) (locus of control)

2.34 (3.64)

Those in more powerful positions than myself have the power to dictate my circumstances. (reverse scored) (locus of control)

2.88 (3.12)

I can’t control my destiny so I just let whatever happens happen. (reverse scored) (locus of control)

2.01 (3.99)

On the questions asking whether they had ever experienced mentoring, 95% of the

respondents reported having been given encouragement and/or advice by a female mentor and

93% reported having been given encouragement and/or advice by a male mentor. Additionally,

questions exploring the type of experiences they may have had revealed that participants


indicated having more positive (M=4.18) than negative (M=3.61) experiences with mentors in

the past. Table 2 below records the mean for each of the six statements used to assess previous

mentor experience. Means were calculated by taking the average of all responses recorded for

each statement.

Table 2: Mentor Experience Means

Statement Mean

I have had an experience in which I wanted to give up, but someone I looked up to persuaded me to keep going. (Positive)

4.20

I have had an experience in which I believe the outcome would have been improved if someone I looked up to had advised me along the way. (Negative)

3.99

I have had an experience in which someone I looked up to told me something that was hard to hear, but I was able to grow from it. (Positive)

4.13

I have been excited about an idea before, only for it to be shut down by someone I looked up to. (Negative)

3.53

I have had someone I look up to help me pursue an important personal goal. (Positive)

4.22

I have had an experience in which I was harshly criticized by someone I look up to for not meeting their expectations. (Negative)

3.31

The results supported previous findings establishing a positive correlation between self-

efficacy and locus of control. Using a summary score for each participant across self-efficacy


statements, a bivariate correlation revealed that those who reported higher levels of self-efficacy

also reported having higher levels of locus of control (r=0.43, p<0.1).

It was hypothesized that there would be a difference in reports of both self-efficacy and

locus of control between women who saw the Queen Bee scenario and those who saw the

Mother Hen scenario. An independent samples t-test discovered no significant differences in

self-efficacy between those in the MH condition (M=3.67, SD=0.54) and those in the QB

condition (M=3.60, SD=0.56), t(135)=0.74, p=n.s. A second independent samples t-test revealed

significant difference in locus of control. Those in the MH condition reported a significantly

higher (p<0.001) locus of control (M=3.71, SD=0.40) than those in the QB condition (M=3.58,

SD=0.45), t(135)=1.71, p<0.1.

It was also expected that self-efficacy and locus of control would be correlated with one’s

past experience with mentorship, regardless of the video manipulation. Each respondent was

given a summary score based on how they answered the six questions inquiring about their prior

experience working with mentors (Appendix A, Figure A-6). The second hypothesis was that the

more positive experience one had working with mentors, the higher their levels of self-efficacy

and locus of control would be. A positive correlation was shown between previous mentorship

exposure and self-efficacy (r=0.36, p<0.1). There was no relationship between locus of control

and one’s prior mentor experience (r=0.11, p<0.1).

Based on the third hypothesis, it was expected that having relatable experiences to the

videos watched would have an effect on the respondents’ levels of self-efficacy and internal

locus of control. Whether or not each participant resonated with their given video was

determined by coding their qualitative responses to the question, “Did the video resonate with

any of your personal experiences? Please explain.” Responses were coded as either ‘Yes’ or


‘No.’ After running an independent samples t-test, no significant relationship was found. Those

who identified with the video they watched did not report a higher level of self-efficacy

(M=3.79, SD=0.46) than those who did not resonate with the video they watched (M=3.69,

SD=0.59), t(135)=0.31, p=n.s. The same result was found for reported levels of locus of control

from those who identified with their video (M=3.74, SD=0.36) and those who did not (M=3.78,

SD=0.45), t(135)=0.38, p=n.s. Missing or N/A responses (e.g., “Not personally, but I have

witnessed others”) were removed from this analysis.

Discussion

Much evidence suggests that women continue to be under-represented in positions of

leadership in American businesses (Hoyt, Simon, & Reid, 2009). Additionally, the media

portrays women less frequently than men in these positions, and may contribute to stereotyping

women, thus impacting their career aspirations. Often, the benefits of female mentors have been

cited by those women who overcome negative stereotypes and other obstacles to attain

leadership roles.

In an effort to better understand the influence of media and mentorship on women

entering the workplace, the present study observed the differences between those exposed to an

example of either a positive female mentor (Mother Hen) or a negative female mentor (Queen

Bee) in popular television and film. The purpose of the study was to determine whether the

messages portrayed, even subtly, by the media as well as one’s previous experience with

mentorship have an impact on young women’s self-efficacy and internal locus of control. The

results supported these hypotheses.


Overall, it should be noted that this sample of young women reported previous positive

experiences with both female and male mentors, as well as moderately high self-efficacy and

locus of control. Only one statement (“I am confident I could negotiate a raise”) had a mean

below neutral. Negotiating a raise is a skill that requires specific training in addition to general

self-confidence. Most women in this sample were young enough to not have faced this situation

yet in their careers.

A correlation was found between one’s experience with mentorship and self-efficacy,

such that various types of positive experiences were related to higher self-efficacy. This may be

because a vital component of building self-efficacy is seeing the behavior modeled by others

(Singhal & Rogers, 1999).

Did these prior positive experiences provide a buffer in the face of negative portrayals of

women in the short video clips shown to them? Unfortunately, no. Overall, the most significant

finding is that observing behavior toward young professionals as portrayed in film does indeed

have an impact on viewers’ emotions as well as internal locus of control. Observing even a three-

minute example of positive mentoring or negative conduct by an older adult toward a young

person seeking advice can impact emotional well-being and an important self-variable. The

present results emphasize the important role one’s internal locus of control plays in the career

experiences of young women. Believing in the ability to control one’s own destiny is

fundamental in building self-esteem and well-being (Judge & Bono, 2001). Feeling that life is

largely determined by fate or other external forces can lead some to become depressed and

stressed. However, those with an internal locus of control tend to be happier and less stressed,

which are characteristics that have been shown to translate into work performance (Judge &

Bono, 2001).


This yields implications on the responsibility the media has in deciding what content to

showcase. A portrayal of a Mother Hen rather than a Queen Bee can make a difference in

influencing how much audience members, especially young women, feel in control of their life.

This finding was critical, considering the video clip was three-and-a-half minutes in length,

while the average American consumes 14 hours— and counting— of media each day (Short,

2013). Furthermore, by most accounts, this was a sample of relatively young women with

positive mentoring experiences, locus of control and self-efficacy already. The universe of

young women affected by the media’s reach may not be as fortunate.

Limitations and Future Research

There are a few limitations to this study that should be considered along with the results.

First, the criteria did not specify whether or not this was the first time the participant was

planning on entering the workplace, and allowed those with years of previous work experience to

be included in the sample and potentially affect the results. One possible confound is the effect

that video recall may have had in the study. It is unknown whether or not certain participants had

seen the clips before, possibly lessening their effectiveness. Additionally, this particular sample

of respondents is highly educated with ambitious career aspirations. Perhaps there might have

been stronger or weaker effects had the study not included so many college students.

Furthermore, this was a short, one-time intervention. The effects of watching the video may wear

off— or be triggered— in the future.

A longitudinal study would be ideal in investigating the impact of mentorship on women

preparing to become working professionals. Because this study required all participants to meet

certain criteria, further research is needed in order to determine whether or not the results are


applicable to other stereotyped populations in regards to the workplace. Conducting a similar

study on women who have full-time experience in the workforce and comparing those results

with the present findings would shed insight on whether or not being in the workplace has an

effect on the attitudes of women. Additionally, future research should examine the current state

of other commonly typecasted groups preparing to enter the workplace, such as LGBT

individuals, ethnic minorities, people with disabilities, and others.

Conclusion and Applications

When 137 female women were given a series of surveys to assess their overall levels of

self-efficacy and internal locus of control, they responded positively overall. They had relatively

high self-efficacy and internal locus of control, regardless of what film clip they saw. The results

indicate that one’s past experience with receiving mentorship is correlated with self-efficacy, but

one’s attitude can be negatively impacted by portrayals in the media, as shown by the correlation

between experimental condition and internal locus of control. The element of media was

incorporated into this study as a common source of behavioral learning. Previous research has

stated that the influence of mass media is so strong, that the stereotypes portrayed will be

reflected in the reality of society (Davies, Spencer, Quinn, Gerhardstein, 2002).

Due to this premise, the media has often been criticized for perpetuating negative

stereotypes, specifically surrounding women. Unfortunately, this trend has not significantly

changed since 2007 (Smith, Choueiti, & Pieper, 2014). Nevertheless, the results of this study

suggest that these college-educated women may be entering the workplace with two important

elements of self-confidence in place. Even so, merely a brief exposure to a negative example of a

young professional being taken less than seriously or being treated with disrespect creates a


lower locus of control than seeing a positive mentoring example. These person variables are

fragile enough to be impacted yet strong enough to be fundamental to our self-esteem.

Applied in a business setting, these findings yield endless implications for how

businesses can help female employees thrive. Implementing mentoring programs that pair new

female employees with seasoned women in the company is an effective way to introduce women

into the company while making them feel supported by others who have been in their position.

Informative lunch-and-learns for women employees of all ages are another opportunity to gather

employees together while learning about topics such as workplace diversity and emphasizing the

value that each member contributes to the team.

Finally, given the power of the video medium as revealed in this study, even short video

messages could be inspiring in the workplace. Workplace training is often thought of as a boring

and tedious process. Instead of having new employees sit and go through a manual for hours or

days on end, companies could utilize videos or interactive games as training tools to keep them

engaged, while delivering impactful messages through older, more seasoned professional

women.

As discussed in this paper, Queen Bees may be ineffective in guiding women to become

leaders by discouraging women to advance in their careers and opposing equal opportunities. If

women in higher-level positions are unwilling to lend a helping hand to other women in the same

situation they were once in, the hope of seeing more women in leadership seems small.

Similarly, an increase in women taking on the role of a Mother Hen may assist in helping others

advance in their careers more quickly and further than they otherwise would. Mother Hens can

serve as an influential role in creating identity-safe environments in which women in the early

stages of their career feel supported and encouraged to grow as professionals.


Whether they acknowledge, admit or accept it, the film industry has an impact on society

through the content they distribute. It is their responsibility to include themes and characters that

portray the reality of women today—intelligent, ambitious and equal to men. This study also

shows that professional women have a responsibility to ensure the next generation of female

leaders is being mentored with support and guidance. Fortunately in this study, the presence of

mentors was evident in the lives of these women. The media alone cannot accomplish what real

people can do every day in the workplace simply in the way they encourage others. Both media

and mentorship have a role to play in instilling self-efficacy and internal locus of control in

women to feel empowered to achieve anything they set their mind to. If this realization is met

with ownership and action, the future of women in the workplace may be brighter than ever

before.


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APPENDIX A: Survey Figure A-1: Screening Questions


Figure A-2: Consent Form


Figure A-3: Self-Efficacy Survey


Figure A-4: Locus of Control Survey


Figure A-5: Video Reaction Survey


Figure A-6: Mentorship Experience Survey


Figure A-7: Demographics


Figure A-7 cont.


Figure A-8: Debrief


Figure 1: Demographics: Ethnicity

Figure 2: Demographics: Age

0

10

20

30

40

50

White Hispanic Asian Paci9ic Islander

Black American Indian

Other

Percentage

Ethnicity

Ethnicity

0

25

50

75

18-‐20 21-‐23 24-‐26 27-‐29 30 or older

Percentage

Age (in years)

Age


Figure 3: Demographics: Education

Figure 4: Demographics: Work Experience

0

15

30

45

60

75

High school grad Some college College grad Post grad

Percentage

Level of Education

Highest Level of Education Completed

0

15

30

45

60

75

Summer job Part-‐time internship

Part-‐time job Full-‐time internship

Full-‐time job

Percentage

Work Experience

Previous Work Experience


Figure 5: Overall Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control Means

Figure 6: Self-Efficacy Means

*Note: Statement 10 was removed from data analysis.

3.75 3.28

1

2

3

4

5

SE LOC

Mean

Measure

Self-‐EfCicacy and Locus of Control Means

1

2

3

4

5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Mean

Statement

Self-‐EfCicacy Statement Means


Figure 7: Locus of Control Means

*Note: Statement 18 was removed from data analysis. Figure 8: Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control Means Between Condition

1

2

3

4

5

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Mean

Statement

Internal Locus of Control Statement Means

3.68 3.6

3.71

3.58

3

3.2

3.4

3.6

3.8

4

MH QB

Mean

Experimental Condition

Self-‐EfCicacy & Locus of Control Means Between Condition

SE LOC*


Figure 9: Three States with Highest Mean

Figure 10: Three Statements with Lowest Mean

4.42 4.3 4.24

1

2

3

4

5

Q25-‐All employees-‐-‐ regardless of time served at a company-‐-‐ should feel free to approach their supervisor freely.

Q7-‐I have the potential to be a role model to others.

Q22-‐I am responsible for my own life.

Mean

Statement

Three Statements with Highest Means

2.66

3.09 3.12

1

2

3

4

5

Q2-‐I am con9ident I could negotiate a raise.

Q21-‐I always do what I'm told.

Q27-‐Those in more powerful positions than myself have the power to dictate my

circumstances.

Mean

Statement

Three Statements with Lowest Means


Figure 11: Emotional Reactions Between Conditions

0

25

50

75

100

MH QB

Percentage

Experimental Condition

Emotional Reactions Between Conditions

Positive

Negative

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