EUROMENTOR JOURNAL STUDIES ABOUT...

EUROMENTOR JOURNALSTUDIES ABOUT EDUCATION

Volume IV, No. 1/March 2013

VOLUME IV, NO. 1/MARCH 20132

“Euromentor Journal” is published by “Dimitrie Cantemir” ChristianUniversity, Faculty of Education.

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EUROMENTOR JOURNAL3

EUROMENTOR JOURNALSTUDIES ABOUT EDUCATION

Volume IV, No. 1/March 2013


ISSN 2068-780X

Every author is responsible for the originality of the article andthat the text was not published previously.

EUROMENTOR JOURNAL 5

CONTENTS

A PUBLIC EDUCATION SYSTEM CAN EXCEL ...........................................7JUKKA KANGASLAHTI

QUO VADIS ELEMENTARPÄDAGOGIK? BILDUNG ZWISCHEN„BILDUNGSOFFENSIVE“ UND „BILDUNGSWAHN“ ...............................14

ARMIN KRENZ

POUR UNE PÉDAGOGIE DU DIALOGUE INTERCULTURELDANS L’ENSEIGNEMENT DES LANGUES ÉTRANGÈRES .....................25

IULIANA PAŞTIN

SOCIAL ECONOMY IN EUROPE...................................................................37GEORGETA ILIE

E-LEARNING SYSTEMS IN HIGHER EDUCATION -STANDARDS,FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURES, CASE STUDY- ............................................49

VALENTIN INCEU,PETRU BALOGH,POMPILIU GOLEA

FROM TASK-SUPPORTED TEACHING TO TASK-BASEDLEARNING THE CASE OF JAPANESE LANGUAGE TEACHINGIN ROMANIA -....................................................................................................56

MAGDALENA CIUBĂNCAN

THE EVALUATION OF THE TEACHING STAFF’S INITIALTRAINING PROGRAMS – ANALYTICAL BENCHMARKS......................66

IULIANA TRAŞCĂ

DIMENSIONS OF GAME IN LITERARY TEXT FOR PRESCHOOLAND SCHOOL SMALLER................................................................................73

OCTAVIA COSTEA


EDUCATIONAL SPACE ARRANGEMENT THROUGHSTIMULATION AREAS. ...................................................................................81

CONONA PETRESCU

CHANGING THE PERCEPTION ON THE WORLD AND LIFE, ONHAPPINESS AND KNOWLEDGE IN NORMALITY ANDPSYCHOPATHOLOGY........................................................................................89

COSTEL CHITEŞ,SIMONA TRIFU

COMPETENCES BETWEEN CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONSAND DIDACTIC REALISM............................................................................101

TUDOR MARIN


A PUBLIC EDUCATION SYSTEM CAN EXCEL

JUKKA KANGASLAHTI

[email protected]

Abstract: This article analyses the Finnish education system, which hasreceived lots of attention around the world because of the excellent pupilachievements in the country. For international observers it has been surprising tofind out that there is remarkably little variation in the assessment results aroundthe country. The quality of learning in urban schools and in remote ruralcommunities is the same, which means that parents may trust that the staffs of theclosest schools from homes have all the expertise needed to educate their childrenwell. It is even more important to notice is the fact that Finland is running apublic school system based on equity where each individual child is seen equallyimportant. Therefore, everyone has an equally good chance to learn.

Keywords: public education system, equity, PISA findings, teacher- studentinteraction, autonomy of schools, customized solutions.

Education is a powerful tool in building a better future for both anation and its children and youth. Today even many educators believethat a public education system will never have a chance to excel when itcomes to learning achievements. There are numerous sad cases where theglobal community has witnessed how countries of totalitarian politicalsystems have been able to apply a rigid authoritarian strategy of teachingresulting in situations where the only function of all educationalinstitutions is to serve those who are in power. Management by authority,control and inspection have been amongst the keymethods inimplementing the will of any centralized administration. Awareness of themany flaws and risks of nation-wide approach in education has madenumerous experts to believe that a healthy and effective public schoolsystem cannot be designed and realized at all. In short: excellence byequity in education is often regarded as a mission impossible. Regardlessof that notion, almost everyone supports the specific articles of Human

Professor Ph.D, - “Turku University”, Finland; Visiting Professor, - EducationalSciences Faculty, “Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University, Bucharest.


and Children’s Rights where, for example, quality teaching and learningare regarded as basic rights of each and every individual of our globalcommunity. Admitting this, it follows that everywhere in the world thesocieties are responsible for arranging educational opportunities. It againmeans that schools free of charge should be available at least for thosewho cannot afford to pay for education. This premise, however, does notexclude the option of enrolling one’s child into a private school in casetuition fees are not a problem.

In many countries there is constant struggle in attempts to improvepublic education. This is one of the main reasons why a lot of parentschoose private schooling for their children. They regard the option morereliable and safe. With good reason it may be argued that money cannotalways buy the best possible education. On the other hand, to investwisely and sustainably in education is a good investment into the future.In case that is also taken as bedrock of a nation-wide strategy of educationthen the improvement of public schools should be in the core ofgovernmental attention. In efforts to improve a nation’s public education,one cannot rely just on system-level reforms. This is especially the case, ifmany political changes are taken place by, for example, a chain of differentministers of education or by different political parties. It should berealized that most system level reforms do not directly develop eitherstudent learning or the quality of teaching. In fact, it often happens thatpolitical decisions may not have any impact on the daily classroom workat all. It can be argued that one of the best ways to improve learningachievements is to develop the quality of teacher-student interaction. Thismeans that students learn better when all stakeholders, includingadministrators, principals and teachers in collaboration are positivelyresponding to the efforts of reforms by developing the daily activities andapproaches in schools. In other words, positive changes should happen inthe everyday lives of students before a reform is worthwhile. This is doneby improving school administration, schools’cultures and creating newpedagogical methods for teaching-learning processes.

One of best test “laboratories” of a nation-wide public school systemexists in Finland where systematic and sustainable development of theequity-based, free of charge education has been executed and “tested”during the past four decades. Admission and tuition fee free schools inFinland are not only for pupils of comprehensive schools but they alsocover vocational and university studies. The philosophy behind thesystem is laid in the idea that each individual ought to have equal


opportunity in education and that one of the most important renewablenatural resources in the country is in the potential of human mind; thebetter educated are the citizens of Finland, the higher is the standard ofliving in the country. Several of the current indicators show that thepatiently executed Finnish strategy has been working well. For example,Newsweek recently published a special issue on “best countries in theworld”. Its extensive study tried to come up with an answer to thefollowing hard question:

“If you were born today, which country would provide you the verybest opportunity to live a healthy, safe, reasonably prosperous, andupwardly mobile life?”

In the survey, which analyzed and compared one hundred (100)countries, Finland was ranked as the best overall place in the world to livein. Comparison was made in five categories: education, health, quality oflife, economic competitiveness, and political environment. Finland’seducation system was especially highly regarded in the survey. (Foroohar2010.) In addition to this Lewis (2005, 210) has identified the followingfacts, which seem be interlinked with and results of the Finnish notion ofequity for its citizens: “Finland ranks among the top few countries forglobal competitiveness, economic creativity, environmental sustainability,network readiness, water resource management, minimal bureaucracy,and least corruption”.

The much sited OECD’s Programme for International StudentAssessment (PISA) surveys have over the past decade highlighted also thatFinnish students have been doing remarkably well. This assessmentprogramme compares the education achievements of 15-year-olds in variouscountries.If we look closer at the PISA results, it is quite interesting to noticethat countries like Finland that have rather a low level of socio-economicstratification seem to have better overall performance by the pupils. ForFinnish parents and students this is important news because they know thatequity, social cohesion and strong student performance exist in the entireschool system all over the country (Sahlberg 2011). They are able to trust thatthe high quality education is available at the closest school from their home,which most of time is a public school. This particular fact is not true in mostof the PISA-participating countries. Also,the average socio-economicbackground of the student cohort in private schools tend to be much moreadvantaged than that of students who attend public schools, which also oftenis one of the important reasons to choose a privately managed institution.(OECD 2012.)


The Finnish experience - so far at least -proves that investments intopublic education can pay back at a rate of high interest. Variation instudent performance is small and so is variation between schools.But whatmight be the main building blocks behind the public education system inFinland?

McKinsey (2007) report states that the quality of any education systemcannot exceed the quality of its teachers. Becoming a teacher in Finland isa popular choice for young people. Furthermore, it is extremely difficult togain a study place at the departments of teacher education at theuniversities. Only 10% of the applicants are accepted and they all areamongst the best of the best of the upper-secondary school graduates. Thewhole society in Finland has a great deal of trust on the expertise ofteachers. This is one of the main reasons that the school staffs arepractically speaking working without a formal control system.Inspectorate systems do not exist. Schools and communities are allowed todesign much of the curriculum content. Teachers have full pedagogicalfreedom and also a freedom to choose the learning material they want use.National tests are very rare. All this freedom means that schools andteachers have been handed a great responsibility, which they have takenwith great devotion. Much attention is paid both to pupil welfare andspecial needs education. The aim of the public comprehensive schoolsystem in Finland tries to provide for every child access to the bestpossible education. The free school services include, among other things,schoolbooks, all learning materials, a daily warm lunch, as well as healthand dental care. It also is worth mentioning that for the past decades, theeducational policy has been research and practice based, sustained andconstant in terms of its development. Furthermore, neither thegovernment, nor the minister of education alone has the power to makemajor changes in the educational system because educationaldevelopment in Finland is planned in collaboration with all stakeholders.As a result vision and the long-term aims have stayed the same and therehas been great consensus by the people of the country. Parents, teachers,politicians and sometimes even the students together in constructivecollaboration have been involved in the development process of thecountry’s educational system. (Kangaslahti 2012.) As it is today, theFinnish national educational strategy is very different from those of mostother countries in the world. While it may not be “the best” in the world, itcertainly cannot be copied into another context as it is.It may, however,serve as an important example for the rest of the world on how


sustainable development of public schooling and purposeful investmentsmay pay off in creating equal opportunities to study and learn for eachindividual citizen.

Can we learn from the Finnish experience?As mentioned in the beginning of this article, constant system level

changes do not guarantee any positive impacts into the teaching-learninginteraction. Attempts to improve learning achievements have to besustainable, realistic, well informed, accepted and understood by teachersbefore they have any possibilities to make an impact in classrooms. Alsoenough resources ought to be allocated for any new approach. These aresome of the preconditions, which have to be met when planningeducational improvements. However, perhaps afar sighted and far-reaching strategic vision of the aims, purposes and goals for the reformprocess of a country’s educational system is the most important buildingblock to start with. With good reason it can be argued that all children canachieve success in some areas of learning. It is the job of adults in eachsociety to ensure that every child has the opportunity to attendcomprehensive schooling as close as possible to their home. Therefore,developing the quality of learning, teaching and learning environments ofpublic schools should be high up in the priority list of duties ofgovernments and municipalities in most, if not all countries in the world.

Putting parents aside, the ultimate power to make a real change in thelives of children and youth lies in the hands of principals and teachers.Under their leadership in schools and classrooms real societaldevelopment can be made, and sometimes even against all the odds.(Wigdortz 2012.) Their work is not only to teach academic subjects but alsoenable pupils to learn skills that are important for fulfilling and happylives. Under their guidance in cooperation with parents the whole childdevelopment is taken into account. At their best public schools preparestudent with important social skills, enable them to manage their emotionsand behavior as well as their rights and responsibilities as citizens in theirsociety. Summarizing the presented thoughts through the lens of theFinnish comprehensive school system some of the key themes in it are thefollowing:

1. The approach of education in schools is holistic where wellbeingand healthy development of the pupil is at least as important as academicachievement.


2. Teaching is customized for the pupil and takes into considerationher/his level of current achievements. Different teaching methods areapplied for those who learn quickly than for pupils who need extrasupport or special needs education. Also learning assessment ispersonalized. Standardized testing system does not exist.

3. Municipalities, schools and teachers have much freedom inorganizing education, designing the curriculum and choosing pedagogicaland assessment methods. This because each member of the teachingpersonnel is an expert with a Masters degree and everyone is ready andeligible to take the full responsibility for freedom of action.

4. Equity in education is seen as more important than investing earlyin special talents. Equal opportunity means education free of charge with,for example, a free warm lunch.

5. Collaboration between schools, teachers and pupils is seen morefruitful than competition.

6. Schools and teachers are not inspected.7. Special-needs education is organized in every school, using a multi-

method approach. Practically it is available for every pupil if at all needed.8. Pupil welfare teams exist in every school with an aim trying to

guarantee from day one a caring and fear free school atmosphere for eachpupil.

In the long run none of the above listed themes is beyond the capacityof most countries in Europe, perhaps even the rest of the world. It has tobe reminded that the comprehensive school reform in Finland starteddecades ago and it s development process is regarded as never ending. Inmany ways, the steps taken by Finland have to be seen as being extremelysuccessful. The good news is that many countries are currentlyundertaking some kind of school reforms. Sustainable reforms ofeducational systems, no matter where, often benefits its citizens but it isself evident that wise investments into teaching-learning situations inpublic schools will make the quality of lives of many children moremeaningful and better. If positive development has been possiblethroughout in Finland it certainly can be done almost anywhere. To sharethis kind of a vision, good political will, quality leadership, hard work andcountywide collaboration are needed and the goal of having an increasingnumber of quality public schools will be met.


REFERENCES

Kangaslahti, J., (2012), Investiţie în educaţie, investiţie în viitor: ModelulFinlandez şi Aplicabilitatea lui în România. Bucureşti: Ed. LuminaEvangheliei.

Lewis, R., (2005), Finland, Cultural Lonely Wolf. London: InterculturalPress.

McKinsey & Company, (2007), How the World’s Best Performing SchoolSystems come out on Top. Available at:

http://www.smhc-cpre.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/07/how-the-worlds-best-performing-school-systems-come-out-on-top-sept-072.pdf

Foroohart, R. (2010): How We Ranked the World. Newsweek, August16. Available at:

http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2010/08/16/best-countries-in-the-world.html

OECD, (2009), Pisa 2009 Key Findings. Available at:http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/pisa2009/pisa2009keyfindings.htm

OECD, (2012), Public and Private Schools: How Management and FundingRelate to their Socio-Economic Profile. OECD Publishing. Available at:http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/50110750.pdf

Sahlberg, P., (2011), Finnish Lessons: What Can the World Learn fromEducational Change in Finland? New York: Teachers College Press.

Wigdortz, B., (2012), Success Against the Odds. Five Lessons in How toAchieve the Impossible: The Story of TeachFirst. Croydon: CPI Group Ltd.


QUO VADIS ELEMENTARPÄDAGOGIK?BILDUNG ZWISCHEN „BILDUNGSOFFENSIVE“ UND

„BILDUNGSWAHN“

ARMIN KRENZ

[email protected]

Abstract: A responsible pedagogy and psychology must move towards thespecific steps of the age of the child. One must give up to the representation of achild "as perfect as possible beginning with the early stages of childhood“, becausea childhood is built on the fact that a child may / must make mistakes in order toknow his/her own strategies of action and from mistakes and from actions that areless appropriate to draw those consequences that would open new avenues foraction. Children need active teaching models to help them orientate in themultitude of action possibilities.

Keywords: elementary pedagogy, training, practical training, childdevelopment.

Ausgangsthese:Bei dem derzeitig aktuellen und weit verbreiteten öffentlichen

Bildungsverständnis sowie der damit verbundenen „Bildungspraxis inKindertageseinrichtungen“ kommt eine für das Kind erfahrbare, tiefe Erlebnisqualität zu kurz, die Frage der erleb- und verwertbaren Sinnhaftigkeit eines

Bildungsangebotes für die aktuelle Lebenssituation des Kindes kaum auf, ein unmittelbares, tiefes Glücksempfinden für das gegenwärtig

erfahrene Leben kaum zum Tragen!

Gleichzeitig liegen Ergebnisse und Erkenntnisse aus dem Feld derBildungs- und Hirnforschung vor, dass genau diese drei genanntenMerkmale für eine „nachhaltige Bildung“ notwendig und damitunverzichtbar sind (Zimpel, A.F., 2010; Crain, W., 2005; König, A., 2010;

Ph.D, - Institut für angewandte Psychologie + Pädagogik, Kiel (Deutschland),Germania; Visiting Professor, - Educational Sciences Faculty, “Dimitrie Cantemir”Christian University, Bucharest.


Brandes, H., 2008/ Hüther, G., 2005; Astington, J.W., 2000; Markova, D.,2005; Gebauer, K., 2007).

Bildung wird „bedarfsgerecht“ zusammengestellt und so konzipiert,dass sie „effiziente Lernauswirkungen“ ermöglicht, mit der Folge, dass sogenannte Bildungsblüten in einer bildungsfernen Elementarpädagogikentstehen (können): Aus miteinander vernetzten Bildungsbereichen werden „isolierte

Fächer“ und „fachspezifische Unterrichtseinheiten“; in Kindern vorhandenen Forschungsinteressen werden immer

weniger aufgegriffen und stattdessen durch erwachsenengesteuerte„Forschungsangebote“ ersetzt; statt erlebte bzw. erlebbare Alltagssituationen mit Kindern

forschend und zeitunbegrenzt zu erkunden werden ganz spezielle„Forschungskoffer“ angeschafft, um damit gezielte und zeitbegrenzteBeschäftigungsangebote durchzuführen; statt im Leben der Kinder – sowohl im Innenbereich als auch im

Außenbereich – die ungezählten Alltagsphänomene zu untersuchen,werden extra Forschungsorte/ Forscherinseln eingerichtet, Forschertischeaufgestellt, Forscherecken abgegrenzt, Forschungszeiten festgesetzt undForschungsregeln genau festgelegt, um nicht zuletzt auch„Lerntagebücher“ und „Portfolios“ als Beweisquellen für eineForscheraktivität der Kinder erstellen zu können.

Aus diesem Bildungsverständnis heraus wird die Bildungsarbeit invielen Kindertageseinrichtungen wie folgt verstanden und entsprechendkonzipiert: Die Fachkraft holt alle Kinder zusammen, gibt entsprechende

Informationen ein, stellt bestimmte Aufgabenstellungen und Fragen vor,so dass Kinder meist nur reagieren können/ dürfen; In den zu nutzenden Forschungskoffern stecken so genannte

Forschungsgegenstände, die fein säuberlich strukturiert undfächerspezifisch geordnet sind. Getreu dem Motto: „Bildung“ geschieht –wie im klassischen Schulunterricht – in einem Fächerkanon (jedes„Fach“ ist ein „Fach für sich“ und wird in genau geplanten Teilschrittenumgesetzt.) Lebensbereiche und Alltagssituationen der Kinder werden im

Tagesablauf in Arbeits-, Lern-, Spiel- und Freizeitfelder aufgeteilt: von


dann bis dann wird gespielt, von dann bis dann geforscht, von dann bisdann sich bewegt und von dann bis dann gegessen, geschlafen,philosophiert…

Das Dilemma der aktuellen Bildungsarbeit in außergewöhnlich vielenKindertageseinrichtungen muss daher leider wie folgt charakterisiertwerden: Die Selbstbildung des Menschen wurde/ wird zu einer

belehrenden (= entleerenden) Bildungspädagogik funktionalisiert. Nicht das Fühlen, Denken, Spielbedürfnis oder eigene

Handlungsideen der Kinder stehen im Mittelpunkt des Tagesgeschehens,sondern eine von Erwachsenen erdachte und konzipierteBildungssystematik bestimmt die so genannten Bildungsschwerpunkteund den Ablauf der „Bildungsarbeit“. Bildung wurde/ wird in den „Bildungsrichtlinien …“

systematisiert und zu „Bildungsprogrammen“ zusammen getragen, diedazu verleiten, in ein fächerkanonorientiertes Denken und Agieren zuverfallen. Dies hat zur Folge, dass eine von außen gesetzte Systematik eine

Erwachsenensystematik ist, die künstlich hergestellt wird und dazudient, die Welt der Kinder logisch (!) – statt erlebnisnah undalltagsorientiert – zu ordnen. Kinder brauchen i h r e persönlichbedeutsamen Forschungsmöglichkeiten in i h r e n individuell erlebtenLebenswelten – und das ist stets und überall möglich. Dort, wo „Bildung als Programm“ verstanden und „angeboten“

wird, gerät eine >Bildung aus 1. Hand< (Prof. Schäfer) immer mehr in denHintergrund! Damit bemächtigt sich die didaktisierte Schulpädagogik der

Elementarpädagogik, die ihre Eigenständigkeit damit gleichsam(sicherlich ungewollt) unaufhaltsam aufgibt.

Grundsatzmerkmale heutiger Kindheiten in DeutschlandAlle Ergebnisse und Erkenntnisse der gegenwärtigen

Kindheitsforschung machen deutlich, dass es aufgrund der aktuellenGegebenheiten nicht mehr möglich ist, von einer >unbelastetenKindheit in Deutschland< zu sprechen, weil es eine allgemein positivgeprägte und zeitlich gesonderte, altersgemäß mehr oder wenigerabgeschlossene >eigenständige Lebensphase Kindheit< nicht mehr gibt(Aden-Grossmann, W., 2010/ Hurrelmann, K., 2009/ Konrad, F.-M. +


Schultheis, K., 2008, vgl.: Kullmann, K.,2009. / vgl. 13. Kinder- undJugendbericht, 2009).

Insofern ist es zutreffend, von „Kindheiten mit besonders typischenEinflüssen und häufigen Kindheitserfahrungen“ zu sprechen. Zwar istes vielen Kindern heute leichter und eher als in vergleichbarzurückliegenden Generationen möglich, kognitiveEntwicklungsmöglichkeiten aufzunehmen und zu nutzen, allerdings ist esihnen schwerer möglich, sich emotional stabil und räumlich-körperlichzu entfalten!

Stabile >Beziehungsverhältnisse< verändern sich in eherpunktuelle >Erziehungsverhältnisse<, in denen Kinder starkenVerhaltenserwartungen einer deutlich Erwachsenenwelt geprägtenUmgebung ausgesetzt sind. Die den Kindern zur Verfügung stehendenEntfaltungschancen, die ungleich höher sind als Kindern undJugendlichen vergangener Generationen, sind aber auch stets mit neuenBelastungen verbunden, weil sie die individuell möglichenEntwicklungsmöglichkeiten häufig strapazieren und dieBewältigungskapazitäten mancher Kinder und Jugendlichen überfordern(können). Darin ist auch der Hintergrund für viele Verhaltensirritationenbei Kindern und Jugendlichen vor allem in den Bereichen derpersönlichkeitsbezogenen, sozialen und emotionalen Auffälligkeiten zusehen und zu verstehen (Trapmann, H. + Rotthaus, W., 2003; Fröhlich-Gildhoff, K., 2007; Döpfner, M. + Petermann, F., 2008; Herbst, Th., 2010).

Immer mehr Kinder laufen„neben der Erwachsenenwelt“ her undwerden in der Verarbeitung ihrer Lebenswelt alleingelassen, ohnegrundlegende Kompetenzen zu besitzen, ihr Leben selbstständig undautonom in den Griff zu bekommen. Kinder sind in eine>Erwartungswelt< der Kinderkrippe, des Kindergartens, ihrer Eltern,ihres Wohnbereiches und ihrer Freundesclique eingebunden, ohne häufigeinen selbsterfahrungsorientierten Freiraum zu erhalten, um zu sichselbst zu finden und mit sich selbst (sowie in der Folge mit ihremunmittelbaren Umfeld) kompetent umgehen zu können. Wurden Kinderfrüher als unfertige, un[ter]entwickelte Wesen eingeschätzt, so werden sieheute von „bildungsaktiven Erwachsenen“ als kindliche Persönlichkeitenbetrachtet mit „förderungsnotwendigen Potenzialen“. Sie werden häufigwie ernstzunehmende Akteure eingestuft und befinden sich gleichzeitig ineiner abhängigen, erwartungszentrierten Position. Insoweit tragenErwachsene (Amateure und professionelle Fachkräfte) täglich dazu bei,Kindheiten in einem Widerspruch einzuschätzen. Entsprechend


widerspruchsvoll entwerfen sie in ihren Vorstellungen ein „Bild vomKind“ und gestalten den Alltag von Kindern auch häufig uneinheitlich,was zur weiteren Irritation bei Kindern führt. Kinder brauchen mehr dennje Entwicklungssicherheiten, um eine stabile Identität aufzubauen.

An dieser Stelle sei auch noch einmal darauf hingewiesen, dass schonzu Beginn der 80er Jahre der amerikanische Soziologe Neil Postmann mitseinem Aufsehen erregenden und bis heute bedeutsamen Buch vor demVerschwinden der Kindheit eindringlich gewarnt hat. Und auch schon1990 sprach H. Zeiher von einer >Kindheit, die organisiert und isoliertist< (1990, S. 20), Kindheit heute kein Kinderspiel mehr sei und dass derAlltag vieler Kinder ein „Leben in Bedingungen“ abbildet (S.23).Kindheitsforscher sprechen gar von einem Kinderalltag im Zeittaktindustrieller Fertigung (Hurrelmann) und beklagen eine„Durchrationalisierung des Kinderlebens nach Schichtdienst undStundenplan. Gemeint ist eine ökonomische Zeitplanung bis in dieKinderkrippe hinein.

So scheint es selbst in der Vorstellung der Erwachsenenwelt kaumvorstellbar was passieren würde, wenn Kinder fein gekleidete Damenoder Herren mit Holunderbeeren bewerfen oder Mutproben unter Beweisstellen würden, indem sie Regenwürmer verspeisen. Kinder, die sichzusammenfinden und eine feste Gruppe bilden, geraten schnell in denVerdacht, einer „Bande“ anzugehören, von der eine Gefahr für andereausgehen könnte und Kinder, die sich schließlich den hohen undständigen Erwartungen von Erwachsenen entziehen würden bekämenschnell das Prädikat eines „bildungsunwilligen“ Kindes.

Die ehemalige Präsidentin des Deutschen Bundestages, Prof. Dr. RitaSüßmuth, hat schon vor über 20 Jahren in einem Zeitschriftenaufsatz dreiBegriffe in die öffentliche Diskussion gebracht, die die bisherigenAusführungen zusammenfassend bündeln. Ihre Betrachtungen vonKindheiten in einem so hoch industrialisierten Land wie Deutschlandbeschreiben das Kinderleben als eine weitestgehend verplante undverpädagogisierte Zeit, die Kinderzeiten als eine in viele Zeitsegmenteaufgeteilte und aus ganzheitlichen Zusammenhängen zerrisseneAngelegenheit sowie die Kinderwelten als eine eingeengte und immerkünstlicher gestaltete und eingegrenzte Erfahrungsvielfalt. Kommt esnun zu einer zusätzlichen Berücksichtigung des weiteren Zeitverlaufszwischen den wiedergegebenen Aussagen vom Jahreswechsel 1988/89und dem heutigen Zeitpunkt, so muss und kann von einer deutlichenVerschärfung des Problems ausgegangen werden. Wenn Prof. Dr.


Süßmuth schon damals von einem zunehmendem „Verlust anErfahrungen“ (S.7), „arrangierten Erfahrungsräumen“, einer„Vereinzelung der Kinder“ und „Erfahrungsarmut“ sowie „kaumvorhandenen Spielräumen“(S.8) spricht und ihre Hauptaussage darinendet, dass sie die These vertritt, „eine Gesellschaft, die ihre Kinder nichtversteht und schätzt, wird sie in Zukunft verlieren“ (S.9), dann istnachvollziehbar, wie schwierig es für Kinder und Jugendliche ist und innaher Zukunft immer schwieriger werden wird, eine weitestgehendunbeschwerte Kindheit zu erleben, Identität zu entwickeln und Selbst-,Sach- sowie Sozialkompetenzen auf- und auszubauen.

Richtig ist: Schon der Säugling besitzt bereits kurz nach der GeburtInteraktions-, Kommunikations- und Lernbereitschaften, die durchInteresse und Neugierdeverhalten an seinem unmittelbaren Umfeldgekennzeichnet sind. Er sucht mit all seinen Sinnen nachAnregungsimpulsen und möchte gleichzeitig einen Einfluss auf die ihninteressierenden Objekte/ Abläufe nehmen. Welche Objekte und Abläufevon Interesse sind, können nur durch aufmerksame, sorgfältigeBeobachtungen ausgemacht werden. Darüber hinaus haben auchForschungsergebnisse der Neurobiologie gezeigt, dass beispielsweise dieGehirnstrukturen des Menschen mit der Geburt nicht genetisch festgelegtsondern durch Umwelteinflüsse in Bau und Funktion veränderbar sind(Stichwort: neuronale Plastizität). Das heißt, dass das menschliche Gehirnnicht alle bedeutsamen Informationen aus dem unmittelbaren Umfeld wiemit einem Fotoapparat lediglich ablichtet, sondern dass es seineVernetzungen nach den Aspekten (neu) konstruiert, die erkannt undbestätigt bzw. ergänzt oder neu verknüpft werden.

Dadurch, dass persönliche Erfahrungen, Erlebnisse, Eindrücke undGefühle wie beispielsweise Sorgen, Freude, Ängste, Hoffnung,Unsicherheit, Entlastung oder Glücksempfinden ihre Spuren im Substratdes Gehirns hinterlassen, stehen solche psycho-sozialen Prozesse mitentsprechenden neurobiologischen Vorgängen stets in eine permanentenAustauschprozess.

Die Frage, wie es möglich sein wird, diesen vielfältigen Tendenzenvon zerstörten bzw. verstörten Kindheiten professionell und kompetententgegenzuwirken, ist nur durch einen konsequenten Perspektivwechselzu beantworten, damit in Kenntnis dieser pädagogischen und sozialenWirklichkeit neue Handlungsstrategien zum Tragen kommen (können).


Konsequenzen für eine gegenwartsorientierte PädagogikSichere Bindungserfahrungen machen Kinder stabil,

bildungsinteressiert und lernaktiv!Nur wenn Kinder

ihre Bindungsperson als einen >grundsätzlich sicheren Hafen<erleben, den sie bei Verunsicherungen, Ängsten undVerlassenheitsgefühlen gerne, freiwillig und selbstmotiviert aufsuchen, durch die identischen Verhaltensweisen der Bindungspersonen

Sicherheit, Annahme und Hilfe erleben dürfen, bei Sorgen, Kummer und Trennung die Nähe zu ihrer

Bindungsperson suchen und finden, schon sehr früh durch intensive Bindungserfahrungen immer

weniger auf Bindungserlebnisse angewiesen sind und sich mit einemGefühl der inneren Grundsicherheit auf die „Erkundung der großen,weiten Welt“ einlassen und ihrem innewohnenden Forscherdrangnachgehen, motiviert und freiwillig über ihre Gefühle berichten und dabei

emotionale Belastungen ebenso „ungehemmt und unkontrolliert“ zumAusdruck bringen wie Augenblicke der Freude und des tiefenGlücksempfindens,

dann bauen Kinder ihre Lernmotivation, ihre Selbstbildungs- undLernfreude sowie ihre Anstrengungsbereitschaft auf und aus!

Es ergeben sich daher folgenotwendige Konsequenzen für einebildungs- und zugleich kindorientierte Pädagogik, in der sich dieSelbstbildungskräfte der Kinder entwickeln können und für einnachhaltiges Bildungspotenzial sorgen: Es ist notwendig, verstärkt dafür zu sorgen, dass Kinder auch

Kinder sein dürfen. Eine verantwortungsvolle Pädagogik und Psychologie hat sich der

spezifischen Alterstufe der Kinder zuzuwenden und darf nicht daraufausrichtet sein, die Gegenwart von Kindern einer Zukunft zu opfern. Die Vorstellung von einem möglichst „frühzeitig perfekten

Kind“ ist aufzugeben, weil Kindheiten darauf aufbauen, dass KinderFehler machen dürfen/ müssen/ sollen, um eigene Handlungsstrategienkennen zu lernen und aus Fehlern bzw. handlungsorientierten Umwegenneue handlungsleitende Konsequenzen zu ziehen.


Kinder brauchen bildungsaktive Vorbilder, die ihnen helfen, sichin ihren Handlungsmöglichkeiten orientieren zu können. Kinder brauchen statt einer verstärkten „kognitiven Förderung“

Seelenproviant, der ihnen hilft, ein stabiles Persönlichkeitsfundament imSinne einer nachhaltigen Persönlichkeitsbildung auf- und auszubauen. Kinder sind auf Erwachsene angewiesen, die immer wieder die

Aufgabe an sich selbst stellen, Kinder in ihren aktuellen, vielfältigenAusdrucksformen zu verstehen statt Kinder in defizitorientiertenBewertungsschemata zu klassifizieren. Kinder brauchen vor allem das Gefühl von Sicherheit, um neue

Handlungsschritte zu entdecken, Handlungsperspektiven zu entwickelnund alternative Handlungsmöglichkeiten zu internalisieren. Kinder brauchen feste Bindungen und zuverlässige Beziehungen,

um sich auch bei persönlichkeitsverletzenden Rückschritten mitZuversicht und Engagement den neuen, täglichen Herausforderungenund Notwendigkeiten zu stellen. Kinder brauchen keine künstlich arrangierten

(Bildungs)Lebenswelten sondern umfassende und umfangreicheHandlungs(spiel)räume, in denen sie reale, fassbare, Erfahrungen machenund die sie ihrem aktuellen Leben zuordnen können; Kinder brauchen zur Wahrnehmung, Festigung und Verarbeitung

ihrer Erfahrungen, Erlebnisse und Eindrücke ausreichend Zeit und Ruhe,um Sinnzusammenhänge zwischen ihren Handlungsschritten und derenKonsequenzen zu entdecken, zu verstehen und zu wiederholen. Kinder sind auf ein stabiles Selbstbewusstsein angewiesen, um

mit zunehmendem Alter selbstständig, lernfreudig, handlungsaktiv undanstrengungsbereit alltägliche Aufgaben einer verantwortungsvollenLebensgestaltung auf sich zu nehmen. Dieses stabile Selbstbewusstseinergibt sich aus einer emotional-sozialen Stabilität, die Kinder durch einewertschätzende Kommunikation in Sicherheit bietendenAlltagssituationen aufbauen und nicht durch „Bildungsprogramme auszweiter Hand“ (Prof. Dr. Gerd Schäfer) entwickeln können. Kinder brauchen Erwachsene, die mit Optimismus, Lebensfreude

und Einsatzbereitschaft an einer Welt mitarbeiten, die sich für eineWiederherstellung bzw. Bewahrung des >eigenständigen ZeitraumesKINDHEITEN< aktiv und engagiert, überzeugt und identisch einsetzen.

Prüfen Sie gerne selbst einmal in einer selbstkritischen BetrachtungIhres Alltags, mit wie viel Engagement, Innovationsfreude, Mut,


Anstrengungsbereitschaft, Lebensbejahung, innerer Zufriedenheit,Arbeitsfreude, Lebendigkeit und innerer Anteilnahme am Leben derKinder Sie an der Wiederherstellung bzw. Aufrechterhaltung einersolchen lebenswerten BILDUNGSWELT aktiv beteiligt sind.

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POUR UNE PÉDAGOGIE DU DIALOGUEINTERCULTUREL DANS L’ENSEIGNEMENT DES

LANGUES ÉTRANGÈRES

IULIANA PAŞTIN

[email protected]

Abstract: This article attempts to analyze the concept of interculturaldialogue and its impact over the social life in the EU. We emphasize theimportance of intercultural dialoguehaving as essential principle the respect forthe cultural diversity, considering that the teaching of foreign languages isincluded in this dialogic space of language and culture.

Keywords: multicuturalism, intercultural dialogue, identity, alterity,human rights.

Dans le contexte de la mondialisation il est difficile de donner unedéfinition acceptée par tous du terme de dialogue interculturel. Le conceptconcerne une variété de termes, tous très actuels, tels que lemulticulturalisme, la cohésion sociale et l’assimilation. La définition laplus actuelle est peut-être celle proposée par le Conseil de l’Europe dansson Livre Blanc sur le dialogue interculturel, qui stipule que: «Le dialogueinterculturel est défini comme un échange d’idées respectueux et ouvert entre lesindividus et les groupes aux patrimoines et expériences ethniques, culturels,religieux et linguistiques différents».1 La question du dialogue interculturel a

Senior lecture Ph.D, - “Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University, Bucharest.1 Nous citons les problemes les plus importants discutés dans le Conseil de lEurope

et synthétisés dans Le Livre blanc sur le dialogue interculturel: „La gestion démocratiqued’une diversité culturelle grandissante en Europe – ancrée dans l'histoire de notrecontinent et amplifiée par la mondialisation – est devenue, depuis quelques années, unepriorité. Comment répondre à la diversité? Quelle est notre vision de la société dedemain? S’agit-il d’une société où les individus vivront dans des communautés séparées,caractérisée au mieux par la coexistence de majorités et de minorités aux droits etresponsabilités différenciés, vaguement reliées entre elles par l’ignorance mutuelle et lesstéréotypes? Ou, au contraire, nous représentons-nous une société dynamique et ouverte,exempte de toute discrimination et profitable à tous, qui privilégiera l’intégration de tousles individus dans le plein respect de leurs droits fondamentaux? Le Conseil de l’Europecroit que le respect et la promotion de la diversité culturelle sur la base des valeurs qui


tellement d’importance dans l’agenda politique européen en raison de dela question de plus en plus actuelle de la «rencontre des cultures»,conséquence de la mobilité des personnes et de la remise en questionpermanente de nos identités nationales. Nous vivons actuellement dans lemélange des cultures rendu possible par les voyages, la technologie etl’interconnexion de nos économies et cultures contemporaines. Dans le«Livre blanc sur le dialogue interculturel» du Conseil de l’Europe, on proposeune terminologie comportant une définition du dialogue interculturel. «Ledialogue interculturel est un échange de vues, ouvert, respectueux et basé sur lacompréhensionmutuelle, entre des individuset des groupes qui ont des originesetun patrimoine ethnique, culturel, religieux et linguistique différents. Il s’exerce àtous les niveaux – ausein des sociétés, entre les sociétéseuropéennes et entrel’Europe et lereste du monde»2. La notion de dialogue interculturel impliquela reconnaissance de la diversité culturelle. La «Déclaration sur la diversitéculturelle» adoptée par le Comité des Ministres du Conseil de l’Europe du7 décembre 2000 le souligne dans son article premier: «La diversitéculturelle s’exprime dans la coexistence et les échanges de pratiquesculturelles différentes et dans la fourniture et la consommation de serviceset de produits culturellement différents». En effet cette définition estargumentée et développée dans un chapitre special intitulé Cadreconceptuel.3

sont le fondement de l’Organisation sont des conditions essentielles du développementde sociétés fondées sur la solidarité, cf.

http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/intercultural/whitepaper_interculturaldialogue_2_FR.asp#P57_2906

2 Le «Livre blanc sur le dialogue interculturel» présenté ici, affirme avec force, au nomdes gouvernements des 47 Etats membres du Conseil de l’Europe, que notre avenircommun dépend de notre capacité à protéger et développer les droits de l’homme, telsqu’entérinés dans la Convention européenne des Droits de l’Homme, la démocratie et laprimauté du droit et à promouvoir la compréhension mutuelle. Il défend l’idée que ladémarche interculturelle offre un modèle de gestion de la diversité culturelle ouvert surl’avenir. Il propose une conception reposant sur la dignité humaine de chaque individu(ainsi que sur l’idée d’une humanité commune et d’un destin commun). S’il fautconstruire une identité européenne, celle-ci doit reposer sur des valeurs fondamentalespartagées, le respect de notre patrimoine commun et la diversité culturelle ainsi que lerespect de la dignité de chaque individu. La version en ligne du Livre blanc surwww.coe.int/dialogue.

2 «Le dialogue interculturel est au coeur du projet européen», Diasporiques n° 6(juin2009), p. 30-36.

3 Le Livre blanc développe cette définition dans un chapitre spécifique intitulé«cadre conceptuel».


En effet la protection et la célébration des nombreuses culturesettraditions à travers toute l’Europe sont des outils essentiels de tolérance etde compréhension mutuelle.L’année 2008 a été consacrée par l’Unioneuropéenne «Année européenne du dialogue interculturel»4. Toutes lesinstances internationales se sont proposé de débattre et de s’approprierlanotion de dialogue interculturel.Le but principal mentionné dans tousles documents est la reconnaissance de la diversité des langues et descultures au sein de L’Union européenne „L'Union européenne a pourprincipe fondateur la diversité: diversité des cultures, des coutumes, des opinions,mais aussi des langues, ce qui est naturel sur un continent où tant de languessont parlées”5. Les langues officielles des pays de l'UE appartiennent à troisfamilles de langues: indo-européenne, finno-ougrienne et sémitique, ce quiest relativement faible par rapport à d'autres continents. L'attentionparticuliere que suscite aujourd'hui la diversité linguistique s'explique parla multiplication des contacts entre les peuples. Les citoyens sont de plusen plus en état de parler une autre langue, différente, parfois inconnuepour eux, qu’il s’agisse de la recherche de l’emploi ou dans le cadre d'unéchange d'étudiants entre les Universités, ou qu’il s’agisse pour les autrescitoyens d'une installation dans un autre pays à partir d'une intégrationcroissante sur le marché européen du travail dans un processus continuqui se manifeste à l’époque de la mondialisation. La Charte des droitsfondamentaux de l'Union européenne, adoptée en 2000, proclame àl'article 22 que l'Union respecte la diversité linguistique et interdit, àl'article 21, toute discrimination fondée sur la langue. Le respect de ladiversité linguistique est une valeur essentielle de l'Union, au même titreque le respect de la personne, l'ouverture aux autres cultures et latolérance. Ce principe vaut non seulement pour les 23 langues officiellesde l'Union, mais aussi pour les nombreuses langues régionales etminoritaires qui sont parlées dans les pays de l'Europe6. C'est cette

4 Par la décision n°1983/2006/CE en date du 18 décembre 2006 du Parlementeuropéen et du Conseil, 2008 a été proclamée "année européenne du dialogueinterculturel". Cette initiative vise à développer le dialogue interculturel au sein del'Union et à inclure la problématique des différences culturelles dans une réflexion sur lacitoyenneté européenne. Afin d'assurer une mise en œuvre effective de cette initiative surl'ensemble du territoire de l'Union européenne, chaque Etat membre a été chargé dedésigner un organe coordinateur.

5 Diasporiques | nº10 nouvelle série | juin 20106 La Charte des droits fondamentaux est une déclaration des droits adoptée le 7

décembre 2000 par l'Union européenne. La Charte des droits fondamentaux de l'Unioneuropéenne reprend en un texte unique, pour la première fois dans l'histoire de l'Union


diversité qui fait de l'Union ce qu'elle est: non pas un creuset où se fondent lesdifférences, mais un lieu où le mot diversité est synonyme de richesse7. En vertudu traité de Lisbonne, signé en décembre 2007 par les chefs d'État et degouvernement de tous les États membres de l'Union européenne, celle-cirespecte la richesse de sa diversité culturelle et linguistique, et veille à lasauvegarde et au développement du patrimoine culturel européen8.

Investir dans la diversité culturelle. Pour en savoir plus sur lapolitique de l'UE en matière de formation linguistique.

Dans le domaine de l’éducation, l’intégration de la diversitéculturellecontribue à mettre en évidence la pertinence des méthodes et des contenuspédagogiques. Cette idée est aussi soulignée dans le livre: Investir dans ladiversité culturelle et le dialogue interculturel9. L’enseignement de la diversitéculturelle est un projet pleinement compatible avec l’engagement enfaveur du droit à l’éducation, la diversification des formesd’apprentissage, y compris hors de l’école, garantissant que nul citoyen nedoit être ignoré, en particulier ceux appartenant aux minoritésautochtones ou aux groupes vulnérables. Sans prendre en compte ladiversité culturelle, l’éducation ne peut remplir son rôle fondamental celuid’apprendre aux citoyens à vivre ensemble à s’intégrer dans la société et àrespecter les valeurs humanistes de L’UE. Le développement descompétences interculturelles propices au dialogue entre les cultures et lescivilisations est donc une des priorités de l’éducation.

„Les Etats-Unis ont souvent été décrits comme le melting pot dumonde, mais les termes du débat en Europe sont quelque peu différents.Historiquement, l’expérience européenne s’est construite sur la richessedes cultures des citoyens qui apprennent (ou non) à vivre ensemble. EnEurope, les différentes expériences politiques, religieuses, linguistiques etculturelles se confrontent les unes aux autres dans un espace

européenne, l'ensemble des droits civiques, politiques, économiques et sociaux descitoyens européens ainsi que de toutes personnes vivant sur le territoire de l'Union. Letexte comprend 54 articles précédés d'un bref préambule. Les droits sont regroupés en sixgrands chapitres: Dignité, Liberté, Égalité, Solidarité, Citoyenneté, Justice.

Le traité de Lisbonne de 2007 fait mention de la Charte dans l'article sur les droitsfondamentaux et vise à lui conférer une valeur juridiquement contraignante…

7 www.lefigaro.fr, articleEuropéennes: le «front de gauche» est lancé, 08/03/2009 |Mise à jour: 19:59 consulté le 19 février 2013

8 Version consolidée du traité sur l'Union européenne (Journal officiel de l'Unioneuropéenne n° C-115 du 9 mai 2008, p. 1 à 388).

9 Investir dans la diversité culturelle et le dialogue interculturel: Rapport mondial del'UNESCO de Unesco le 17 février 2010.


géographique limité… moins dans un melting pot culturel que dans « uncreusetculturel”.10[…] En effet, l’étonnante richesse de l’Europe provientde la rencontre de ces réalités culturelles, mais aussi, et malheureusement,de certains évènements tragiques de son histoire”11. L’Europe est dans lecontexte actuel synonyme de paix, de réussite économique et d’intégrationpolitique. Le défi lié a la relation avec l’autrui, à la recherche d’unecitoyenneté européenne n’a cependant pas disparu. Il s’est mêmeintensifié suite aux vagues successives d’élargissement de l’UE et à la prisede conscience continue de notre interdépendance dans le respect de laliberté et des droits de l’homme.

Le dialogue interculturel est de plus en plus considéré comme le moyende promouvoir la compréhension mutuelle, une meilleure manièrede vivreensemble la citoyenneté européenne et l'appartenance a une société de plusen plus globalisée. L’approche communicative a mis en évidencel’indispensable communication et, par voie de conséquence, l’interlocution, larencontre avec l’autre. La didactique des langues ne peut que s’inscrire danscet espace dialogique des langues et des cultures. Par conséquent, laméthodologie d’enseignement et et d’apprentissage de la situation decommunication doit mettre en pratique ces principes de l’interlocution.

L’approche communicative: une approche de la civilisation dans lesmanuels de francais FLE

Il faut constater que les manuels communicatifs n’intègrent pastoujours l’interculturel comme on aurait pu le croire. Les manuels quenous avons analysés dans d’autres articles montrent clairement que lescontenus culturels sont négligés. „S’il est relativement aisé de définir dansun programme d’enseignement les contenus prioritaires decommunication (en termes d’actes de parole ou de notions) et les contenuslinguistiques qui en découlent, il n’en va pas de même pour les contenussocioculturels.Pour évoluer en langue étrangère, l’apprenant a besoin d’unsavoir minimum sur la culture et sur le fonctionnement social du paysdont il apprend la langue’’.12 Ce constat reste valable même pour les

10 Claude Springer, Université de Provence, France, Vers une pédagogie du dialogueinterculturel: agir ensemble à travers les nouveaux environnements numériquessociaux.,p.516. www.frl.auth.gr/sites/congres/Interventions consulté le 20.02.2013

www.cultureactioneurope.org/lang-fr/.../intercultural-dialog..consulté le 20 février11 www. cultureactioneurope.org/lang-fr/…/intercultural-dialog..consulté le 20

février12. Claude Springer,Université de Provence, France ,Vers une pédagogie du dialogue

interculturel : agir ensemble à


manuels français récents (Forum, Panorama, Tempo, Café Crème, parexemple) malgré des progrès importants qui peuvent être observés dans letraitement du « culturel ».

Claude Springer dans son analyse des rapports entre les manuelsfrançais et l’interculturel manifeste une attitude plutôt critique „On trouvedans Tempo une approche classique de la “Civilisation” avec un traitement enfin d’unité. Une page comprend un document explicatif suivi d’exercicesd’application, comme dans cet exemple qui va permettre aux apprenants deconnaître le code du savoir-vivre et de rechercher les comportements“déviants”.(Springer, 517)13 On peut affirmer que l’approche communicativeest restée dans une visée classique de la culture. L’étudiant apprend dessavoirs spécifiques dans des situations elles aussi particulières. Les manuelsproposent une présentation d’une culture française homogène, le terme «Civilisation » est caractéristique de la conception culturaliste. Il s’agit demontrerune France essentiellement parisienne, stéréotypée (les Grandspersonnages, la Haute couture, les bonnes manières, les monuments etc.).’’L’approche pédagogique est comparatiste, on présente un phénomène dansdeux cultures. L’évolution que l’on observe au sein de l’approchecommunicative est le passage du mono-culturel (présentation de laCivilisation et la Culture de la France) au bi-culturel, voire pluriculturel (miseen comparaison d’entités culturelles différentes)’’14. L’«interculturel» estcompris dans ce cas plutôt dans le sens d’un traitement séparé d’unitésculturelles différentes que dans le sens de dialogues et rencontres issus d’unvéritable contact culturel.

Le CECR15: vers une prise en compte de l’interculturel

travers les nouveaux environnements numériques sociaux.,p.516.www.frl.auth.gr/sites/congres/Interventions consulté le 20 .02. 2013

13 Claude Springer, op.Cit, p. 51614 Claude Springer, op.Cit, p.51715 Le Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues - Apprendre, Enseigner, Évaluer

(CECR) est un document publié par le Conseil de l'Europe en 2001, qui définit desniveaux de maîtrise d'une langue étrangère en fonction de savoir-faire dans différentsdomaines de compétence. Ces niveaux constituent désormais la référence dans ledomaine de l'apprentissage et de l'enseignement des langues dans de nombreux pays.L'innovation principale du CECR consiste en une échelle d'évaluation de la maîtrised'une langue, indépendante de l'organisme évaluateur, et transposable à n'importe quellelangue, contrairement aux autres systèmes d'évaluation qui sont souvent propres à unpays, voire à un organisme, et généralement applicables à une seule langue. Pour cesraisons de plus en plus d'organismes évaluateurs alignent leurs échelles d'évaluation surles niveaux du CECR, ou pour le moins fournissent une grille de conversion.


dansl’enseignement du francaisLe CECR (2001) a apporté une série de changements dans beaucoup

de domaines et en particulier en ce qui concerne la questioninterculturelle. L’évolution qui se confirme n’a été possible que grâce autravail préparatoire précédent le CECR. Les nouveaux manuels(Connexions, Rond Point, Alter Ego, Alors, etc.) sont assez bien structuréspour montrer que l’on assiste au point de vue de la méthodologie du FLE,à un changement significatif. Le thème de la rencontre de l’autre, deséchanges, descontacts est clairement marqué dans les titres des chapitreset même dans ceux des titres choisis.

Alors, c’est un manuel qui change de vision car on va connaître lasociété française, mais pas seulement les lieux touristiques ou lespersonnages célèbres». Le manuel se caractérise par une ouvertureplurilingue et pluriculturelle notamment quand il fait place à d’autreslangues et de cette façon il permet une ouverture à la diversitélinguistique. L’aspect culturel devient ainsi plus dynamique. On va voirvivre les Français dans la vie quotidienne avec les problèmes de logement,de santé, d’emploi dans la diversité et mettant l’accent sur un certain artde vivre.

Vers une pédagogie du dialogue interculturelAgir ensemble à travers les nouveaux environnements numériques

sociaux est un défi important.. Il faut souligner que la «compétenceculturelle» est placée en tête avant la «compétence de communication».Dans les activités proposées, l’espace social plurilingue est largementprésent, les élèves sont sollicités pour dire comment cela se passe chezeux. Dans les manuels récents, le culturel est cette fois bien intégré, mêmesi l’approche reste comparatiste.D’autres manuels, qui ont adopté unepédagogie par tâches (Rond Point, Scénario, Café Crème) avec la simulationglobale, offrent la possibilité de faire vivre l’interculturel, au sens derencontres et d’échanges, grâce à la mise en place de projets de groupe.Lemanuel pour le FLECafé Crème propose des textes de civilisation françaiseet francophone réalisant ainsi des connexions interculturelles dans destextes tels que: Les Flamands et les Wallons, Famille de Jean JacquesGoldman, Bien venue dans la belle province (du Québec), Albert Cohen, Belledu Seigneur, Charles de Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, Le salut, Paroles de

http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki2001, Cadre européen commun de référence pourl’apprentissage et l’enseignement des langues. Strasbourg, Conseil de l’Europe, 1eed.1996; 2e ed. corr. 1998. Paris, Didier.


Jacques Dutronc, Le Grand Bleu, Océano nox de V. Hugo et Ch. BaudelaireavecL’homme et la mer, Les Etats-Unis, un pays neuf, etc.On assiste alors àune culture en actes rendant possible la construction commune del’interculturel. Ce n’est plus tant la découverte de la culture cible quiimporte tels que -l’apprentissage des rites sociaux, la connaissance desobjets culturels qui caractérisent une communauté, l’étude de la diversitéculturelle avec des comparaisons explicites - que la mise en place decontacts, la rencontre de personnalités différentes individuelles, la mise enréseau d’individualités au sein d’une communauté apprenante. On setrouve dans une dynamique de la rencontre, une approche interculturellebasée sur le dialogue par l’action.

En Roumanie, Les manuels les plus importants pour enseigner lefrancais L2 , seconde langue sont :Crescendo, Le francais L2, La Rose des vents(3)Les textes et les thèmes abordés dans la Rose des vents présententdiverses régions de la France ou de l’Europe mais aussi des aspects liés àla civilisation française. Plus inspirée, la page Styles de vie (page 98) de LaRose des vents invite les élèves à la production orale à partir de petits textes(des documents authentiques) proposés en lecture supplémentaire, àl’option du groupe classe; Les questions De la compréhension à l’imaginationde La Rose des vents sont des sujets de débat et de synthèse thématique etportent sur les valeurs communes européennes, l’atout de la connaissancedes langues étrangères pour les jeunes dans l’Europe sans frontièresintérieures, sur la dimension européenne de l’éducation y comprisl’ouverture à l’autre, la compréhension de l’autre, l’acceptation et lavalorisation de la différence. Ces textes qui présentent des institutions del’Union Européenne: La Commission européenne, Le Parlement européen,Le Conseil des ministres, La Cour de justice, La Cour des comptes, LeComité économique et social, Le Comité des régions suscitent desquestions portant sur l’importance de la connaissance des languesétrangères sur la dimension européenne de l’éducation et sur le rôle del’école dans la préparation de la jeune génération à construire la sociétéeuropéenne de demain. Toutes ces questions demandent des réponsesargumentées et les manuels de FLE doivent être centrés sur l’interculturelet la diversitédont nous citons surtout Crescendo, La rose des vents, Limbafranceza L2, etc.16

16 1) Popa, Mariana, Popa, Monica Anca, Limba franceza - L2, manuel pour la 9e,Bucarest, Humanitas Educational, 112 pages, 2004.


La structure du manuel La Rose des vents est très semblable à celle deCrescendo; nous y reconnaissons également la page d’auteur dans lacontinuité et la cohérence des activités. Cela pourrait être d’une certaineaide dans la recherche de repères si, dans les écoles, il y avait unecontinuité dans le choix des manuels (par critères d’auteurs, maisond’édition, méthode, etc.). Le manuel La Rose des vents est fidèle auprogramme, il aborde tous les contenus recommandés pour l’annéed’étude: le domaine personnel (la vie personnelle et le comportement dansla société; les relations entre les jeunes - la vie scolaire, les loisirs; l’universaffectif des jeunes; le rapport entre les générations); le domaine public(aspects significatifs de l’environnement urbain/rural; lestélécommunications/les transports modernes; les espaces publics/lesservices dans la société contemporaine); le domaine occupationnel (lesaspects significatifs, les préoccupations, les projets liés à l’avenirprofessionnel); le domaine éducationnel, culture et civilisation (les typesd’habitat et les styles de vie; les régions, les fêtes et les traditions locales enFrance; les villes/les sites d’intérêt touristique et culturel; les pays/lesrégions francophones; les personnalités du monde artistique, scientifiqueou sportif; les relations franco-roumaines).

De manière générale, les manuels actuels proposent généralementunemeilleure intégration du culturel et de l’interculturel comme dans lecas du manuel français (Café Crème). Au lieu de réduire le culturel à unecertaine image élitiste de la France et de Paris, ces manuels s’ouvrent surdes représentations d’un espace francophone pluriel. On présente desgens ordinaires, une culture du quotidien. Nous avons également soulignéune volonté d’approche réflexive par des comparaisons et des contactsentre langues et cultures, afin de réaliser une prise de conscienceinterculturelle. Enfin, lorsqu’il y a ouverture vers des tâches sociales oudes miniprojets permettant de vivre ensemble une expérience réelle, onassiste à la mise en place de rencontres et de contacts entre des personnesdifférentes qui peuvent constituer un véritable dialogue interculturel. Oncomprend que cette optique pédagogique puisse mettre en cause demanière fondamentale les pratiques en classe de FLE.Ce qui nous intéresse

2) Nasta, Dan Ion (2005), Crescendo - L2, méthode de français, manuel de françaispour la 10e, Bucarest, Edition Sigma, 125 pages.

3) Pastin, Iuliana Aron, Luminita, Nasta, Dan-Ion (2005), La rose des vents - L2,manuel pour la 11e, Bucarest, Ed. Sigma, 102 pages.

4) Grigore, Mihaela, Cosma, Mihaela (2004), Limba franceza - L2, manuel pour la12e, Bucarest, Edition Niculescu, 144 pages.


dans l’élaboration des manuels FLE c’est l’idéede circulation dans les deuxsens, d’enrichissement mutuel, d’interpénétration. Nous serions pluscirconspects quant à la possibilité d’enseigner une ou la «compétenceinterculturelle». Celle-ci ne peut être qu’une construction collective qui sedéveloppe, ou pas, dans le cadre d’expériences interculturelles au seind’une communauté plurielle.

L’obstacle principal de la classe de langue est l’obsession pédagogiquede tout réduire en séquences simples pour mettre en œuvre desprocédures communicationnelles et contrôler l’apprentissage. L’approcheinterculturelle impose de ne pas tout réduire à une “pensée pédagogiqueréductrice”. La perspective actionnelle pose comme principe que l’actionsociale est constituéed’interactions multiples, chaque élément réagissantavec d’autres éléments et avec le tout. Et comme le dit E. Morin, «l’actionest stratégie»: un peu de pré-formatté beaucoup de hasard, d’aléatoire,d’inattendu, d’original17. Si l’on se situe dans cette optique théorique, onne peut qu’encourager l’approche interculturelle à travers une pédagogiebien comprise des échanges.. Mais il ne faut pas comprendre par celal’idée que la communication est avant tout un simple échangelinguistique. Habermas (1995) définit l'action de communiquer unerecherche d’une certaine entente, d’un certain consensus social, qui permetd’interpréter ensemble une situation et de s’accorder mutuellement surune conduite à tenir. ”Dans l’action sociale, l’agir communicationnelapparaît pour créer du consensus et du lien social. Il n’y a de ce fait pasd’évidences culturelles qui seraient partagées, mais une tentative deconstruire ensemble une conduite commune”18.

On pourrait donc admettre que la «compétence culturelle » soit placéeen tête avant la «compétence de communication». Dans les activitésproposées dans nos manuels, l’espace social plurilingue est largementprésent, les élèves sont sollicités pour dire comment cela se passe chezeux. Dans la plupart des manuels, le culturel est bien intégré, même sil’approche reste comparatiste et c’est toujours perfectible.

17 E. Morin cité par Claude Springer, op. Cit, p. 516:www.frl.auth.gr/sites/congres/Interventions consulté le 20.02.201318 Habernmas cit’par Claude Springer, op. Cit, p. 516, HABERMAS’S THEORY OF

COMMUNICATIVE ACTIONAND THE THEORY OF SOCIAL CAPITALhttp://web.williams.edu/Economics/papers/Habermas.pdf


En conclusionNous avons pu voir que les manuels de français permettent de former

des savoirs culturels et parfois, mais si c’est d’une façon plus difficile, dessavoir-faire et des savoir être interculturels. Il est ainsi possibleaujourd’hui de développer les deux directions respectivement:l’acquisition de la compétence de communication et l’expérienceinterculturelle. Une «pédagogie du dialogue interculturel» à l’aide desmanuels les mieux adaptés aux exigences des valeurs fondamentalespartagées dans l’UE: le respect de notre patrimoine commun et la diversitéculturelle ainsi que le respect de la dignité de chaque individu.. Les élèvespeuvent ainsi développer, grâce au dialogue interculturel, une compétenceinterculturelle variée et en permanent enrichissement et respect de laculture de chacun. Cela suppose bien entendu une formation desenseignants à la pédagogie du projet communicatif et à l’interculturel.

RÉFÉRENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES

Bérard E., (1991), L'approche communicative. Théorie et pratiques,techniques de classe. Paris: Clé International.

Candelier M. et al., (2007), Carap - Cadre de référence pour les approchesplurielles des langues et des cultures… Graz: CELV – Conseil de l’Europe.

http://www.ecml.at/mtp2/publications/C4_report_ALC_F.pdfConseil de l’Europe, (2001), Cadre européen commun de référence pour leslangues: apprendre, enseigner, évaluer. Paris: Didier. Consulté le 20 février

http://lchc.ucsd.edu/MCA/Paper/Engestrom/expanding/toc.htmn528Claude Springer Goullier F., (2006), Les outils du Conseil de l’Europe enclasse de langue. Paris: Didier.

Habermas J., (1995), Sociologie et théorie du langage. Paris: A. Colin.Koenig-Wiśniewska A., Springer C., (2007), «Du journal intime aux

réseaux sociaux», in Le Français dans le monde, n° 351, mai-juin. Paris: CLEInternational.

Lussier et al., (2007), Développer et évaluer la compétence encommunication interculturelle un guide à l'usage des enseignants de langues etdes formateurs d'enseignants Les langues pour la cohésion sociale. Centreeuropéen pour les langues vivantes (Graz), Conseil de l’Europe.

Moore D., (2006), Plurilinguismes et école. Paris: Didier.Morin E., (2005), Introduction à la pensée complexe. Paris: Seuil.Porcher L., (2003), «Interculturels: une multitude d’espèces». In Le

Français dans le Monde, n°329.


http://www.fdlm.org/fle/article/329/interculturel.phpPretceille A., (1999), L’éducation interculturelle. Que sais-je? Paris: PUF.Springer C., Université de Provence, France, Vers une pédagogie du

dialogue interculturel: agir ensemble à travers les nouveauxenvironnements numériques sociaux.:

www.frl.auth.gr/sites/congres/Interventions consulté le 20.02.2013


SOCIAL ECONOMY IN EUROPE

GEORGETA ILIE

[email protected]

Abstract: Nowadays, the social economy knows a significant importance inEurope, from the point of view of economic, social and political implications. Thispaper tries to underline a few aspects related with the characteristics of socialeconomy enterprises, forms of social economy enterprises, statistical dimensions ofsocial economy in Europe. In the same time, social economy is a very significantsector taken into account into European Agenda, in adopted legislation on socialeconomy and organized events on social economy. In the third part of this paper istreated social economy in a few European countries, including Romania.

Keywords: social enterprise, solidarity, cohesion, mutual, cooperatives,employment, benefits.

1. IntroductionSocial economy plays an essential role in the economic recovery and

in the establishment of a sustainable growth model in European countries.This is not a marginal role, but rather a central and main role. These are sofor two important reasons.

Firstly, it is about the remarkable importance of the social economy inEuropean countries. This sector has a turnover of millions of euro inEuropean countries, directly and indirectly employing millions personsand brings together hundred of thousands of large and small companies.This is a reality that is well recognized in Europe, represented bycooperatives, insertion companies, mutual benefit societies, fishermen’sguilds, disability associations and special employment centres.

On the other hand, besides the figures that represent it, the

This paper cumulates the results of a documentation stage within the mostrepresentatives Universities with degree programs in the social economy field, socialeconomy Enterprises, training and regulating Institutions in the social economy fieldin France and Spain into the Strategic Project: ”Social Economy - Innovative Model forPromoting Active Inclusion”, whose partner is ”Dimitrie Cantemir” ChristianUniversity from Bucharest, Romania.

Professor Ph.D, - ”Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University, Bucharest.


importance of this sector in the new sustainable development modelderives from the values that drive its enterprises; these are sociallyinnovative and committed and are ahead of circumstances, adopting adifferent advanced perspective on understanding the economy and theenterprises. Their business model, more participatory, supportive andsocially responsible, is that of a sustainable and balanced economy.Considering all these aspects, it is believed that this is the model thatEuropean countries should follow.

Social economy entities are enterprises - in the majority micro, smalland medium sized enterprises (SMEs) - and, as such, they are part of theEuropean Commission's enterprise policy aiming at promotingenterprises, in general and more specifically SMEs, independently of theirbusiness form. The EU policy in this area aims at creating a encouragingregulatory environment for social economy enterprises so that theydevelop and flourish together with other enterprises.

The actions foreseen in the Small Business Act for Europe, adopted inJune 2008 by the Commission, and designed to support all SMEs, alsobenefit social economy enterprises to face the challenges arising out ofglobalization, rapid technological change and global economic decline.

2. Characteristics of Social Economy EnterprisesIn economics, the private sector and the public sector are the known

terms used correspondingly to express privately owned, profit-drivenenterprises and government-controlled ventures. The designation socialeconomy has been given to a third sector of the economy that representscooperative concerns like community associations, volunteerorganizations and businesses whose objectives are primarily social.

Diversity on the concept of the social economy has been in currencythroughout Europe for at least 150 years. In 1989 the European Union (EU)established a Social Economy Unit to explore the significance of the conceptin contemporary Europe. Many of the EU's member nations haveimplemented the concepts behind the third sector to a greater or lesserextent, each in its typical way.

Market activities associated with the social economy is similar tomarket activities in the private and public sectors: people are employed,goods and services are often sold, and money is occasionally made – withone significant difference: monetary surpluses are typically reinvested inthe business or community rather than left as profit.

A social economy company is a form of entrepreneurship which,


ensuring a balance between competition and competitiveness, considersthe following values: dominance of individuals against capital, aparticular focus on solidarity, a driver of social cohesion, democraticadministration, and distribution of benefits/results on a cooperative basis.

In various parts of economic activity, groups of individuals have gottogether to configure their own structure to support their own or generalpublic interests. They are, normally, parts of a stakeholder economy,whose enterprises are created by and for those with common needs, andaccountable to those they are meant to serve. The basis of such structuresis membership and solidarity.

Social economy enterprises are run commonly in accord with theprinciple of solidarity and mutuality and managed by the members onthe basis of the rule of "one man, one vote". Members vote on thedirection the enterprise takes, and it then acts in their common interests.

Their most important purpose is not to obtain a return on capital.Social enterprises look for to serve the community’s interest (social,societal, environmental objectives) rather than profit maximization. Theyoften have an innovative nature, through the goods or services they offer,and through the organization or production methods they resort to. Socialeconomy enterprises are flexible and innovative (they meet changingsocial and economic circumstances).

They frequently use society’s most weak members (socially excludedpersons). They consequently help to social cohesion, employment and thedecrease of inequalities.

Social economy enterprises give to a more efficient marketcompetition and support solidarity and cohesion.

With its roots in the local environment and the objectives they follow,social businesses help to strengthen the real economy, while contributingto social cohesion, employability and the reduction of geographicalimbalances.

Social economy enterprises are based on active membership andcommitment and frequently on deliberate contribution.

3. Forms of Social Economy EnterprisesSocial economy enterprises include a varied structure in which

various sized organisations coexist together successfully. Some examplesof this corporate form are: cooperatives, worker-owned companies,mutual benefit societies, special employment centres, insertion companies,fishermen’s guilds, disability associations.


A cooperative is a corporate form based on a democraticconfiguration and function. Its activity is developed in conformity withcooperative principles accepted and regulated at regional, national andinternational levels: voluntary and open adhesion of the members,democratic management, economic participation, education, training andinformation, and an interest in the community.

Mutual benefit societies, made up of individuals, have a non-profitmaking character. With a democratic structure and management system,they provide voluntary insurance as a complement to the social securitysystem.

Special employment centres companies combine economic feasibilityand market participation with a social commitment to groups with animpaired access to the job market. Their staff includes people withdisabilities (70% of the total employees, at least). Their productive andcompetitive capacity allows them to introduce their products into themarket.

Worker-owned companies have a high potential to generatebusinesses. In this category of corporation, the shares are mainly held bythe employees. The fact that the workers are also the shareholdersencourages self-motivation in entrepreneurial projects. The minimumnumber of members is three, and incorporation procedures are similar tothose of other companies.

The central aim of disability associations’ group is to supply serviceswhere the profit-making sector is not succeeding to do so. This isfrequently the case with sectors having to do with people’s fundamentalrights, particularly with regard to especially vulnerable groups, likedisabled individuals. Other features are innovation in the way society'sproblems are dealt with, and the defence of social, legal andadministrative changes aimed at protecting the rights and liberties ofthose with disabilities as the necessary basis for diversity, plurality andtolerance.

Insertion companies are defined as corporate learning structures thataim to ensure job market access to disadvantaged groups by developing aproductive activity. To that end, an insertion process is designed but witha standard labour relationship. The staff must consist of a number ofinsertion employees, from 30 to 60% depending on the autonomousregion. 80% of the profit is re-invested in the company.

Fishermen’s associations are sector-based, public-law organizationsof a non-profit making nature. They represent the economic interests of


fishing boat builders and fishing workers and activate as an advisory andcollaborative body in the corresponding administrations in the area of seafishing and fishery planning. Their purpose is to meet their members'needs and to contribute to local development, social cohesion andsustainability.

In conclusion, social economy companies are noticeable examples thatillustrate that rationality and social progress are compatible, and thatcorporate efficiency can coexist together with social responsibility. Theydemonstrate that a different category of enterprise is feasible.

4. Statistical Dimension of Social Economy in EuropeAccording to the International Cooperative Alliance, there are almost

one billion cooperative members and more than 100 million jobs in its 91member countries.

A significant proportion of Europe's economy is structured incooperatives, mutual societies, non-profit associations, foundations andsocial enterprises, which supply a large variety of products and servicesand generate millions of jobs.

From the village farmers who set up a co-operative to market theirproduce more effectively, to the group of savers who set up a mutual-fundto ensure they each receive a decent pension, by way of charities andorganizations offering services of general interest, the social economytouches a huge range of individuals across Europe.

There are more than 11 million jobs in the social economy acrossEurope, but membership of social economy enterprises is much wider,with estimates ranging as high as 160 million. Millions of memberstherefore depend on such enterprises in areas such as healthcare.

Social economy enterprises are characterized by a significant personalinvolvement of its members in the management of the company and thelack of seeking profits in order to reward shareholders capital.

As a result of their specific way of doing business which associateseconomic performance, democratic operation and solidarity amongstmembers, they also contribute to the execution of very importantCommunity objectives, particularly in the fields of employment, socialsecurity policies, social cohesion, environmental protection, consumerprotection, and regional and rural development.

In 2010, social economy enterprises represented 2 million enterprises(i.e. 10% of all European businesses) and employed over 11 million paidemployees (the equivalent of 6% of the working population of the EU): out


of these, 70% were employed in non-profit associations, 26% incooperatives and 3% in mutuals.

Social economy enterprises are present in almost every sector of theeconomy, such as banking, insurance, agriculture, craft, variouscommercial services, and health and social services etc.

5. Social Economy in the European AgendaThe importance to the European economy and society of cooperatives,

mutual societies, associations, foundations and social enterprises (whichtogether are sometimes referred to as the Social Economy) is nowreceiving greater recognition at Member State and European levels.

The economic and social implication and consequences of socialeconomy enterprises are generally recognized.

Their significance is also increasing in the face of new emergingneeds. The aim of the European Commission's policy towards socialeconomy enterprises is to guarantee to them a level playing field in whichthey can compete effectively in their markets and on equal terms withother forms of enterprise, without any regulatory discrimination andrespecting their particular principles, modus operandi, needs, particulargoals, ethos and working style.

In December 1989 the European Commission adopted aCommunication on business in social economy sector. For several years up to1998 various projects and activities were financed to promote the sector.

In 2000, the autonomous European Standing Conference (ConférenceEuropéenne Permanente - CEP) of Co-operatives, Mutual societies, Associationsand Foundations (CEP-CMAF) was created. Two representatives of the sectoralso have a seat on the Enterprise Policy Group. In 2008, the CEP-CMAFchanged its name to Social Economy Europe.

The European Parliament, the European Economic and SocialCommittee, and the Committee of Regions have on numerous occasionspointed to the need for European Community actions to account for thesocial economy's potential for economic growth and employment.

Social economy enterprises benefit from Community programmesaimed at helping SMEs, such as the Competitiveness and InnovationProgramme.

As SMEs, they also benefit from specially targeted regionaldevelopment funds and research programmes. In order to promote thisspecial form of entrepreneurship, the European Commission finances avariety of projects in areas such as examining and reviewing legislation,


identifying and sharing good practices, and collecting statistical data.

6. European Legislation on Social EconomyThe European Commission wants to contribute to the creation of a

favourable environment for the development of social business in Europe,and of the social economy at large. For this purpose, a document is beingadopted, which will set out a number of initiatives to be implemented.

With its roots in the local environment and the objectives they pursue,social businesses help to strengthen the real economy, while contributingto social cohesion, employability and the reduction of geographicalimbalances.

As a follow-up to the European Commission’s Social Business Initiative(SBI), the objective of the Social Economy and Social Business Conference is togroup the main EU policy makers and stakeholders of social business inthe EU to take stock of the potential for development of social business,but also the barriers within the single market.

In 1992 the European Commission submitted three proposals to theEuropean Council: proposal for a Council Regulation on the Statute for a European

Cooperative Society; proposal for a Council Regulation on the Statute for a European

Mutual (insurance society); and proposal for a Council Regulation on the Statute for a European

Association.These three Regulations were accompanied by three similar Directives

imposing the employees involvement in the decision making process oftheir European businesses.

In 2003 the Statute for a European Co-operative was adopted. Theother two draft Regulations (and annexed Directives) were withdrawn in2006 by the European Commission due to lack of progress in thelegislative process.

7. European Events on Social EconomyIn recent years, it has held a series of conferences, events and projects

at European level on the social economy.In May 2010, in Toledo, Spain took place an European conference on

social economy under the Spanish presidency: Social Economy: doingbusiness differently; challenges and opportunities in globalized world.


The objectives of this conference are as follows: to present the contribution of social economy enterprises and

entities to the development of the EU 2020; to propose new ideas for the promotion of social economy as a

means of economic recovery; and to exchange various concepts and different realities of the Social

Economy diversity at the European level.The beneficiary of this conference was National Public Employment

Service in Spain.Other conferences held in Europe on social economy were: CIRIEC1

International Research Conference on the Social Economy; EMES2 InternationalConference on Social Enterprise; European Conference on Social Economy andEntrepreneurship; European Conference on Social Enterprises; EuropeanConference on Social Economy.

In terms of projects, a call for proposals Satellite Accounts forCooperatives and Mutuals was launched in 2009 under the Competitivenessand Innovation Programme.

The objective of this call is to develop reliable statistics on thecooperatives and mutuals at national and European levels by theestablishment of satellite accounts, the updating, improving and/oradapting already existing satellite accounts and the development oftransnational co-operation and exchange of experience and good practices.

Nine proposals were received before the closing date and five of themwere approved for financing. All projects were completed by December2010 and the results were published in 2011.

The projects are as follows: Satellite Accounts for Cooperatives and Mutuals; the beneficiary is

Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia; Developing an information system of the Central Cooperative Union as a

basis for the establishment of satellite accounts for cooperatives in Bulgaria; thebeneficiaries are Central Cooperative Union; National Union of Workers'Productive Cooperatives and National Statistical Institute;

1 Centre International de Recherches et d'Information sur l'Economie Publique,Sociale et Coopérative

2 EMES is a research network of established university research centres andindividual researchers whose goal is to gradually build up a European corpus oftheoretical and empirical knowledge, pluralistic in disciplines and methodology, aroundsocial economy issues.


Satellite Accounts for Cooperatives and Mutuals; the beneficiary isCIRIEC Belge section; Satellite Accounts for Cooperatives and Mutuals; the beneficiary is State

Statistical Office (FYROM); Satellite Accounts for Cooperatives and Mutuals in Spain; the

beneficiaries are National Statistical Institute and CIRIEC Spain.

8. Social Economy in European countriesBecause of their distinctive features and comparative advantages,

among others their democratic governance and autonomous management,the social enterprises and organizations are supported, or are about to besupported, by an increasing number of States. Policy frameworks for thedevelopment of the social economy at the national and regional levels arebeing implemented across all regions of the world. This builds onpartnerships between governments, social partners and civil society.

Économie sociale is a major economic sector in France, representing12% of the gross national product and employing 12% of the workforce.

An example of the social economy at work in France is illustrated bythe history of Entreprise Nouvelle Vers l'Insertion Economique (ENVIE)Strasbourg, which began in 1984 as a partnership between the homelesscharity Emmaus, social workers and the appliance distributor DARTY.Initially ENVIE provided repair and maintenance training to theunemployed and sold second-hand goods with a one-year warranty; thecity of Strasbourg provided support by redistributing temporaryemployment funds to pay workers and allowing municipal social workersto administer the project. In 1995, ENVIE branched out into the collectionof hazardous household materials and municipal wastes, and today thereare 30 similar municipal operations in the ENVIE network, employing 750people. Nine more operations are in their planning stages.

Spain's economía social is responsible for 14% of the gross nationalproduct, and employs 18% of the workforce. Confederación EmpresarialEspañola de la Economía Social (CEPES) is an association of social economyenterprises that includes worker-owned companies. In February, 2010,President José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero announced that the governmentplans to present a Social Economy Act to the Council of Ministers, whichhe sees as a significant measure to combat Spain's massive unemployment(which stands at 18%.)

Service-based organizations called social cooperatives have been animportant factor in Italy's economic life since the 1970s. Today they


number over 7,000, with 223,000 paid employees, 31,000 volunteers andcombined gross revenue of over five billion Euros.

In the United Kingdom, the Office of the Third Sector, created in 2006, isa Cabinet level post that facilitates government support of social economyenterprises. Many of the UK's most proactive social economy endeavours,however, have been funded through government grants.

9. Social Economy in RomaniaAlthough social economy is a recent concept in Romania, there is a

long tradition of some forms of social economy, from as early as thebeginning of the past century.

In Romania, although forms of social economy existed for a very longtime in society, we can not speak of an institutionally or juridicaldetermined area, with actual outputs.

Even during the period of the communist regime, the cooperativesheld a significant share of the economic activity. For some counties,particularly in southern Romania, the activity of the craftsmencooperatives accounted for about 50% of the economic activity of thatcounty before 1989.

The cooperative sector did not just provide a structure for theeconomic activity. The large cooperatives were functioning according tothe pattern of the socialist’s enterprises, providing services for theiremployees and their families (kindergartens, doctor’s office etc.).

For this type of structure, the period 1990-2000 meant the significantdecline of the activity, by the sale of assets or shutdown due to the neweconomic conditions.

Since 2001, the activity of the cooperatives has continued to shrinkstronger in the areas where it used to be predominant before 1989.

The actual phase of social economy development in Romania isrepresented by three forms: the cooperatives, the non-governmentalorganizations and the mutual aid organizations.

In 2009, the statistics of the social economy in Romania, representedby different types of organizations, were according to data presented intable 1.


Table 1 - Financial indicators of different types of cooperativeorganizations in Romania, in 2009

Types of organizations inRomania

Number ofactive

organizations

Total revenue(million RON)

Total staffemployee

Associations andFoundations 23,100 4,319 109,982

Credit Unions 897 230.9 18,999Handicraft Cooperatives 788 760.5 25,553Consumer Cooperatives 894 591.5 7.401Credit Cooperatives/Cooperative Banks 65 132.7 1,419

Total 25,744 6,034.1 163,354Source: Annual Report 2009, National Institute of Statistics in Romania,

available on http://www.insse.ro

The three types of organisations have a reduced potential for socialeconomy activities. There is no specific legislative framework which toencourage the development of social economy activities, while theavailability of the public institutions to support the organizationsaddressing the vulnerable groups is very limited.

The situations in which the three forms of social economy addressdirectly the higher employment of the disadvantaged groups are ratherisolated. As a common feature, excluding for the NGOs, the other types ofsocial economy organizations address indirectly the disadvantagedgroups, not including any kind of consistent supply of services.

10. ConclusionsIn the last time, the social economy has been gaining rising economic,

social and political visibility.This period of downturn could be an opportunity to establish the base

of a better economic model. The social economy enterprises can contributetowards designing this new model as they represent another businessformat based on value like long-term benefit, the primacy of people overcapital and respect for the environment.

The social economy promotes values and principles focusing onpeople’s needs and their community. In the spirit of voluntaryparticipation, self-help and autonomy, and through the means ofenterprises and organizations, it tries to find to balance economic successwith fairness and social justice, to local and European level.


REFERENCES

Malte Arhelger, Green Initiatives for the Social and Solidarity Economy,available on: http://www.socialeconomy.eu.org/

Patrick de Bucquois, How to Stimulate and to Maximise SocialEntrepreneuship Impact in the Economy?, available on:http://www.socialeconomy.eu.org/

Mel Evans, Social Capital and Social Economy in Europe: The work of theConscise Project, Institute of Social Science Research, Middlesex University,UK, available on: http://www.malcolmread.co.uk

Klaus Niederländer, The Co-operative Business Model: a Way out of theCrisis in Europe, available on: http://www.socialeconomy.eu.org/

Arnaud Pinxteren, L’Economie sociale comme moteur de transition?,available on: http://www.socialeconomy.eu.org/

George O. Tsobanoglou, The Worth of the Social Economy: Issues andProspects, available on: http://www.socialeconomy.eu.org/

*** A Social Economy Model for Romania, available on:http://www.undp.ro

*** Annual Report 2009, National Institute of Statistics in Romania,available on http://www.insse.ro

*** Atlas of Social Economy - Romania 2011, published by Institute ofSocial Economics, available on: http://www.ies.org.ro

*** European Parliament Report on Social Economy, 2008, available on:www.europarl.europa.eu

*** Social and Solidarity Economy: Building a Common Understanding,published by International Training Centre of the International LabourOrganization, Social and Solidarity Economy Academy, Italy, 2010,available on: http://www.socialeconomy.eu.org

*** The Social Economy in the European Union, CIRIEC, Brussels,European Economic and Social Committee, 2007, available on:www.socialeconomy.eu.org

*** Social Economy Europe, available on:http://www.socialeconomy.eu.org/*** The European Network for Social Integration Enterprises (ENSIE),

available on: http://ensie.x004.xtrasite.be*** The Social Economy in Spain 2010/2011, published by Confederación

Empresarial Española de la Economía Social (CEPES), available on:http://www.cepes.es


E-LEARNING SYSTEMS IN HIGHER EDUCATION-STANDARDS, FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURES, CASE

STUDY-

VALENTIN INCEU,[email protected]

PETRU BALOGH,[email protected]

POMPILIU [email protected]

Abstract: The more extensive application of the concepts and methodsspecific for ”e-learning” in education is favoured by the development ofinformation and communication technology combined with the educationalprocess centred on its beneficiaries. The present paper is part of a series of articlesdedicated to the presentation of this topic of academic interest. This second articleof the cycle aims to present the main requirements for e-learning systems inhigher education, the standards and the operational structures of these systems.Finally, as an example, a functional sketch of an e-learning system implementedwithin „Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University is briefly presented.

Keywords: e-learning, part-time learning, distance education, e-learningstandards.

IntroductionIn the academic environment, the spread of e-learning systems is

eased by the adoption by many higher education institutions of part-timeor distance study programmes.

The regular accreditation and academic assessment of part-time and

Professor Ph.D, - „Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University, Faculty of Tourismand Commercial Management, Constanţa.

Professor Ph.D, - „Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University, Faculty of Tourismand Commercial Management, Constanţa.

Senior lecturer Ph.D, - „Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University, Faculty ofTourism and Commercial Management, Constanţa.


distance study programmes is made according to the standards,performance indicators, and the methodology issued by the RomanianAgency for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ARACIS), stipulatedin guides of external assessment of part-time and distance studyprogrammes.

In order to get the accreditation of part-time and distance studyprogrammes, the higher education institution will have to prove that itowns, among others, the appropriate material resources to provideservices to students, specific academic resources, and a tutorial networkwith staff specialized in distance education technology, which highlightsthe importance of e-learning technologies for this type of academicstudies.

1. Standards and operational structuresAccording to A.2. Criterion/material resources/spaces and

equipment for educational activities, ARACIS guides of externalassessment of part-time and distance study programmes require thatdistance education Departments and Study Centres to fulfill the followingminimal indicators of performance specific for e-learning:

- hardware and software equipment for editing didactic materials(computers, audio, video, and photo apparatus, Xerox machine);

- computer networks connected to the Internet;- audio-video equipment for presenting the didactic materials in

multimedia format (video projectors, video recorders, tape players);- software products specialized for editing courses in electronic format

and their publishing in the virtual library, supervising students' access tothe virtual library and assessing students' knowledge;

- informatics systems to manage the admission process for distanceeducation programme, students' assessment and financial duties.

Although there is no explicit provision for the implementation of an"electronic education" system within part-time/distance educationDepartments, the minimal requirements mentioned above are beingincorporated in the e-learning concept, defined as that type of distanceeducation, organized by an educational institution and supported by atutorial system, which provides didactic materials in electronic format,assists students' learning and ensures the didactic assessment by means ofinformation and communication technology.

Another important aspect related to the implementation and use of e-learning systems is the elaboration of some standards which allow the


transfer of the educational materials in multimedia format and students'administrative data between software platforms that operate within thesame institution or in different ones.

For example, the SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model)standard, developed by ADL (Advanced Distributed Learning), agovernment institution in USA, is made to facilitate the sharing ofeducational resources between e-learning systems that rely on the Internetuse.

The concepts which are the bedrock of the SCORM model are madeup of:

- Considering educational resources as sharable content objects, bydefining some metadata (specific data formats which ensure theirimport/export);

- Defining a management system of LMS learning that ensuresstudents' access to all teaching services, as well as their administrativemanagement;

- Defining a management system of LCMS that allows theelaboration, storage, and delivery of educational resources in transferableformat.

Such standards have been adopted especially by e-learning systemsused by commercial suppliers of distance training services.

Because of the criteria that part-time/distance education studyprogrammes have to meet, e-learning systems implemented within highereducation institutions have a functional structure more complex that hasto fulfill various requirements.

With that end in view, it all starts primarily from the individual usersor groups of users which interact within an academic e-learning system:

- Director/study programme manager;- Training teaching staff;- Tutors;- Students;- Secretariat;- System administrator.Secondly, in order to meet ARACIS accreditation requirements and

the administration necessities for part-time and distance studyprogrammes, it is necessary that e-learning system consists of thefollowing components:

- The setting up and managing component of the educationalresources;


- The tutorial and access to educational resources component;- The component for the assessment of the educational process

quality and establishment of the access degree of the e-learning systemaccording to users categories;

- The secretariat and financial-accounting component;- The system administration component.Thirdly, it has to be taken into account that the educational process

sustained by the e-learning system refers to a complete study cycle(bachelor and master), organized according to bachelor degree fields,specializations, and years of study, the study year being structured onseries and classes/study groups.

From this point of view, the logic structure of the e-learning systemcould be organized on the following levels:

- Faculties/ part time/distance education study centres;- Part time/distance education departments;- Specializations;- Study years;- Subjects/study years;- Series;- Classes/study groups.By way of example, in the table below there are briefly presented the

main procedures that have to be met by users of an e-learning system inthe academic environment.

Table 1 Specific procedures organized on groups of users of the e-learning system

No. Categories of users Specific procedures

1Director/studyprogrammesupervisor

- managing of data regarding theteaching staff- managing of curricula- distribution of tutors and teachingactivities- the assessment of students' satisfactionregarding the quality of the didactic

2 Teaching staff- ensuring the didactic resources- posting the assessment tests- virtual didactic activities


3 Tutors

- counselling and guiding activities- students' knowledge assessmentactivities- students' activity record

4 Students

- the study of the didactic materials- solving the self-assessment tests- assistance and guiding solicitation- accessing the timetable of didacticactivities- filling in assessment forms andquestionnaires

5 Secretariat

- the planning of the didactic activities- curricula- students' enrolment and exams- students' administrative problems

6 Systemadministrator

- specific procedures of systemadministration- establishing the access degree of the e-learning system on users categories

The user is therefore a physical person recognized by the system onthe basis of a name and a password, which ensures the activation of hispersonalized page, as well as the validation of the data inserted ortransferred in/from the system at the end of the working session.

2. Case study – organizing part time/ distance educationprogrammes within UCDC

Within "Dimitrie Cantemir" Christian University, part time/ distanceeducation programmes are being organized, according to currentlegislation and stipulations, for most of the study programmes accreditedfor part time education.

Currently, communication systems with students from part time/distance education programmes involve the use of the Internet, assigningan individual account for each student, ensuring the tutorial system,respectively of the individual tutoring, the use of other IT means.

At the beginning of each semester, the student receives the didacticactivities planning, the curricula, the syllabi, activities timetable, theplanning of exams and other assessment forms, the list with the tutor'scoordinates (for distance education programmes) and teaching staff


coordinates, as well as the package with courses support he will use forindividual training.

Because within UCDC part time/ distance education territorialcentres are subordinated to the part time/ distance education Departmentthrough the logistic service and territorial centres, and the informaticsservice, also subordinated to the Department, serves all territorial centres,it results that there is already present the organizational structurenecessary for the implementation of an e-learning system within the wholeuniversity.

Thus, the main prerogatives of the informatics service of the parttime/ distance education Department are the following:- Maintaining the integrated informatics system (software and

hardware);- Its development through the introduction of some new components

within the existing informatics system (applications);- The development of some components to use the informational

resources needed for students' on-line training for the part time educationprogramme;- Using the videoconferencing system for video communication

between Bucharest headquarters and faculties in the country;- The analysis and design of some components for managing the

teaching staff within UCDC;- Updating information on-line;Most of these prerogatives can be materialized efficiently once with

the implementation of an integrated e-learning system within UCDC.On the other hand, within the structure of the integrated informatics

system of UCDC, a series of academic management components arealready being used:- The secretariat module (enrollment, students' record, exams,

curricula, faculty statistics and reports, bachelor degree examination, on-line marks);- The administrator module (manages the informatics system - data

security, users authorization, etc.);- Cashier module (manages school and exam taxes and integrates

with the secretariat and cashier modules);- Accounting module (financial-accounting records);- Online data publishing module (publishes information in students'

accounts for their online access);


- Bachelor degree exam module (automated managing of data for thewritten examination, marks record for the written and oral examination,final result publishing);

All these components can be adapted and integrated into theupcoming e-learning system of UCDC.

Finally, UCDC benefits from its own virtual private network (VPN),within the national educational network RoEduNet, which connects,through optical fibre, UCDC Bucharest headquarters with faculties inTimisoara, Sibiu, Cluj-Napoca, Brasov and Constanta, and which permitsinformation transfer between these locations.

This virtual network, which allows the access to informational andInternet resources, and also data transfer, successfully ensures thecommunication infrastructure for the upcoming integrated e-learning system.

ConclusionsBecause of the criteria that part-time/distance education programmes

have to meet, the e-learning systems implemented in the academicenvironment have a more complex structure, which do not comply withthe standards adapted by commercial suppliers of distance educationalservices, such as SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model), setup in the USA.

Currently, within UCDC there is an organizational structure for part-time/distance education programmes, coordinated by the part-time/distance education Department, a communication structuresupported by a virtual private network as well as components ofadministration and academic management used by the existinginformatics system of UCDC, which greatly eases the implementation ofan integrated e-learning system within the whole university.

BibliographyDobre Iuliana – Studiul critic al actualelor sisteme de e-learning,

Institutul de cercetări pentru inteligenţa artificială, Bucureşti 2010Inceu V., Balogh P., Golea P., Sisteme e-learning în învătământul

universitar-reglementări, terminologie, opţiuni, studiu de caz, Euromentorjournal, Volume III, No. 3/ September 2012

http://www.elearning-forum.ro/resurse/index.htmlhttp://www.ucdc.ro/img/comisie-calitate/2012/po29.pdfhttp://www.aracis.ro/fileadmin/ARACIS/Legislatie_-

_Proceduri/Partea_a_V-a_-_Ghid_evaluare-ID.pdf


FROM TASK-SUPPORTED TEACHING TO TASK-BASEDLEARNING

THE CASE OF JAPANESE LANGUAGE TEACHING INROMANIA -

MAGDALENA CIUBĂNCAN

[email protected]

Abstract: Speaking a foreign language is a must in today’s globalized world.Placing one of the most recent teaching approaches – task-based learning (TBL) –in the context of the development of teaching methods and approaches over theyears, our paper presents and analyzes the difficulties encountered by teachers inunderstanding and employing this particular method. We briefly present the mainteaching approaches from a conceptual perspective, with a special focus on theobjectives and on the characteristics of TBL. Furthermore, we analyze theparticular case of the Japanese language teaching and learning in Romania andthe difficulties that the Romanian teachers of Japanese encounter when theyattempt to use TBL in their classes.

Keywords: teaching method, teaching approach, Japanese language, task-based learning, task-supported teaching.

Foreign languages are one of the most important assets that a personof today’s globalized society owns. The world of the 21st century reliesheavily on communication and knowledge of at least one foreign languagehas already become the usual standard in everyday life. Learning a foreignlanguage is no longer a matter of being an erudite, which subsequentlybrings about changes in the process of foreign language teaching.

The issue regarding the necessity of understanding foreign languagesgoes back to the 18th century, when Greek and Latin started to be learnedand taught through the famous Grammar-Translation method. Involvinglittle or no spoken communication or listening comprehension, theGrammar-Translation method was not aimed at building communicativeskills, but was focused on learning grammar rules and applying them intranslation. Context was given little importance when teaching

Lecturer Ph.D., - “Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University, Bucharest.


vocabulary, the one-to-one equivalents being the rule. The development ofintellectual capacities and of logical thinking prevailed over the actuallearning/teaching of a foreign language. The concept of communicationwas almost inexistent. The main goal was that the student became able toread literature in the target language – Greek or Latin. According to Pratorand Celce-Murcia (Prator and Celce-Murcia, 1979: 3), the key features ofthe Grammar Translation Method are as follows: Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the

target language. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are

given. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and

instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as

exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected

sentences from the target language into the mother tongue. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

The Grammar Translation Method is still used today in a surprisingnumber of institutions, the main reason being probably the reducedamount of effort for the teacher in preparing the lesson, providing theexplanations and in testing the result.

While the Grammar-Translation method was originally used forpreparing students to be able to read and translate literary texts, withalmost no focus on speaking, the methods that developed afterwardsgradually addressed the other skills as well, either separately or in variouscombinations. The Direct Method, for example, focuses mainly onspeaking, with lessons being held in the target language only. Grammarrules are not presented by the teacher in an explicit manner, but in aninductive one. Needless to say, the amount of time dedicated to lessonplanning increases considerably. Furthermore, the quantity of informationthat can be transmitted by using this method is greatly reduced ifcompared to a lesson taught in the Grammar-Translation tradition.

As a reaction to the Grammar-Translation Method there comes theDirect Method, which attempts to integrate more use of the target


language during the teaching process. Only the target language issupposed to be used for instruction and the student is forced to thinkdirectly in the target language and to use it as such. Written work is givenlittle attention, the emphasis being laid on spoken production. J. Richardsand Th. Rodgers (Richards and Rogers, 2001: 12) describe principles ofprocedures underlying the Direct Method in the following way: Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target

language. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught. Oral communication skills were built up in carefully graded

progression organized around question-answer exchanges betweenteachers and students in small, intensive classes. Grammar was taught inductively. New teaching points were introduced orally. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstrating, objects

and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

The Audio-lingual method provides students with the necessary toolsfor communicating orally at a basic level. The development of the Audio-lingual method was motivated by various scientific and historical factors.Bloomfield1’s emphasis on the importance of the observable linguisticphenomena, as well as the development of behaviorism2 in the UnitedStates provided a fertile ground for the development of the Audio-lingualmethod. Furthermore, the outbreak of the Second World War broughtabout the necessity for the US soldiers to learn to speak the languages ofthe countries they were being sent to in a very short time. Based mainly on

1 Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949): American linguist who greatly influenced thedevelopment of comparative and structural linguistics in the USA. He believed thatlinguists should be trained in the methods of scientific enquiry, rejected categoricallyspeculation of unobservable phenomena and based linguistic enquiry on samples ofspoken language. Bloomfield favored the image of language as a building constructed ofsmall blocks of sound and meaning, each block having a specific place and function andexhibiting specific characteristics (Siobhan Chapman and Christopher Routledge (eds.),2005: 34-40).

2 Movement in psychology and philosophy that emphasized the outward,observable aspects of thought


repetition and imitation, the Audio-lingual method was quite successfuluntil the cognitive approaches started to develop.

The Silent Way3, Communicative Language Learning4,Suggestopedia5, Total Physical Response6 or the CommunicativeApproach7 - all place the student, together with his needs, at the center ofthe teaching-learning process. We witness a shift from the teacher-centered to the student-centered approaches, with an increased emphasison the student as a whole person. The student’s feelings and emotions,together with his cognitive and intellectual abilities, are all taken intoaccount during the teaching-learning process. While the Grammar-Translation Method did not address communication at all, the newapproaches focus on the development of all the communicative skills –reading, listening, writing and speaking. The Communicative Approach inparticular has been extremely popular starting with the 1970s, especiallybecause it introduced the idea of the meaningfulness of language study.With the traditional methods, the aim that the student had to achieve wasthe mastery of the target language; with the communicative approach, thestudent must become able to communicate in the target language, even ifthe grammatical correctness is not always 100% achieved. Real-lifesituations and authentic materials are used in class and the teachingprocess focuses on the use of language rather than on passive learning.

3 Developed by Caleb Gattegno, The Silent Way regards language learning as aprocess of solving problems and discovery of new things. The teacher stays silent andonly guides the students in their problem-solving process. The silence is supposed tohelp the learners concentrate on solving the task (Ciubancan, 2012: 80)

4 Community Language Learning requires teachers to regard their students as wholepersons. The teacher is a language counselor, helping the students overcome the fear andthe insecurities that occur when confronted to a new (and threatening) experience such aslearning a new language. (Ciubancan, 2012: 80)

5 Developed by Georgi Lozanov, Suggestopedia focuses on creating a relaxingenvironment, which will lead to a relaxed mental state in the learner. Music, décor andritualized teaching behavior are used (Ciubancan, 2012: 80)

6 Total Physical Response was developed in the 1970’s and focuses on the physicalresponse to commands, teaching language through physical activity. The students’ mainrole is to listen and perform. (Ciubancan, 2012:80 )

7 The Communicative Approach focuses on achieving successful communication inthe target language, going beyond the level of grammar and vocabulary. The notion of„communicative competence” is introduced, referring to the ability of making oneselfunderstood in an appropriate manner. Great emphasis is laid on the motivation thatarises from the student’s desire to communicate something that he/she feels as beingrelevant. (Ciubancan, 2012: 80)


The shift in the teaching paradigm can also be noticed if one analyzesthe names of the strategies employed in the teaching process. The firststrategies that were used in foreign language teaching are called methods:The Grammar-Translation Method, The Audio-Lingual Method or TheDirect Method. The use of a method implies the existence of a rather strict,logical and systematic strategy of instruction. The use of a methodpresupposes that the teacher has the solution, that he/she is the puppet-master who applies a certain strategy that his/her students must learn andfollow for best results. The Silent Way, Total Physical Response orSuggestopedia no longer impose a ‘method’, but rather appeal to eitherpsychological or cognitive aspects of the student’s personality. Thestudent is no longer treated as a puppet following the master’s model, butis asked to use his/her own mind and body to integrate the languagelearning experience. Community Language Learning shifts the focus fromteaching onto learning. For the first time, it is clear from the verybeginning that the focus is not on the teacher, but on the learner. TheCommunicative Approach brings the teacher and the student together inan approach - “the act of drawing near” (Webster’s EncyclopedicUnabridged Dictionary of the English Language) – to real-lifecommunication. The role of the teacher has thus changed quitedramatically over the years. From organizer and controller in the traditionalmethods of teaching, the teacher evolves into a facilitator in the so-calledhumanistic approaches to language learning.

The approach called Task-Based Learning (TBL) is closely associatedwith the Communicative Approach, logically following the real-lifecenteredness that the Communicative Approach presupposes. Both inTask-Based Learning and in the Communicative Approach three aspectsare considered vital for efficient language learning:

- Regular exposure of the learner to the target language inmeaningful contexts;

- Frequent opportunity for the active use of the target language incommunicative situations;

- Strong motivation for language learning.

The so-called Task-Based Learning approach to language learningstarts from the premise that learners of a foreign language would be moreefficient in their learning process if placed into real-life situations, wherethey must solve real-life tasks. Solving tasks is a common activity in reallife, hence its relevance for language learning. The most visible advantage


of using TBL is that the student uses the target language for achieving arealistic goal at his/her current level. One clear purpose of choosing TBLis to increase learner activity; TBL is concerned with learner and notteacher activity and it lies on the teacher to produce and supply differenttasks which will give the learner the opportunity to experimentspontaneously, individually and originally with the foreign language.Each task will provide the learner with new personal experience with theforeign language and at this point the teacher has a very important part toplay. He or she must take the responsibility of the consciousness raisingprocess, which must follow the experimenting task activities. Theconsciousness raising part of the TBL method is a crucial for the success ofTBL, it is here that the teacher must help learners to recognize differencesand similarities, help them to “correct, clarify and deepen” theirperceptions of the foreign language. All in all, TBL is language learning bydoing(http://www.languages.dk/archive/pools-m/manuals/final/taskuk.pdf).

A communicative task has been defined by D. Nunan as a piece ofclassroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating,producing, or interacting in the target language while their attention isfocused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to expressmeaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than tomanipulate form (Nunan, 2004: 4). The typical structure of the TBL processconsists of three main phases: the pre-task phase, the task-solving phaseand the post-task phase. Together they form the so-called task-cycle.

During the pre-task phase, the teacher usually introduces the topic tothe class and explores it together with the students through variousmethods (watching a recording of a similar task, reading or listening to atext that will lead in to the actual task etc.). It is during this phase thatuseful vocabulary is emphasized. The students then proceed to do thetask, in pairs or in small groups. The teacher monitors them and offersassistance when needed, encouraging all attempts at communication.Mistakes of any nature do not matter at this point. Planning is the nextstep, during which the students prepare to report to the whole class, eitherorally or in writing, how they did the task and what they discovered. Theteacher must be prepared to provide help with grammar or otherlanguage-related problems. The following stage is reporting to the classorally or exchanging written reports and comparing them. The teacheracts as a chairperson and comments on the content of the reports. Thepost-task phase focuses mainly on language.


The typical structure of a Task-Based lesson is summarized in thefollowing scheme (Task Based Learning” – European Commission fundedproject:http://www.languages.dk/archive/pools-m/manuals/final/taskuk.pdf):

TBL is one of the latest teaching methods employed in foreignlanguage teaching and, as presented above, it focuses mainly on task-solving and communication, the language aspects being dealt withindirectly. TBL basically opposes the traditional Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) approach to teaching. The presentation phase usuallyconsists of two steps: a warm-up and the introduction of the languageitems to be studied; during the practice phase, the focus is on form, thestudents doing various exercises in order to learn the forms correctly; theproduction phase focuses on fluency and gives the students the chance toapply what they have learned during the first two stages. While thepractice stage is highly controlled, the production one tends to be less


controlled. The PPP approach is used to a very large extent, the reasonsbeing rather easy to understand. The controlled environment makes iteasy for the teacher to avoid unpleasant situations during the lesson. Thestudents, on the other hand, feel secure, since they always have a model torefer to when in doubt. However, the PPP does not offer the authenticitythat the student needs in real life situations. TBL, on the other hand, forcesthe student to use whatever knowledge he/she has got in order to‘survive’ in the real world. Needless to say, a TBL lesson implies a moredifficult task for the teacher, since he/she must always be prepared toprovide the accurate information whenever the students need it. Previousplanning may not always be enough, especially in the case of young,inexperienced teachers.

In the case of Japanese language teaching in Romania, the longtradition of employing the Grammar-Translation Method or the PPPapproach seems to be hard to challenge. The preference given to these twoapproaches is understandable, since teaching Japanese as a non-nativeteacher is not an easy job, especially for the higher-intermediate and theadvanced levels. The traditional teacher feels secure if he/she can prepareeverything – including the answers to the possible questions from thestudents – in advance. Various trainings for Japanese language teachers inEurope or in Central and Eastern Europe have been held in the past years,many of them focusing on TBL as an alternative to traditional teaching8.And while everybody agrees that TBL might be an approach thataddresses better the needs of the students nowadays, the number ofteachers who actually use it is extremely limited.

There are, in our opinion, at least two major reasons for thatreluctance of including TBL in one’s teaching. One of them regards notonly non-native teachers of Japanese, but also Japanese native teacherswith insufficient socio linguistic and pragmatic knowledge andcompetences and consists in the difficulty of evaluating whether the taskhas been properly accomplished or not. Subjectivity may be highly presentand, while that is acceptable in the real world, it becomes problematic

8 For example, in 2012 there were two such trainings organized by the JapanFoundation, the special legal entity established by the Japanese Diet to undertake thedissemination of Japanese language and culture throughout the world: Training forJapanese Language Teachers in Europe in Alsace, France and Training for JapaneseLanguage Teachers in Central and Eastern Europe, in Budapest, Hungary. Aside fromthese, various other smaller-scale study meetings were organized in Romania, especiallyfor Romanian teachers of Japanese.


when it occurs during an evaluation process in an educational institution.Therefore, we consider that training teachers on how to evaluate TBL isequally important. The Japan Foundation specialists created a verysuggestive image of the competences and activities that a person musthave and do in order to communicate efficiently. The image is that of atree, where the linguistic, socio linguistic and pragmatic competences formthe roots, the communicative language competences and activities formthe trunk and the receptive, productive and interactive activities form thebranches9. The problem is that, in the case of the Romanian teachers ofJapanese, it is taken for granted that they possess the elements forming theroots of the tree, while in reality things appear to be different.

The other reason which influences Romanian teachers of Japanese intheir not choosing TBL as a viable alternative to traditional methods is, inour opinion, that there still exists a misunderstanding of what a task is.When, during a study meeting10, after a presentation of PPP and TBLcontrastively, teachers were asked which of the two approaches they usein class, some of them answered “TBL”, adding that after they teach agrammar structure, they usually ask their students to use that structure insentences or texts of their own. Such answers demonstrate that theproduction stage of a PPP approach has been mistaken for a genuine TBLapproach.

The situation of Japanese language teaching in Romania ischaracterized, in our opinion, not by ‘task-based learning’, but by what R.Ellis calls ‘task-supported language teaching’ (Ellis, 2003: 27). Thedifference between the two is that while task-based teaching/learningrefers to a teaching approach based on meaning-focused tasks, with littleattention given to grammar, in task-supported language teaching “tasksare seen not as a means by which learners acquire new knowledge orrestructure their inter-languages, but simply as a means by which learnerscan activate their existing knowledge of the L2 by developing fluency”(Ellis, 2003: 30). The current situation in most of the institutions whereJapanese is taught in Romania is that the Romanian teachers of Japaneseemploy a task-supported teaching approach, the real task-basedteaching/learning approach being used, where possible, by the nativeJapanese teachers.

9 http://jfstandard.jp/pdf/jfs2010_tree.pdf10 Study meeting organized by the Association of Japanese Language Teachers in

Romania (February 2nd , 2013)


REFERENCES

Brandl, K., (2008), Communicative Language Teaching in Action: PuttingPrinciples to Work. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Chapman, S. and Routledge, C. (eds.)., (2005), Key Thinkers inLinguistics and The Philosophy of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ciubancan, M., (2012), “Teaching Methods in The Framework ofIntegralist Linguistics”. In M. Ciubancan (ed.), The International Symposiumon Japanese Linguistics and Methodology. Cluj-Napoca: Presa UniversitaraClujeana.

Ellis, R., (2003), Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. New York:Oxford University Press.

Harmer, J., (2009), How to Teach (5th edition). Harlow: Longman.Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 1986. Techniques and Principles in Language

Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Nunan, D., (2004), Task-based language teaching. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.Prator, C.H. and Celce-Murcia, M., (1979), “An outline of language

teaching approaches”. In Celce-Murcia, M. and McIntosh, L. (ed.), TeachingEnglish as a Second or Foreign Language. New York: Newbury House.

Richards, J.C. and Rogers, Th.S., (2001), Approaches and Methods inLanguage Teaching (Second Edition). Cambridge, New York, Melbourne,Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paolo: Cambridge University Press.

Internet web pages:http://www.languages.dk/archive/pools-

m/manuals/final/taskuk.pdfhttp://jfstandard.jp/pdf/jfs2010_tree.pdf


THE EVALUATION OF THE TEACHING STAFF’S INITIALTRAINING PROGRAMS –

ANALYTICAL BENCHMARKS

IULIANA TRAŞCĂ

[email protected]

Abstract: Until now, in the context of the reorganization of the studyprograms according to the principles of Bologna, in Romania the teaching staff’sinitial training has not been the focus of any national strategy, or perhaps onlytangentially and implicitly; the evaluation of these programs has not involved anyintegrative approach: related to process, projects, decisions or results. One canmention only reports and studies elaborated either by governmental institutionsor by research institutions; these studies were deliverable components withinnational or European projects. That is why, although observations and proposalson the quality of the teaching staff initial training were made, theirimplementation was not compulsory, they were only recommendations. In thiscontext, the legislative inconsistency in the educational domain in general, and inthe case of teaching staff’s initial programs in particular, had a negative influence.

Keywords: competences, qualifications, professionalization, the evaluationof the teaching staff’s initial training programs.

The facilitation of socio-professional mobility led to the mostimportant changes related to qualifications, changes pertaining toconcepts, methodology and evaluation. Moreover, although it was initiallya priority of the labor market, as there was the need to endow theworkforce with a high professional qualification, the preoccupation forprofessionalization became a major concern of the educational andtraining system. This context justifies the double interest that theeducational system, the school, unlike other domains of social life,manifested for the challenges of the society: on the one hand, it has toprove its performance by means of the students’ performance, which hasno immediate visibility at the societal level; on the other hand, it has to

Lecturer Ph.D, - Educational Sciences Faculty, “Dimitrie Cantemir” ChristianUniversity, Bucharest.


provide the human resources able to achieve this aim. In a society which ismore and more complex and exigent, the training of the teaching staffrepresents an essential component of the strategy of any economy; theteacher is no longer just somebody who passes knowledge, s/he hasbecome instead a facilitator who helps others discover and even createnew knowledge. To this aim, the teacher has to make proof of multipleprofessional and transversal competences, and, in particular, of anincreased ability to adapt to whatever is new. That is why there is the needto re-think the teaching staff’s training programs related to both life-longlearning and initial training; the first step was taken with the adherence tothe principles of Bologna and with the initial training which was ensuredby higher education, by the university graduation level, but, once Lawnr.1/2011 was adopted, the educational system had to deal with a series ofmodifications, which, short of some precise norms and methodology ofapplication, generated confusion and reluctance regarding the viabilityand the timeliness of this law.

Thus, the teaching staff’s initial training tends to go beyond theuniversity graduation level, as the graduation of a teaching masterprogram has become compulsory. But its implementation goes againstsome already existing norms and methodologies; this is the case of theDPPD program, which will be carried out simultaneously with theteaching master program until the end of the university year 2014-2015.

The SWOT analysis of the stage of the research on the teaching staff’sinitial training program evaluation

Strengths Weaknesses The organization and the

functioning of DPPD as a mainprovider of the teaching staff’sinitial programs for otherdomains than EducationalSciences;

The setting up of someinstitutions with a role in theteaching staff’s initial andcontinuous training;

The implementation of CNCISand the elaboration and thepublication in RNCIS of the

The absence of a nationalstrategy for the teaching stafftraining;

The legislative inconsistency inthe training domain, in general,and in the teaching staff’straining domain, in particular;

Inconsistency in the applicationof the provisions of Lawno.1/2011

A poor inter-institutionalcommunication;


description of thequalifications of the studydomain of EducationalSciences;

The existence of occupationalstandards and of continuoustraining standards for teachingjobs;

The nationwide use of theARACIS/ARACIPmethodology and of theadjacent instruments for theevaluation of the quality ofstudy programs;

A poor inter-institutionalcommunication regarding theapproach of the teaching staff’straining process;

The existence and the use ofvarious instruments regardingthe teaching staff’s training;

The weak reaction and the lackof implication of theprofessional associations and oftrade unions in the process ofthe teaching staff’s training;

The reduced decisional capacityof specialists and universitiesregarding the evaluation of theteaching staff’s initial training;

The reduction of the degree ofinstitutional implication ofCNFP, due to its transformationinto a direction of MECTS;

The lack of interest of MECTSand of other decision-makingfactors for the integrativeapproach of the evaluation ofthe teaching staff’s initialtraining (projects, processes,results, decisions) and theelaboration of an evaluationprogram to this purpose;

The reduced consistency ofresearch studies regarding theevaluation of the teaching staffinitial formation (articles, lecturenotes, book chapters, doctoralthesis);

The tendency to reduce theevaluation of the teaching staff’straining to the evaluation of the


teaching staff’s activities and ofthe students’ results, as well asto the ARACIS/ARACIPcriteria.

Opportunities Threats The Sectorial Operational

Program The Development ofHuman Resources (POS DRU)2007-2013, which facilitated thedevelopment of projects thatdealt with the teaching staffdevelopment as well, both inthe context of continuoustraining and that of initialtraining;

The publication of studies andreports elaborated bygovernmental institutions onthe state of the educationalsystem;

The publications of studies andreports by specialists/specialized institutions in thedomain of education andtraining (ISE, ICCV, ARACIS,ARACIP, ANC etc.);

The facilitation of informationand document exchangeregarding the teaching staff’straining in accordance with theprocess of Bologna, as well asaccording to CEC/EQF, byrepresenting Romania intransnational projects, workingcommittees, conferences, etc.

The decision to implement theteaching master as a first levelof teaching staff’s initial

Unrealistic data, with noscientific support, about thecomplex evaluation of theteaching staff’s initial training;unrealistic objectives andforecasts made by MECTS;

Confusion in the use of conceptsand instruments specific toteaching staff’s trainingprograms;

Fostering uncertainty related tothe quality of the teaching staff’straining programs;

The reduction of the degree ofprofessionalization of theteaching jobs, short of certain,positive data resulted from theevaluation of the trainingprograms;

The decrease of the graduates’motivation to work in theteaching domain, as a result ofthe latter’s impossibility toevaluate themselves withreference to the results of atraining program evaluation.


training (the inclusion in Lawno.1/2011 of the provisionsconcerning the teaching masteras well as the publication of theconditions related to itsorganization–OMECTSno.3841/26.04.2012);

It is obvious that there is little concern for the analysis/ the evaluationof the teaching staff’s training programs, and of the initial trainingprograms, in particular.

In addition, from the level of the factors that make decisions about theteaching staff’s training, we suggest that the following measures should benecessary:

- the implication of the decisional factors in the elaboration of adiagnosis-study, whose aim should be a realistic analysis of the teachingstaff’s professional training system, at all levels and for all types oftrainings with forecasts from the perspective of the evolution of theRomanian society in the following 20 years.

- the elaboration of a national strategy for the teaching staff’s training;- the official dissemination of data, conclusions, proposals put down

in elaborated studies and reports, in the public space;- the proposal in real time of a plan of ameliorative measures for the

problems identified at the level of the teaching staff’s training system;- the elaboration of a complex and unitary model/program for the

evaluation of the teaching staff’s initial training programs;- the harmonization of the instruments used in the description of the

competences specific to the teaching activities/ positions and to elaboratea usage guide;

- the creation of a general framework of the training system for theteaching activities/positions, to the purpose of monitoring the evolutionin the teaching career;

- the elaboration of a unitary set of instruments used in the evaluationof the teaching staff’s program evaluation;

- the reconsideration of the criteria which ensure the compatibility andthe comparability of professional qualifications in Romania with theEuropean Framework of Qualifications.


ConclusionsIn Romania, the evaluation of social and/or educational programs, in

general, and the evaluation of the teaching staff’s programs, in particular,has not led to special results, that should be elaborated professionallyenough to become models to be followed. The fact that the importance ofevaluation of the teaching staff’s training programs is treated superficially,in the context of the professionalization of the teachingactivities/positions, can generate unwanted and uncontrollable effects intime. One of the first effects of this situation is the absence of an objectiveand globalizing feedback at the level of all stages/ phases and on all thecomponents of a training program; this leads to a distorted image of theteaching staff’s initial training system and it impinges upon the rapid,punctual identification of problematic situations, so that, most of the time,the intervention is late and without impact. Moreover, the absence of anational strategy for the teaching staff’s training that should unitarily andcoherently bring together concepts, methodologies and work instrumentscommon to all types of trainings, whose evolution in the teaching careershould be monitored according to principles and criteria ofprofessionalization, determines the adoption of short-term solutions,which is not always efficient.

And last but not least, the legislative modifications in the trainingdomain and, most frequently, at the level of initial training leads toinstability, confusion and sometimes to the lack of motivation of theinvolved actors (both those with a decisional role, and those who applysome pre-established norms and rules). All these determine, directly orindirectly, the degree of interest and the motivation that graduates showfor teaching activities/ positions, the latter’s preoccupation for a teachingcareer and for a personal and professional development in this direction.

REFERENCES

Cadrul competenţelor de bază necesare profesiei didactice (Framework of basiccompetences for teaching profession), (2007), Consiliul Naţional pentruFormarea Personalului din Învăţământul Preuniversitar.

Iucu R., (2005), Formarea iniţială şi continuă a cadrelor didactice. Sisteme,politici şi strategii, Bucureşti, Ed. Humanitas Educaţional.

OMECTS nr. 3841/2012 privind Organizarea masterului didactic.


Strategia Naţională pentru Dezvoltarea Durabilă a României. Orizonturi2013 – 2020 – 2030 (National Strategy for Sustainable Development of Romania.Horizons 2013 – 2020 – 2030).

Traşcă I., (2011), Strategic Guidelines Regarding the Development ofPhysical Education and Sports Teachers’ Competences, în Buletinul ştiinţifico –metodic UNEFS, No. 5/2011.

Traşcă I., (2012), Specifics of the evaluation of the teaching staff’s initialtraining programs, Discobolul, UNEFS, No. 28, June 2012.


DIMENSIONS OF GAME IN LITERARY TEXT FORPRESCHOOL AND SCHOOL SMALLER

OCTAVIA COSTEA

[email protected]

Abstract: The possibility that human being could be taught through game -based literary text compensates hereditary minuses, compensates and corrects theof effects physical and social environment effects on personality development ofpreschoolers and toddlers. In the field literature, we talk about game dimensions ofthe game: existential dimensions, evolutionary formative dimensions andconjectural dimensions. Family and organization of kindergartens and schoolshave an important role in educational games. We add to this, the location of gamein literary text on educational axis well-beautiful-truth, as well in aesthetic termsof thumbnail, graceful and sentimentality.

Keywords: game types, existential dimensions, evolutionary formativedimensions and conjectural dimensions, ethics axis, personality development.

1. Premises of literary text exploration through playPreschool age is specific for game and is a time of mental

development in which the game takes unusual features: approacheschildren from other forms of activity, is space of exploration and life world(Şchiopu U. et al, 1995)1. During this period, diversification and evolutionof the game leads to deepening and improving the forms and kinds ofoutlined games. It is recorded the passing from the games of manipulationor handling of objects, characteristic of earlier age, to the creative gamewith the topic and roles, as well with construction topics.

On the other hand, any educator integrates literary text by addressingeducational teaching sequences based on perception, understanding,interpretation, application (Hans-Robert Jauss, 1982)2, and also based onsynthetic reconstitution in and for real life. Hermeneutical process unit isconfigured such as:

Professor Ph.D., - Educational Sciences Faculty, Christian University DimitrieCantemir, Bucharest.

1 Şchiopu. U., şi Verza, E., Psihologia vârstelor, EDP. RA, Bucureşti, 1995.2 Jauss, Hans-Robert, Pour une hérmeneutique littéraire, Paris, Ed. Gallimard, 1982.


progressive horizon of perception (hermeneutic reconstruction ofthe first reception); retrospective horizon of interpretative understanding (creation of

meaning in the second reception); realisation of text by changing horizon of its reception

(understanding and aesthetic judgment default). Involved receptor isbased on the acquisition of reading and transfers them in reverse order, interms of writing or drawing, based on aesthetic judgments, usinginterpretation data for access to its own reconstruction of the text, inwhich is included initially perceived meaning. Working stake from whichwe leave is that any process of perception is based on a reversibletransition between theory and practice, in which is faced criticalexperiences and continuous readjustments of literary text lecturesproposed by the intended objectives.

Creative game becomes the effect of the whole mental development ofthe child, in particular, the ability to reflect, in its own form, theimpressions gained from the surrounding world that has many unknownaspects for child. This capability makes possible to bring the world near tochild without generating irreducible tension. Through play, childrenparticipate actively in all that surrounds him, he transposes in initial gamethe external actions made by people with different objects (transpositionbegins even before preschool period), and then, he play the significance ofthese external actions, as well the disclosure of various socialrelationships. Early school age is characterized by relatively highfrequency of creation games with issues of life and of surroundingconcrete world.

Details of the miniature world, graceful and sentimental capture theattention of children at this age. For educators, the quality and consistencyof transposition of real in musical game, for example, how quicklyimpressions are exploited in the creation of games, as well captured tonescan be analysis parameters of the development level of children: Over-thefairy night / Proud moon arises, / Everything is dream and harmony -/ Goodnight! (Sleepy birds of Mihai Eminescu).

The role-game develops gradually: 3-4 years, the topics arefragmentation reflections of a series of episodes, often disparate, ofeveryday life; after 4 years, the game theme enriches and emerges; to 6years, the game reflects a coherent narrative. When children are in groups,e.g. kindergarten group, creative play, with defined roles, may develop ondifferent themes, with shared tasks, showing a tendency to unify around a


common group theme. Inside the game with role-playing, the centralgame and collateral games reflect the complex structure and synthetic ofreal life. This involves major changes in the development of children'ssociability. The place of individual game is taken by collective play, withabove outlined rules which should rebuild the unity and cohesion of reallife through play. Child acquires the ability to identify himself with theinterpreted character, he is capable of imaginary experiences growingdeeper. Rapid transition from the real to imaginary plan and reverse is anadvanced phase for child and play evolution, the child becomes aware ofhis own person and that of the model he mimics.

At preschool, play and schemes symbolic gains in complexity. Themain structural elements of the game are symbolic: goal, subject, rolesand rules:

What child care while his mother and father are thinking about theshortcomings of life, what can bring them tomorrow, and they are covered byother thoughts full of care. Child, rode on his stick, is thinking that he is riding ahorse most awe, that runs, with good cheer, and beat him with whips and harnessit by all means, and roaring heartily at him, to take your hearing; and if he fallsdown, he thinks the horse slammed him, and to stick his anger download full-fledged... So happy I was at that age, and so I think they were all children, since isthis world and earth, who even say what he said (Ion Creangă, Childhoodmemories).

The goal comes from preschool age: the child does not express aspecific intent; but from 5-6 years, children act on an intent more clearly -which increases the quality of mental creation. The existence of purposeallows the sketching a game project, within are set its subject, roles andrules. Preschool phase coincides with the first child integration in thecontext of formal education, therefore, didactically speaking, the teachertakes the nature of this goal in the game in each age group (junior. middle,high) and stimulates intent installation and reduces fluctuation issues.

The subject of game is a main component, is not just specific to thecreation game, but also to other types of games - of movement,educational games (in which the subject is constructed by an educatoradult).

The nature of the subject is given by the strongest or most constantimpressions which are collected by child in this relationship with theenvironment, because, in this context, the subject is chosen by children.There is some development of selected topics during preschool age: for 3-4years (junior group), are highlighted the pertinent impressions of


everyday life, especially, coming from family and kindergarten, for 6 years(high and preparatory group) child may translate into play and insituations in which he did not personally participate, about which he hasheard and been told, and have read. Characters coexist: real andimaginary, traditional and updated. Range action of children can bedetermined by the range of children's story or film set as a source ofknowledge and nature of perception material, but children can also occurin the subject. On these elements, is based viability of common coexistenceof real and imaginary elements: Blue and cold night. / Children go out thewindow, / To look coming down, / From snowy huge hill / Santa Claus with abunny / Harnessed to small snow sledge (Here comes Santa Claus!, OtiliaCasimir).

The role is a structural element of the game and may reflectinteresting aspects of human behaviours. The roles of professional, thatgive the name of some games, are roles that offer meanings for preschoolchildren and can be linked to specific professional tools, Children ofjuniors' group choose their active roles, denying to be spectator. In middleage and higher groups, children choose their roles from favourite storiesor movies as networking opportunities increase and connections betweenroles are varied. At higher ages, are welcomed multiple roles, assumed bya certain stability. From the evolution perspective of roles to preschoolage, it is obviously tendency of transition from active roles to a greaternumber of roles and secondary passive, shading action in role and shapingunusual subjects. These are the favourable moments to transferring theliterary texts in role plays and theatre plays.

The rules emerge and develop into specific game dynamics, aredomestic or foreign regulations such that children actions are coherentand organised. If to 3-4 years rules are derived from imitated role or areimposed by organiser, to 6 years, children can create their own rules, forexample, symmetric or complex combinatorial one:

A lad and a girl, red and chubby cheeked, kiss the hands of "father-Santa".Word of mouth, children made masters' cheeks of grandfather.- This part is mine.- And that part, mine!- This is my moustache.- And that, mine!Grand-father reconcile them, splitting them in half beard. Then, the praise

began:(Grandfather, Barbu Ştefănescu Delavrancea)


2. Types of gameVariety of specific games to this age can be grouped into several basic

categories: chosen topics game and roles in everyday life, creative games,but, in the early period, are, rather, imitation games.

Games with topics and roles of fairy tales and stories have freesymbols. Children can reconstruct the subject, emphasizing what impressthem more or what they like.

The construction game switches from the handling and overlappingconstruction material to achieve sophisticated construction. They can beillustrative and complementary to the narrative structures of tales andstories, for example, building castles, bridges, dragons' realm, etc. Theseactivities provide manual, digital, tangible and complementary codes oflearning and teaching. The topics of these constructions can be proposedby adults or are chosen by children according to interests and issues thathave impressed in previous moments of the game or may be suggested bythe nature of the materials used.

The movement game is related to the specific of age but themovements can be framed in a certain context that reflects fragments ofreal life, especially, the miniature life, for example, Ballad of cricket byGeorge Topîrceanu. Movement of game can be inspired more by justiceaxis good-bad of stories or fairy tales.

Particularly, popular are games without a specific theme, games withrules aimed at practicing motor skills: the game atmosphere is achieved bycompetitive spirit. In this category, are included hopscotch, elastic, string,etc.. This type of games is, generally, taken from previous generations,although each generation sometimes makes processes and specificadaptations.

The funny games are like teaching games in that they bring into theequation to solve a problem. They have rules, and their dominant functionis recreational, are formative in psychological plan as they developattention, insight, sense of observation, team spirit, etc. Game atmosphereis created by the need to guess something, for example, names ofcharacters from fairy tales, travel itinerary of hero or competition. In thefirst part of preschool age, the initiative of gambling belongs to adults orolder children; once learned rules and practiced pleasure of playing, isborn also their own initiative to 5-6 years.

The educational games are explicitly integrated to the educationalapproaches to motivating and active learning, are proposed by the teacher,have objectives and learning sequences: solved problems, personal


development, motivation. Besides teaching load, the teaching game hasspecific rules and game elements, for example, filling in the missing wordsin a heard literary text - Winter on the street by George Coşbuc, Sleepy birdsby Mihai Eminescu etc.

Literary text story, dramatized or read may be predicted orreconstructed by alternative cultural codes for preschoolers and toddlersby which are increased motivation and interest and grown tangibility.

The game takes the ontological nature of man, attend personality andsocio-cultural child development; both the forms and contents, as wellrules become complicated according as the child's personality evolves.

3. Young children' gamesNatural development of the child by learning, as fundamental

activity, creates a happy complementary way expressed in the fact that thegame is compensatory learning activity, creating the condition of rest.Structure of the game undergoes changes, its content becomes morecomplex, more cultivated, more socialized due on dominants' influence oflearning and rationality activities. It is the time when young schoolboygoes to construction toys (assembly and installation), to games in whichintertwine real imaginative. Alone, but, especially in small groupschildren meet each other (girls or boys) to initiate role play ("the school","the family") or movement games ("the catch-up", "the hide-and-seek"). Itis not neglected social games in which children socialise, communicate, co-operate. Need to move (the child still needs to jump, scream, run) issatisfied with outdoor games for biking, rollerblading or sports(swimming, gymnastics, football and so on). Learning and rules'compliance, team life, strengthening of self-image, all with beneficialeffects on personality development of young pupils develop by practicinga sport in organized form.

4. Dimensions of the gameIn the field literature, we talk about game dimensions - classification

achieved in terms of importance in the development of preschoolers andyoung pupils. We talk about existential dimensions, evolutionaryformative dimensions and conjectural dimensions of the game.

4.1. Among the existential dimensions of the game, the mostimportant is gnosiological one, is expressed in practical and mentalassimilation of characteristics of the world and life, ensuring the subtledosing of cognitive characteristics of the game, their deepening during its


consumption. Differential action of this function determines individualaccessions, specific as hue and intensity to certain games. Curiosity andattention required for some games, at some point, determine thedevelopment and creative and complex reconstruction of their, tailored tothe appearance of life.

The dimension of stimulating practice of movements activelycontributes to the growth and complex development of the child in thevision of Karl Gross and Carr (cited in Curtis, Audrey, O'Hagan, Maureen,2003)3. It is manifested as a main function in childhood, and inadolescence, is gradually becoming a peripheral function.

4.2. Formative-educational dimension starts from the premise thatgames are well-dosed energy source, civic behaviours, decent gestures,creative imagination, etc. Friedich Froebel believes that the family plays animportant role in educational games.4 To this, we add the location of gameon the educational axis well-beautiful-truth (John Goodlad, 1994).5

Among the formative and educational dimensions of the game arealso included balancing and toning function, offset function, therapeuticfunction. Psychological perspective is necessary for grounding theunderstanding the mode of action of teaching principles in the educationcontext of preschool and young pupils.

Society, physical environment exert its educational diffuse influence inthe educational informality having subsidiary effects (not always positive) onpersonality development. At the ages of pre-school, education has featuresand functions with specific shades. First, the child is subjected to the firsteducational influences in family. The concepts of good, beautiful, trutheducation come from the socio-cultural and professional fields, and evenaffective field, through the children parents give diverse shades. Parents'level of culture, level of education, level of job satisfaction, economic level ofthe family influence the child (positive or negative, their quality is largelydictated by ethics' focus of family environment).

4.3. Among spontaneous and conjectural educational efforts, and atsome of ontogeny, correlations of organized educational approaches ofeducational institutions and offered "behavioural model" (part of informal

3 Curtis, De Audrey; O'Hagan, Maureen, Care and Education in Early Childhood: AStudent's Guide to Theory and Practice, Routledge and Francis Group, 2003.

4 Apud Bruce, T., Findlay, A., Read, J. and Scarborough, M. (eds.), Recurring Themesin Education, London, Paul Chapman Publishing, 1995.

5 Goodlad, John I., Educational Renewal: Better Teachers. Better Schools, Jossey-BassPublishers, 1994.


education) may occur any dysfunctions. For example, parents may ask tothe child expressly do not lie, but the family is providing differentexamples of moralizing discourse. Radio, television, museums, theaters,press, although not explicitly for education, may have action sequenceswith willed educational value. collects Through informal education arecollected the educational effects of social human, cultural or other kind ofactions or activities on the individual in training process: street, playgroup, programs (not specifically for education) of radio or TV, press,films, theater, exhibitions, museums and so on provide educationalinfluences circumscribed to the informality area.

Economic level of the family, normally, should facilitate educationalactivities with beneficial effects on children. Quality of verbal, para-verbal,non verbal communication in the family leaves their fingerprints onhuman evolution. The quality and depth nuances of affectivecommunication in family influence the design of human psyche,emotional relationship within the family as a source of their ownemotional development, and thus, energizing the whole mental life.Education process in kindergarten, quality, its consistency are coming toadd to the educational influences of family, to fill any gaps in itseducational plan or even to correct any errors in it.

In conclusion, the possibility that human being could be taughtthrough game -based literary text compensates hereditary minuses,compensates and corrects the of effects physical and social environmenteffects on personality development of preschooler and school smaller.

REFERENCES

Bruce, T.; Findlay, A.; Read, J. and Scarborough, M. (eds.), (1995),Recurring Themes in Education, London, Paul Chapman Publishing.

Costea, Octavia, (2004), Introducere în teoria rolurilor şi figurile lecturii,Bucureşti, Ed. Krogold.

Curtis, De Audrey; O'Hagan, Maureen, (2003), Care and Education inEarly Childhood: A Student's Guide to Theory and Practice, Routledge andFaancis Group.

Goodlad, John I., (1994), Educational Renewal: Better Teachers, BetterSchools, Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Jauss, Hans-Robert, (1982), Pour une hérmeneutique littéraire, Paris, Ed.Gallimard.

Şchiopu, U. şi Verza, E., (1995), Psihologia vârstelor, EDP. RA, Bucureşti.


EDUCATIONAL SPACE ARRANGEMENT THROUGHSTIMULATION AREAS.

CONONA PETRESCU

[email protected]

Abstract: An important problem in an educational programe for early agesis paying special attention to space arrangement.

The space represents the material context education takes place in. Itconstantly sends messages to the child. Most of these messages are essential forthe students’ development and represent basic elements for his/her life experience.

Keywords: space, education, child, environment, communication.

The child up to a year is very much influenced by his/her material lifeenvironment. The room must be aired, clean, brightly painted and objectsaround him should be pleasant and safe as he grows up and starts beingaware of them. Material environment has an important role in the littlechild’s development. When he discovers the upright position, thenwalking, his universe enlarges and the child has the possibility to see andexperience the new objects, around him.

If these objects are pleasant and useful to his sensorial and movementexperiences, his development will have a positive source and will be faster.Children who are brought up in apartment flats need daily walking in theopen air, in a park or garden. Widening their living space corresponds totheir different experiences as well and to expanding knowledge about theirphysical environment. Mothers know that each child needs fresh air, but theyhave little knowledge about what toys they should buy for them. Forinstance, they buy many nice toys for their babies and they prefer only theworn-out ringing toy which they are searching all the time. Better said, manyparents consider that the toys their children need are the expensive ones andthey don’t know that each child has his desires and pleasures in choosing atoy, even at very early ages. Some parents’ problems start when children playwith pots and spoons and make noise, although they could play quietly with

Lecturer Ph.D, - Educational Sciences Faculty, Christian University DimitrieCantemir, Bucharest.


a Teddy bear.Almost all little children prefer soft toys when they go to bed and it is

a great discovery for parents that, this way, the little ones sleep alone.The room space- the entire house “feels” when a child is born and

grows there.For instance, after the child has turned one year old, shelves and

windows must be looked in front of the little hands that experience newplaces and china and vases must be put away, out of reach for the littleones. Children need a certain place where they should play and wheretheir toys (a lot or few) should be stored. Even when we are not able tooffer them a separate room children feel the need to have a space of theirown.

Thus they will learn the first rules about keeping order and usingspace and objects.

At the kindergarten, space is arranged especially for children.It is important that the teacher should be familiar with the space and

arrange it so that this one could send to the child educational massages tosupport his development.

Children learn by playing and effective learning is related to theenvironment learning occurs in.

An effective environment for learning at early ages is an environmentwhich favors freely – chosen playing, oriented to global development ofchild’s personality.

The game that the child chooses by himself, of all the options theenvironment offers to him in the group room is a creative and free game.In this game, the maximum of solving problems possibilities will betrained, an intrinsic motivation will be accomplished and creativesolutions will be practiced.

A well –chosen environment having multiple playing alternatives,offers to children support in individual activities and it is a base forlanguage development.

Children ask questions, they communicate with each other and withthe teacher and build up activities in which they involve the basicfunctions of language. If they identify those games within the room spaceand they can find there toy’s they enjoy and offer them the chance topractice individual abilities, children will learn by playing almosteffortlessly.

This way, the child sees activities in their individuality and, at thesame time, he provides various solutions for activities.


The space “speaks” to the little child by what it offers to him as apossibility of action and experience. Therefore, not only the generalconditions (light, warmth, aesthetics etc.) but also the particular onesreferring to the formative educational measures (amenities, arrangements,delimitations, materials etc.) are equally important. Organizing the sectorsin the group room in different activity fields, space can be effectively usedso that individual development demands of all the children should beachieved and, at the same time, real educational individuality should beaccomplished.

The space, organized for educational purposes helps the child chooseand make decisions. Facing various possibilities children learn to choosewhat is suitable for them: they learn by their own experience and assumeresponsibility for their decisions. The fact that they choose their game bythemselves and owing to this choice only they can explain what they doand how they do, brings joy to their independence and at the same time,determines assumptions of results.

The accountability can also emerge from conflict situations. Forexample, if a child took a little jar of paint and spilt it just on the oppositecarpet, although he should not have stayed there, our reaction must be aneducational one: to have the child clean up.

The environment is comfortable, welcoming, secure and stimulating ifthe preschools find in it the materials which stimulate them to actions thatinterest them. The educational space offers the emotional and affectivesafety when the kindergarten teacher knows her group children wellorganizes and arranges the environment so that they could find in it theopportunity for activities appropriate to self-development. Therefor apositive and proper support is necessary.

When kids make mistakes, they should neither be interrupted fromthe game and nor verbally sanctioned. On the contrary, with tact andpatience, the kindergarten teacher, who sees and notices what ishappening, guides them to resume the activity and succeed. For example,Mihaita builds a tower from big cubes and puts on top the biggest cube.The building collapses and the boy looks scared at the teacher. Howwould the teacher answer the boy’s look? She should not scold orapostrophize him, but she will ask him smiling: “Was not the cube on topperhaps too big? What if you try with a smaller one?” She must not reachout her hand an make the gesture of repairing the construction, but let thechild experience, guiding the action indirectly, She should not scold himor laugh at him. She should react positively and encourage the resume of


learning through the child’s self-experience.The educational environment of the group room must be a suitable

environment appropriate for learning experiences and situations.One of the teacher’s responsibilities is supporting children to learn

from their own experiences.Using learning situations occurring in the context of children’s games

(spontaneous and organized), the teacher should always provideopportunities for action and assuming responsibilities.

Secure and simulative environment that supports and encourages thechild’s personality development both globally and in its components,facilitates awareness of their own abilities thrust, and creativity. The childacquires abilities to make decisions and assume responsibilities. Thisworking manner allows opportunities for independence and freedom ofexpression. This assumes teaching methods, because the teacher can teachthe child flexibilities starting from his choices and from the activitieswhich he proposes.

If the environment is appropriately structured having enoughmaterials and well-defined educational purpose, the child will bepermitted to choose the most appropriate learning game and itsdevelopment. He will develop knowledge, skills and effective necessarysocial individual adjustment attitudes and will handle the environment.

Adaptation is realized through learning and this represents the baseof competences and necessary abilities at the preschool child experiencewith objects and the regarding.

The adequate arranging of the space offers opportunities for solvingtheir own problems. In case the children have some learning programs,rhythm and even learning particularities, they will find opportunities forimprovement and adequate practice in a stimulating environment. Theteacher is the one that uses this didactic resource as a support of hiseducational schedule and in favor of child’s individuality.

It refers to independence of decision, management of the game,making choices action and establishment of social relationship with theother children and the teacher. In such an arrangement of space, childrenhave the opportunity of coming in touch with others in the activity, andthese relationships become free and are indirectly oriented by the teachertowards communication, cooperation, co-working, respect, negotiation,acceptance, tolerance, friendship etc. For example, if two children startplaying together and communicate between them, the teacher becomesinterested in what they talk about but she does not interfere to interrupt


their discussion.If things get complicated and the kids start fighting over an object or

another (resources conflict), the adequate tone, gesture and conversationmust be found for solving the problem. Sometimes it is good to interfereother times it is better to let things flow, in case conflict solves by itself.

Anyway there is not only the solution of interfering and verbalsanction. Each case has it solution, at some point. It is good to allow thevariety of solutions: indifference, acceptance, sanction, discussion etc. Wemust also take into consideration the importance of founding solutionfrom children.

We could raise the rhetorical question: what is better – to irremediablyseparate two friends or to teach them to tolerate each other? Regardingthis kind of problems nobody possesses a limited number of recipes.Every time the variables of the problem change: other children, otherobjects, other relationships or other teachers.

No one has full inventory of solution, but it is desirable to be flexibleand to always found that way of fixing the problem which is appropriateto the situation, to the persons involved and the resources in use.Generally, there are three ways of action: indifference, positive andencouragement or sanction. Reality is much more complex

The effective environment offers the children opportunities ofexperiencing new solutions of acting/activity.

This thing is possible only if they feel free and are sure that theirmistakes are not severally punished.

Playing with sand and water a child discovers how beautifully a colorcap float on water, a cap that he brought from home in his pocket. Or henotices how interestingly some drops fall from a spoon. Then he brings adoll and wants to wash it. It is a delicate doll which can get damaged. Therole of the kindergarten teacher is not to quickly take the doll for not beingbroken but to explain with patience that not everything must be soaked inwater. She can show the child that only a little water can ruin he doll’smakeup and at the same time she offers him alternatives: other things anddolls that can be soaked in water. It is best for a delicate doll no to bearound the sand and water area. But if a child brings it there we musthandle the situation. In fact, how would he learn that it must not be put inwater if he has not experienced it? if we solved the problem throughobservations and scolding, we are risking the gesture to be stealthilyrepeated. There comes another problem: how and why the children getdirty when playing. If we think of the space efficiently, we will


understand that in places where they use paint or the ones where they usewater, colors, flour or other liquids or solids that can cause dirt the floormust be covered with plastic or linoleum. During the game the childrenwill have oilcloth or plastic aprons that will protect their clothes. If theypaint while standing on a Persian carpet, do not scold the kids who spillthe water bowl. The one at fault is the teacher who leads the activity. Or ifyou stick sheets of paper on the walls and let the children draw on them,don’t be surprised when you see drawings in other spaces on the cleanwall. Our role is to get them used to the rules, where they are allowed andthere they are not but in the same time to avoid confusing occasions.

If we arrange the space in educational spirit, we offer proper supportto the individual level of development. From her observations, the teacherknows what and how much each child needs. She can offer individualsupport through planning elements that reflect both personal needs andgroup needs.

Each child must be stimulated a little more to improve and to reachhis real performances. Directly realized, this stimulation is often refusedby the child, for it calls for effort. But if the stimulation is indirect, throughthe messages of the environment (what the child finds as objects andchallenges of the activity within the educational space), these invites himto act. If in addition, he is not supervised with strictness and he is allowedto make mistakes, the child will surpass himself.

Another rhetorical question: “What is most valuable in the work of achild?“. The drawing of a tree facsimile after the teacher’s example or anawkward and simple twig made by a child that has not been drawing atall until today? As a child is learning how to draw and how to expresshimself through drawing, at each new drawing he adds a new detail forperfection. So you can see his evolution. The beauty and precision must bejudge in relation to the child’s possibilities and his effort.

It is best for young ages to appreciate the effort, the process of fruitionof a product and not the product itself, which is not eloquent because ofthe very different paces of development. At the kindergarten on the panel,all the works must be exposed, completed or not. They represent thechildren’s efforts. The judgment of the kids and the appreciation is good tobe made with themselves, not in competition. The idea of the best willcome with time.

Now it is important to give each child the chance of capitalization. Wemust keep in mind that every child has something good and at youngages, when the self-image is created and the process of character building


and the self-esteem begins, the teacher must capitalize them all,stimulating them individually.

Through the arrangement of proper space we can also offer him theopportunity of feeling good with himself in the group. Through support,interest and understanding of the children’s efforts the teacher contributesto the building of each individual’s self –image. The process of self-knowledge and identification, so important in the becoming of thepersonality is related to the factors from the socio-cultural surroundingenvironment and to the answers the child gets for what he is doing.

The child has time to develop his own ideas and images if he isallowed to play as much as he wants where and with who he likes.Hereby, a construction make by a child must not be destroyed onlybecause we decide to collect the toys. He will also find the next day thething already started and will have the pleasure of finishing it. Keepingthe order in the group room is very important, but also flexible. If wenotice that a child has a slower pace in what he does or shows a greatpleasure in continuing the game, the role of the teacher is to analyze thesesituations and not interrupt the activity.

Of course, there are various situations. It is good that all childrenshould feel valued and be offered all the possibilities of collecting toys andkeeping order. It is recommended that there should be a special momentfor this: a bell or a song o remind children that it is time for them to cleanup and start another activity.

If the educational space from the kindergarten fulfills there requests, itbecomes an effective space for the children’s learning and development.

Do not forget that the entire kindergarten is arranged for children andso all spaces fulfill the roles mentioned. In all this organization, the adult’srole, either teacher staff or any other intervene from the unit, is veryimportant. The space decorated with the works made by the children withpractical and useful objects means thoughtfulness to its influence on kids.

Jean Piaget (1970) considered that learning with young children is theresult of the interaction between thinking, ideas and the people who theyget in contact with. Both the parents and the teacher have the duty ofstimulating these interactions through proper arrangement of the lifespace and children’s education.

What are the stimulating areas?The arrangement of the space of the group in a new style,, that does

not imitate the school model anymore, but offers opportunities for freeand creative games, corresponds in fact to the organization of the areas of


stimulation. There are corners, workshops, sectors, centers, fields, placeswhere the didactic materials are put at children’s reach in a manner thatgives the opportunity of deployment of some activities meant to be infavor of their physical and mental development.

It is important that the areas should be designed so that they shouldexpress order and safety for children. The order of the toys, the games as abasic element but not as an excessive tax. The children will keep the orderand at the same time it is important that they should have access to all theobjects used. Also the game started is not to be interrupted and anunfinished construction is not to be decompose because the value of theproduct itself (the game and the construction) is much more important forchildren than order.

Pedagogically speaking areas are educational spaces that stimulatechild development through the game proposals that are offered to them.

The explanation of such spatial group arrangement binds to theconsiderations on the importance and their role for the child.

The areas are another arrangement of space, by dividing it, indifferent and various spaces with purposes of experiential knowledge anddevelopment of the child, a different placement of the games and toys inthe room a different training in the game and activity of the childrenfollowing rules that stimulate the internal motivation and self-esteem.

Fundamental human activities which we familiarize the child with.The areas of stimulation are corresponding, in fact, to the general

activities of human type. They refer to knowledge and communicationactivities, handling and manipulating of larger or smaller objectsidentification with social roles, creative and artistic expression, movementmore or less in different spaces, acquiring the sings and symbols ofcommunications.


CHANGING THE PERCEPTION ON THE WORLD ANDLIFE, ON HAPPINESS AND KNOWLEDGE IN NORMALITY

AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

COSTEL CHITEŞ,SIMONA TRIFU

[email protected]

Abstract: The mental disorder works as a grid that changes the perception ofreality, metaphorically this being expressed through an angle of refraction underwhich time and space, happiness, joy and knowledge, life and death, capability andincapability are seen. Through this article we aim to reveal several clinicalsituations, the main focus being that of the way in which the fundamental pointsof reference of our existence change.

Later, the article is a perspective, a review of several books considered pillarsof this literature, the thread that unites them being the view on modern defensemechanisms (in the behavioral and behaviorist way) to cope with life throughmaturity, humor, suitability, motivational and flattering techniques.

The transition from normality to the pathological and back is sinuous andconfusing, life prevailing now and for future.

Keywords: normality, mental distress, happiness, knowledge, motivationaltechniques, humor, flattery.

Schizophrenia. Thought and affectivity, the two axes of the mentallife, which punctuates our work and behavior, are mutually fingerprinted.Formal disorders and the ones with content from the cognitive sphereimpoverish the individual, later resulting the difficult bearing of theemotional cooling and indifference in expressing feelings and emotions.

Schizophrenic patients lose access to knowing the real world. Whenthe delusional pathology prevails, the expansive ideation or micro maniaopen the door to a pseudo-knowledge, in which the source of joy is the

Lecturer Ph.D, Educational Sciences Faculty, “Dimitrie Cantemir” ChristianUniversity, Bucharest.

Senior lecturer Ph.D, - Psychology and Educational Sciences Faculty, BucharestUniversity; Primary psychiatrist, Clinical Psychiatry Hospital “Prof. Dr. Alex. Obregia”


imaginative world, full of confabulations or delusions and dream amnesia.When the formal pathology prevails, the tangency or circumstantiality aredisguised aspects through which the patient does not respond directly toexternal requirements, but indirectly, in an implied symbolic manner.1

Manic pathology. Here the disturbances of the thymic functionprevail, the expansiveness, joy and happiness in excess disturbingthoughts and actions of the said person. Time expands, everythingbecomes possible, death is canceled in its fundamental dimension bydeification of the moment. Knowledge gets expanded by increasing theimagination, accelerating the rhythm and ideated flow, generating logicalassociations quickly. Metaphorically, everything connects witheverything, knowledge becomes all-inclusive and potentially true, the saidperson striving to convince the interlocutors of the credibility, reality andauthenticity of the experiences.

Major depressive episode. The patient is fallen in time, lost betweenthe dimensions of knowledge, which gradually become challenging, oncewith the bleak perception on the world and life. Acquisition of newinformation becomes cumbersome and unnecessary in its own design,losing accessibility to the previously built internal world, to the forms oforganization and planning of time and space. Time becomes deified in hisgloomy and negative version. Happiness becomes impossible andunthinkable, knowledge narrows its own field. The sluggishness of thelogical associations becomes omnipotent, the said person contemplatingthe futility of the legic and logic.

The anxious - phobic pathology. The access to happiness is beinglimited, the internal space being restricted by the inaccessibility to externalspace. The panic attack is a metaphorical representation of non –happiness, with an acute exacerbation of the body knowledge. Allemotions are put to a maximal apotheosis, every cell of his own bodyevoking the fear memory. This pathology project in itself is expelled onthe outside world into angst and anxiety (in the Generalized AnxietyDisorder, especially when it is complicated with agoraphobia) or projected

1 Sadock, B., J., Kaplan and Sadock Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. LippincottWilliams Wilkins, 2009.


in a particular object (in Phobic Disorders)2. It's about knowledge of thephysical Self taken to an extreme, with neglecting the knowledge in itshigher abstract dimension. All that remains is a concrete, acute, painfulknowledge, a mega perception of the body, to the detriment of the noesicfindings that become impossible, regardless of their level of knowledge,training, premorbid functioning of the subject.

Pathology of cognitive deterioration. Anterograde or retrogradeamnesia, confabulations, pseudo-reminiscents, ecmnesia or anecforiadisrupt the knowledge in its fundamental meaning and attack thehappiness by destroying the intellect3. Mild regression may beaccompanied by a return to the happiness of the childhood, that in whicheverything is possible and nothing necessary, beyond primitive needs’satisfaction. Knowledge is rediscovering itself in its primitive sense, that ofthe accession with verbal support or object based to an immediate reality,with visual support. Organizing, planning, analysis, synthesis, as highercognitive functions, no longer have meaning, happiness coming fromimmediate satisfaction through the senses, not through accession torepresentation of the intellectual knowledge.

Addiction pathology. It illustrates similarly a way of pseudo-knowledge, of achieving a higher form of enlightenment, discovery,flashbacks through investing sites through imaginative and investivereconstruction of happiness. The corrupt Self pathology, of happinesspoured through narcissistic twinning and identification with dreamingand reverie gradually destroys authentic understanding by organicimpregnating the brain with impossibility of acquiring new information.4Momentary happiness and sensory knowledge extrapolates the size of aspecific here and now, marching towards the ineffable. Happiness isobtained by any means, it is "grabbed" from reality, as is knowledge,performed in a shamanic way. Individual personality is affected deeply, inthe nucleus built more or less eloquently, until the onset of symptoms.

2 Montreuil, M., & Doran, J., Tratat de psihologie clinică şi psihopatologie. Bucureşti,Trei, 2009.

3 Marele dicţionar al psihologiei. Bucureşti, Trei, 2006.4 Gabbard, G., O., Tratat de psihiatrie psihodinamică. Bucureşti, Ed. Trei, 2007.


The phenomenon of suicide - a non - psychiatric perspectiveBehaviors falling within this area: sacrifice, blackmail, attempted

suicide, self-destruction. There are special people who have presented asuicide attempt, but failed to achieve the act, which helped them to know,to understand themselves better, to be able to overcome difficultsituations, momentary situations, of their existence. The idea of suicidecan be connected to blackmail as well.

There are two main "points of view" related to the dynamics of suicide:* the unconscious act, in which deliberation and anticipation are at

instinctual level and* the fullness of the conscious act with self-destructive desire.

Other self-destructive behaviors are: accidents, self-mutilations,exposure to dangerous acts, which are made possible by reducing thepreservation instinct and entering the large area of para-suicidalphenomena.5

There are different levels of adjustment and balancing of a person tothe conditions and requirements of the internal and external world. Thesuicidal act is, in most cases, a consequence of the lack of adaptation of theindividual to these conditions and requirements.

"Instinct and Intelligence"Developing behaviors that in the past would have been called

"instinctive" may be due to varying conditions of life periods.6 For half acentury, the researchers’ attitude in matters of human behaviordevelopment was greatly influenced by psychoanalysis (Freud and hisfollowers). These theories hold a special place in the evolution and in thehuman behavior. They deal with motivation or internal springs ofbehaviors, trying to explain why a man is arguing systematically with hissuperiors, why another one regularly humiliates his subordinates, whyanother one repeatedly steals objects that obviously he has no need of anddoes not want them.

There is a high probability that among individuals deprived for a longtime of maternal care they tend to develop disharmonic personalities or

5 Rudica, T., Psihologie umană şi paradoxuri ale existenţei. Iaşi, Polirom, 2006.6 Barnett, S., A., Instinct and Intelligence. New Jersey, Prentice – Hall, 1968.


personality disorders. In families where the father is a tyrant, while themother has an insignificant influence, the percentage of male childrenwith antisocial tendencies is superior to those from families wheremothers play an important role. The children of unskilled workersrespond less adequately to formal education than those of specialists; theyalso have poorer results on tests of intelligence. But we must not forgetthat the two groups of children grow up in different environments.Genetic differences exist between individuals in any human population,but their importance in establishing differences between groups areeconomic issues also that can only be determined taking into account theenvironment being influenced.

People do not have an immutable fate that was destined to them attheir conception or birth. Obviously, each individual has its own geneticconstitution, usually unique. However, what a social being does under theintellectual aspect is determined to a significant degree by his own efforts,combined with those of parents, teachers and others.

Motivation of human behaviorHuman change can be done in two ways: one brutal other slower,

which requires changing the environment and values7. Humor is a tool ofcommunication, useful in guiding the other’s reactions. The thirdlanguage is represented by gestures and attitude, encouragement, the newart or flattering, developing insight, transformation of the mentalstructures, motivation, predicting the future, as a way of reinforcingsocially accepted behaviors, demonstrating the absurd (for fun).

We cannot change the human nature without knowing or imaginingthe starting position and the goal we want to achieve. The man tends tolearn certain attitudes and maintain them. These rules allow him to livelife with a minimum of complications and difficulties. All attempts aimedat changing human nature, even with the obvious aim to achieve betteradaptation, are generally constrained by a resistance. Changing humanbehavior seems therefore necessarily related to the ethical aspects of thepurposes to which human beings are pushed, in a democratic form ofgovernment, the people being forced to learn to decide, to think, to callinto question the issue of truth and ask questions. Most structuredreligions will change human behavior, so that the said person is

7 Fishbein, M., Ajzen, I., Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theoryand research. Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1975.


determined to accept dogmas and fundamental data without rethinkingthem and questioning them. This is the fact thought to cause behavioralchanges.

Another realistic technique that allows changes into the human natureis to attack the environment and provide the human being the means todominate it. Jesse Taft8 expresses an interesting notion, namely that of fearof death. She says that "the substance" which we call "fear of death" is, infact, a feeling of guilt of which we feel defeated. During his life, theindividual is constantly torn between the desire to progress and desire tostagnate, i.e. to remain where he is. This is somewhat similar to thestatement that the interaction between the desire to unite and the desire toseparate is permanent.

The most logical way to get people to change is that they demand itthemselves. In fact, this is the purpose of the 10 Commandments, whichwere not fully achieved. Resistance cannot be suppressed, except byaccepting the facts as such.

Nowadays, communication and advertising techniques are appealingmore and more to humor. Humor is a creative translation, nuanced, ofalmost everything that happens around us9. The most important advicethat might be given to the way of using humor as a means ofcommunication is to not take into account the desire, activity or humanhope and to see if things can be reconsidered, returned. There is virtuallyno aspect of life that cannot become a nuance for joke. Jokes about deathare a way to accommodate us with the idea of death, this being anexample of intelligent social behavior. Humor must create a relaxedatmosphere, while the humorous expression must comprise one easyelement of repetition.

The humorous message is a play with actors and protagonists, forease of identification. Humor has to distract from daily problems andprovoke a state of laughter. It must be universal and involve a degree ofexaggeration, a condensation, but also an expansion of the presentedideas10. It should appear at the right time and be greeted with caution bythose to whom it is addressed. For example, we go to the theater to see aplay and we are tempted to ask the person next to us, what he thinks

8 Taft, J., The Dynamics of Therapy in a Controlled Relationship. Macmillan, 1933.9 Billig, M., Laughter and Ridicule: toward a social critique of humour. London. Sage,

2005.10 Martin, R., A., The Psychology Of Humour: An Integrative Approach. London: Elsevier

Academic Press, 2007.


about it. This, in a minimal way, will change our perception of the play.The question plays a catalytic role of opinions, which is related tosuggestibility.

To make certain people formulate an opinion, a very important rule isthat you do not rely totally on the personal opinion. Therefore, explaininga number of factors should be considered firstly, such as:

* to quote a clear and net reaction expressed by a person exercisingauthority;

* to give a frame of reference to the queried people, but to which theywould be able to relate by developing their own reasoning.

After all these precautions, the public is being informed what is likedand not liked in the product of the play, after which the opinions of othersare presented and further explanations are provided. Related to gesturesand attitudes, there are special classes of Social Psychology, which debatethe means of communicating the intellectual - emotional concepts. Manyreligious groups and political parties successfully resorted to the non -verbal and symbolic language. In this area, the current trends are: contrast,multiple language, instant attitudes. The utilization technique of thethings outlined above correlate with the manner of using in time thefundamental gestures, concepts, emotions, sensory stimulation.

When we ask ourselves who would dare to appeal to willpower tochange the usual behavior, it seems only that a mere recommendationwould be sufficient. Or is this about a difficult undertaking? One of thedifficulties we face is connected, for most of us, to a concept well known,our personality traits. We are, for example: introverts, extroverts, lazy,intelligent or inventive. The errors believing in the static and permanentnature of our character gives us an excellent excuse to not make any majoreffort, likely to maintain a transformation of our fundamental features.

Current studies indicate, however, that we are dynamic through ournature and in us there is a very wide range of potentials. As individuals,we can be at the upper or lower limit of what we might be. How we evaluateour life and skills depends largely on ourselves. In rare moments weperceive extreme limits of what we might be, as a huge discovery: in a state ofdrunkenness or after LSD absorption or - what is the most important -after being congratulated and encouraged for achieving something thatwe thought we were incapable of. In time of war, encouraging has aspecial role, increasing body stamina. It can come from a person who wasencouraged by a particular technique and who invites us to imitate. It'sabout behavioral examples of groups we belong to and that go on the


principle that if all the others are capable of acting according to a specificconduct, we have to become just like them. As witnesses to the efforts ofothers, we are thus encouraged. In a way, encouraging is a form of"psychological vitamin", which we can infuse in our own minds. The mostimportant area in which the individual should be encouraged is the civicdomain.

Flattery is a very important motivation technique in behavioralchanges. In the majority of the life situations, we deserve to be flatteredand we would like to rise at the height of the eulogies we receive. In thismanner, we would modify our behaviors with much more pleasure thanwhen receiving an avalanche of attacks and insults. It can be a means toaccess the mutual acceptance of differences. One example is to flattersomeone, even when they do not fully deserve it, to determine them toachieve the height of what we want them to be.

Ways to do so:1. This technique is related to learning good manners. You must observe

the person, see what is individual, genuine about him, to discover thedistinct features. If the observed detail is specified, that flattered personfeels as a subject full of attributes and worthy of analyze / value.

2. You must discover someone’s dreams, aspirations and encouragethem. A sure way to achieve the desired effect is to show respect to theperson in question, as well as the fact that you have been observing hisefforts and results. Our whole wardrobe and that fact that we change ourattire daily is a way to flatter ourselves and the desire to be flattered. Inthe near future we will equally have at our disposal a battery ofintellectual and psychological ornaments and accessories of “flattery”, fromwhich we can extract something for everyone.

3. Another technique is to flatter ourselves with the idea that each one,for the other, represents a psychological mirror. Flattery technique hasbeen known since the pharaohs, but today it can be enrich with manymeanings.

4. Developing insight. We want to determine a change in ourselves or inpeople whose change might be profitable to us. We are looking for thesecret button that could be pressed, in other words, the trigger. Insight canbe a parlor game, but can also be a human quality. It becomes important indifficult situations, such as bankruptcy of marriage, childrenmisunderstood by their parents. There are three main forms of


development of insight:* Enrichment of consciousness* Innate skills* Learning capacity.

The only true form of human knowledge is based on sudden insightor understanding of the meaning of a particular gesture or reaction of aperson. Insight (or flare) is dependent on human brain function as wehave, in our mind, the provision of a whole "library" of structures, ofgraphical models and shapes with two, three or four dimensions.

When we, individually, have means that give us a description ofprogress, the progress is generally thought of on a straight and upwardline. But it would be much easier to compare the progress of man with aspiral in which we return to the same starting point, but at a higher stageof evolution. Human progress follows a scheme: the thesis, the analysis,the synthesis. Transforming our sensibility is part of the same problems.Science is full of examples proving that progress is not possible, except inthe case where there are pre-existing models to converge to.

Specifically to young people’s motivation is the research (search) fortruth, fear of sentimentality, dismantling barriers, desire to be different,possible to study alone and refusing materialism. Contemporary, theemphasis should be on observation and feeling. At the same time, thereshould be a dose of honesty. Humor is, likewise, very important. Messagesthat tell a story have to preserve an air of detachment. Color is gainingimportance; our world today is very colorful, this becoming a reaction towhat young people consider to be a world that lacks effectiveness.

The instant notice of antagonisms and unpredictability counts verymuch. Today's young people find a sense of non - sense. For them, life is acontinuum in which there is no beginning, no middle, and no end.Predicting the future is necessary for the motivation function11. If we wouldremember more often that we are mortals, we would not waste our timewith useless and trivial things. If other people around them, at similar age,die, young individuals can change the image of the future. Psychologistshave studied the lives of geniuses who died young, but who still managedto get through all the stages of existence. The most striking of humanfaculties is the anticipation of future actions and consequences, a skill that is

11 Cofer, C., N., Appley, M., H., Motivation: Theory and Research. New York: JohnWiley & Sons, 1967.


neglected in attempts to change human nature.Another motivation technique that can successfully be used to

determine individuals in changing after the desired behavior andpersonality is the one where he is encouraged to foster his own ideas, butmaking them clear to him, detailing his wishes in the smallest detail.Attitude is designed to facilitate decision-making.

If you would give someone, on a TV show, the topic of demonstratingthe absurdity of a war, a way could be to appeal to absurd science-fictionscenes. Demonstrating absurdity is an effective form of awareness of thecruelties of reality. There are no oral arguments that could convince theaudience of an absurdity as well as experience.

Joy may be an important factor, likely to help us get rid of ourpuritanical views on life and to do a better job. Work is more enjoyable ifseen as entertainment rather than as punishment. We could thus create anenjoyable life and commit to a serious struggle against death, consideredto be an inevitable biological phenomenon.

Leading to the progress of society: improving communicationbetween people, fighting against national and racial prejudices, reducingthe gap between generations of people, doing what is good and right forthem, observing recommendations, motivating the community, helpingpeople make the decision to change their habits, stimulating creativity andinnovation, combating fear of directing others to change their beliefs,promoting mobility, communicating the meaning of a commitment,mastering your emotions, overcoming psychological obstacles andpolitical attitudes, moving towards standardization of the world and forpeace. At another level, these are ways in which pragmatic intelligencecan be put into practice. It is important to take into account the previousexperience.

Generally man is afraid of change. He needs, in particular, a certaintechnique of encouragement. It is therefore necessary that the problemsshould be addressed in a way that would raise awareness over the factthat human behavior cannot be changed, unless corollary corrections aremade.

The purpose of education is to open, spiritually, to invite andencourage individual to study and try new ways to have a pleasant life ona physical, as well as aesthetical, level. For this, it is necessary to apply anarsenal of ideas.


Poverty and CharityImproving communication between people involves: sudden

understanding of a cunning attitude, of subtlety, of ingenuity, of the rolestyle has in people’s lives, participation, arguing the use of symbols, thediscovery of individuality. Anti - fatalism is a new need, people have afear of compromise. It is fashionable to give a touch of sex - appeal, in thearea of health, for everything that could be associated with fear:agglomeration, old age, lack of will, loss of freedom, fear of peopledressed in white.

Other goals might be:* Use of a dynamic language;* invoking a sense of humor to show that fears are learned;* associate youth with the word “action”;* giving courage to patients;* The value to the idea that, if you take care of yourself, it does not

mean that you are being selfish or detained, on the contrary, it meanskeeping your destiny in control.

The decision means choosing one at the expense of another, whilebeing undecided is a different term from neutral.

Conduct and civilizationThe first condition for a smart social behavior / conduct is networking

and integration12. The problem of civilized contemporary educationinvolves the conscious act of realizing what the options are for a type ofvalue over another. For example: the behavioral model based on the cult offulfillment (available in Japan and China), the models based onparticipation, actions, and moral model of the "fair - play” civilization, andmorality and honor.

Personality, within the civilizing context, is a result of actions,communication, intelligence and imagination, learning and human self-education based on the axis of human being - behavior - civilization. Thecore is the respect and care for man, in a climate of free choice, knowinglyand with an axiological potentiating, with human construction in action.Education of human behavior from a civilization point of view is one ofthe factors that ensure favorable conditions of freedom and full humandevelopment.

Education, through its nature, valuably influences the human aspect,

12 Neacsu, I., Civilizaţie şi conduită, Bucureşti, Ed. Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, 1987.


guiding the behavior to what is socially desirable: activism, commitment,primary attitude towards self and others, ardent patriotism and love ofmen and people in general. Empathy is a code of civilizingcommunication, "the human existence being a quality."

REFERENCES

Barnett, S., A., (1968), Instinct and Intelligence. New Jersey: Prentice –Hall.

Billig, M., (2005), Laughter and Ridicule: toward a social critique ofhumour. London: Sage.

Cofer, C., N., Appley, M., H., (1967), Motivation: Theory and Research.New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Fishbein, M., Ajzen, I., (1975), Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: Anintroduction to theory and research. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

Gabbard, G.O., (2007), Tratat de psihiatrie psihodinamica. Bucureşti: Trei.Marele dicţionar al psihologiei, (2006), Bucureşti, Trei.Martin, R.A., (2007), The Psychology Of Humour: An Integrative

Approach. London: Elsevier Academic Press.Montreuil, M., & Doran, J., (2009), Tratat de psihologie clinică şi

psihopatologie. Bucureşti: Trei.Neacsu, I., (1987), Civilizaţie şi conduită. Bucureşti: Ed. Ştiinţifică şi

Enciclopedică.Rudica, T., (2006), Psihologie umană şi paradoxuri ale existenţei. Iaşi:

Polirom.Sadock, B.J., (2009), Kaplan and Sadock Comprehensive Textbook of

Psychiatry. Lippincott Williams Wilkins.Taft, J., (1933), The Dynamics of Therapy in a Controlled Relationship.

Macmillan.


COMPETENCES BETWEEN CONCEPTUALCLARIFICATIONS AND DIDACTIC REALISM

TUDOR MARIN

[email protected]

Abstract: The term competence has multiple meanings; its meanings refer tothe area and context in which they are used. It is necessary to view competencefrom a multitude of perspectives: the judicial perspective, the professionaldevelopment perspective, but also from the psycho-socio-pedagogical perspective.

The meaning and significance of the concept of competence, from thecontemporary problematic perspective of education, originated from N. Chomsky.

From the psycho-pedagogical perspective, competences can be:A.general competences and specific/ specialized competencesB.cross competences and disciplinary/professional competencesC.individual competences and collective competencesD.key competences

Keywords: competence/ competences, knowledge, abilities, attitudes, generalcompetences, specific competences, cross competences, professional competences,individual competences, and collective competences.

I.Conceptual clarificationsOver time, the concept of competence has suffered a range of changes

of meaning and significance. From this point of view we consider itnecessary to bring about some conceptual restrictions.

G. Boutin (2004)1 says that the approach by competences has itsorigins in taylorism and it is in direct agreement with the principles thatpertain to the organizational reasoning of industrial work. Subsequently,towards the end of the 60s, the approach by competences was introducedin the American school system, and then it branched out into Canada andAustralia, and other European countries staring with Switzerland,England and Belgium.

Lecturer Ph.D, - Educational Sciences Faculty “Dimitrie Cantemir” ChristianUniversity, Bucharest.

1 Boutin G., L’approche par competences en education: un amalgame paradigmatique, inConnexions (REVUE, nr. 81-2004/1), Psychologisation dans la societe, editions Eres, 2004.


The paradigm of the approach by competences broadened intoEurope, greatly and evenly, due to the process of European integration ofthe EU, through the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) and alsoof the opportunities offered by the National Framework of Qualificationsin Higher Education (CNCIS). In Romania, the approach by competencesappears unsubstantially in specialist literature after the year 1990, and as apractical approach starting with the year 2000 through the NationalCurriculum for Further Education; Higher Education takes over theapproach by competences officially (in an official capacity), judicially withthe law 288/2004.

The term of competence has multiple meanings, which are in line withthe area and context in which they are used. It is necessary to viewcompetence from different perspectives: judicially, from the point of viewof the professional development of an individual but also from a psycho-socio-pedagogical perspective.

- Judicially, from a formally social view, competence is defined as “anindividual or organization’s right to make decisions in certain areas, andat certain levels of the organization’s configuration/structure”; as a result,competence tends to become responsibility, because it involves decision-making.

- Professionally, as far as the individual goes, competencebelongs tothe knowledge and abilities needed to fulfill assignments/workcommitments; as such, competence must be seen to be on the same par asqualifications.

- From a psycho-socio-pedagogical viewpoint, competence can beidentified with: habits, knowledge, skills, abilities and performances.

The approach/interpretation of the term competence, whether asresponsibility, or as qualification, or through psycho-socio-pedagogicalterms (habits, knowledge, skills, abilities, performances) underlines andconfirms the range of meanings of the term competence, but also theharshness of the conceptual clarification, with the utmost scientific rigourof the term competence.

Contemporarily and educationally speaking, it was Chomsky whofirst introduced the meaning and significance of the concept ofcompetence. He differentiated between linguistic competence (the internalability relating to the mental structures and mechanisms) and linguisticperformance (the actual usage of the competence in concrete, diversecontexts).Consequently, we consider it necessary to apprehendcompetence as an ability/ range of abilities that are demonstrated through


performance, this performance being dependent on contextual factors(subjective or/and objective). When directly speaking about cognitivepsychology, competence involves the ability to operate on all levels ofknowledge (declarative, procedural, conditional, metacognition).Pedagogically speaking, competence has been linked to the practical sideof learning which targets the social and professional integration of anindividual /or group of individuals. Also, it is necessary to analyze theconcept of competence in close connection with social values. Going backto G.Boutin we note that he sees the approach by competences in aneducational set-up as a “paradigmatically amalgam” which desires to bean “alternative paradigm to other major pedagogical paradigmsmainly, asanalternative to pedagogy through its objectives and eventopupil/student-centred pedagogy”.

Just as educational discussions/debates inevitably raise the issue of alack of education, so must competence beviewed through negativestatements of what is not classed as competence! We are putting forwardVoiculescu’s reasons (2010)2:

a.Competency is not restricted to an range of knowledge; masteringsome varied domain-specific knowledge and the ability to reproduce it ondemand are not indicative of competence (G. Scallon, 2004)3; competenceas a result, means to mobilise and use this range of knowledge in real anddiverse life situations.

b.Competence is not restricted/narrowed down to habits or skills,that is „knowing to do”; it is not the same as „knowing to act”; and as aresult, competencemust be seen through the „knowing to act” (Le BoterfG., 2006)4.

c.Competence does not equal performance. The distinction must bemade between the noticeable effects of competence, that is performances,and competence itself as a generating and explanatory factor ofperformances.

d.Competence is not an abstract ability, context free. Scallon (2004,op.cit.) thinks that competence cannot be either observed or taken out of a„vacuum”, but only in a specific situation and a given context.

2 Voiculescu F., Paradigma abordării prin competenţe în Ghid metodologic de pedagogieuniversitară, Ed. Aeternitas, Alba Iulia, 2010.

3 Scallon G., L’evaluation des apprientissages dans un approche par competences, series,Pedagogies end developpement, De Boeck, Bruxelles, 2004.

4 Le Boterf, G. Conseil, www.guyleboterf_conseil.com, Comment le formateur, peut-ilaider l’apprenti amobiliser ses competences en situation de travail?, CRERA, Toulouse, 2006.


e.Competence is not the attribute of the isolated individual. It isrequired in this context to show that even if competence is an internalability of an individual, it is not the product of the individual isolatedfrom the interactions that occur in a certain situation and context.

Perrenoud Ph. (2005)5 shows that a competence makes one act , beingtherefore an ability of acting in a range of comparable situations, a set ofmeans of obtaining intelligent, efficient and effective actions.

C. Delory (2002)6 defines competence as an in-built set of knowledge,habits and attitudes, which permits/allows the subject confronted withdifferent situations to adapt, solve problems and complete projects.

Synthetically speaking, competence must be seen as an „ individual/collective characteristic attached to the possibility to mobilise and put intoaction efficiently in a given context, a range of knowledge, abilities andbehavioural attitudes” (Voiculescu F. op.cit.).

II.The structural analysis of a competence

Aubret J. şi Gilbert P., (2003)7 explain synthetically and pertinentlythe common features of the notion of competence, namely:

a.Reference to the assignment/human activities/ problems to solve inan identifiable circumstance;

b.The expected effectiveness of an individual/group of individualswhen solving assignments/problems;

c.The structural nature of the processes of mobilisation of theknowledge/ habits/behavioural attitudes that ensure efficiency;

d.The possibility of making predictions about efficiency.

From the perspective of these four common features comes off thestructure of a competence, namely: the internal and external or contextualstructure.

1.Internal structure: knowledge, abilities, attitudes (after D. Potolea, S.

5 Perrenoud Ph., Developper des competences, mission centrale ou marginale del’universite?, texte d’une Conference au Congres Internationale de PedagogieUniversitaire 12-14 septembre, Universite De Geneve, 2005.

6 Delory C., L’evaluation des competences dans l’enseignement fondamental... PressesUniversitaires de Louvain, Belgique, 2002.

7 Aubret J., Gilbert P, L’evaluation des competences, Pierre Mardaga Editeur, Sprimont,Belgique.


Toma, 2010) . Synthetically, this structure is represented as:

Knowledge is based on reality or about the real life event. (Ph.Perrenoud, 1995)8. From the cognitive psychological perspective, there aremore types of knowledge: declarative, procedural, conditional andmetacognition.

-Declarative knowledge (“to know that”) refers to facts, concepts andeven theories; even if it is organized in semantic networks or cognitiveschemes, it has no direct connection to a particular use. It does, in fact,represent a mere cognition. In higher education, it is found in receptivelearning and also excessive verbalism. In the university set-up, it appearswhen university teachers pass down (teach) to their students theirdeclarative knowledge (that is to say that the action itself is missing/context use).

-Procedural knowledge (“know how”) is pre-requisite to the waycontexts work. In higher or further education set-ups, the existence ofprocedural knowledge shows that pupils/students took part directly intheir own development, as partners of the lecturers (the learning took partactively-interactively).

-Conditional/contextual/strategic knowledge is the knowledge thatallows the pupil/student to decide by himselfthe moment or context inwhich he may utilise the declarative or procedural knowledge. Throughthis strategic knowledge there are new, efficient and effective solutions tothe range of problematic situations/ real life situations.

Metacognition, as I. Radu (2000)9 mentions, allows individuals a two-fold cognitive awareness:

8 Perrenoud Ph., Des savoirs aux competences. De quoi part –t-on en parlant descompetences? In Revue Pedagogie Collegiale, Vol. 9, nr. 1, AQPC Montreal, 1995.

9 Radu I., Strategii metacognitive în procesul învăţării la elevi, în vol. Studii de pedagogieeplicată, Ed. Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca, 2000.


-the individual comes to realize his own intellectual potential;-the individual becomes aware of the requirements of the assignment,

of the strategies required to accomplish this adequately, activating hisbasisof knowledge.

Abilities must not be mistaken with habits or knowledge because theyare superior to these. Abilities, in fact, refer to knowledge or habits,underlining their degree of assimilation, usage, integration of these incomplex activities that a pupil/student/teacher takes part in. However,ability is occasionally defined as “synonym with competence, skillfulness,dexterity, subtleness, ingenuity, underlining the easiness, swiftness, thesuperior quality and precision with which one takes part in particularactivities, implicating the appropriate self-organization of a concreteassignment, a subtle, efficient adaptation”. (P. Popescu-Neveanu, 1978)10.

Attitudes refer to “an individual’s internal predisposition to anelement of their social world/environment (social group, problems of asociety) directing the adoptedconduct either in the actual or symbolicpresence of this element” (Doron R, Parot F. 1999)11. Syntheticallyspeaking, „attitude can be defined as a way of relating the subject to hisenvironment, to the others and to his own self, involving cognitive,affective, motivational, willing and behavioural components” (VoiculescuFl. op. cit.).

2.External/Contextual structure (assignment, situation, context) mustbe perceived through the components and relations that make up the realsituation in which competence isshown and in which the competent actiontakes place; synthetically speaking we are referring to assignment,situation, context.

We must make a point here that from the perspective of a systemicanalysis, competence wise, internal and external substructures areconditioned by one another, as such their approach has to be integral. Thetwo substructures represent in fact external and internal factors. Theintegral paradigm of competence shows us that the internal factors(knowledge, abilities, attitudes) are placed in a specific context inagreement with the assignment and situation.

10 Popescu – Neveanu P., Dicţionar de psihologie, Ed. Albatros, Bucureşti, 1978.11 Doron R. , Parot F., Dicţionar de psihologie, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureşti, 1999.


III.Types of competenceFrom the psycho-pedagogical perspective, competences can be:a.General competences and specific/ specialised competences;b.Cross competences and disciplinary/professional competences;c.Individual competences and collective competences;d.Key competences.It is necessary to make the connection in the case of the binomial of

competences in order to have a better didactic understanding.

Generalcompetences and specialist/specific competences. Generalcompetences must be viewed as those components that condition theefficient and effective outcome of a wide range of activities from a varietyof areas. Specific competences are those competences that condition thesuccessful outcome of a smaller number of activities from a specialist,finely defined area. A brief analysis between general competences andthose specific is allowing an adjacent type for both competences (thesuccessful/efficient completion of some activities) but also a specificdifferentiation (the register of activities is on a wider spectrum and fromdifferent areas in the case of the general competences). Also, it is necessaryto look at the relationship of complementarity between the two types ofcompetences. In education, general competences are closely related withsubject competences having, however, a qualitative significance given bytransdisciplinarity and meta-disciplinarity. From an integral learningcurriculum perspective, general competences may be the object of somededicated and delicate curricular contents, similar to the cross-curricularhomework (Ciolan L, 2008)12; in conclusion, these two types ofcompetences are not required successively or separately, but altogether ina hierarchical fashion. From this perspective, Aubret şi Gilbert (2003, op.cit.) distinguish three levels of formation of competences starting from themost abstract level in relation to the action filled situations, to the levelnearest to the peculiarities of each situation:

-The level of general competences, which represents the essence ofany integration of an individual;

-The level of operational competences, pertains to certain situationsfor which a person may be seen susceptible to adapt;

-The level of situational competences, indicates the applicability level

12 Ciolan L., Învăţarea integrată. Fundamente pentru un curriculum transdisciplinar, Ed.Polirom, Iaşi, 2008.


of general and operational competences to specific peculiarities of certainsituations.

Cross competences and subject/professional competences. Crosscompetences must be perceived as life competences as they allow anindividual to adapt to the dynamics and complexity of real life. Therefore,they are context based. They are called cross competences as they surfacross different professional or subject areas. It is necessary to show thatthis transversality of the competences must be seen as transferrable and asan extension. From this context, cross competence is cross-disciplinary,and as such allows the transfer in contexts/different areas and ensures theextension of the contexts covered. Professional competences must be seenin the context of a specified professional field, as they are perceived assome common competences of different qualifications, or becomingspecialized in a certain area.

Individual and collective competences. As competences are attributesof acertain individual, they appear to be personalized/individualised.Therefore, each individual in a given context will act accordingly.However, we must mention here that more often than not/for the mostpart an individual will act in groups, in teams, in organizations, based onco-operative, competitive, hierarchical relations, etc. We may say thatindividual competences interact with those of the other individuals in agroup, leading to collective competences, as a rule. As far as team work isconcerned, in different organizations collective competences start to shapeup, in a team, group or within the organization.

Key Competences. Key competences behave as a basic competence andare transferable and multifunctional. Also, they make the most ofindividual competences, and through interaction it configures the distinctprofile of a group, team, organization. Key competences for educationand life development – European reference framework, have beenadapted by Romania, with the law number 1, LEN/2011. The EuropeanReference Framework is made up of eight key competences, each onebeing described through knowledge, abilities and attitudes. A detaileddiscussion can also be found in Marin, T. (2012) „The Status of KeyCompetences in Strategic Directions. The Objectives of EducationalPolitics”, in Methodological Aspects of Teaching and Learning,coordinated/led by G. Pohoaţă.


REFERENCES

Aubret, J., Gilbert P, L’evaluation des competences, Pierre MardagaEditeur, Sprimont, Belgique.

Boutin, G., (2004), L’approche par competences en education: un amalgameparadigmatique, in Connexions (REVUE, nr. 81-2004/1), Psychologisationdans la societe, editions Eres.

Ciolan, L., (2008), Învățarea integrată. Fundamente pentru un curriculumtransdisciplinar, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi.

Delory, C., (2002), L’evaluation des competences dans l’enseignementfondamental... Presses Universitaires de Louvain, Belgique.

Doron R., Parot F., (1999), Dicţionar de psihologie, Ed. Humanitas,Bucureşti.

Le Boterf. G. Conseil, www.guyleboterf_conseil.com, (2006), Commentle formateur, peut-il aider l’apprenti amobiliser ses competences en situation detravail? , CRERA, Toulouse.

Marin, T., (2012), ”Statutul competențelor-cheie în orientărilestategice. Obiectivele politicilor educaționale” în Aspecte metodologice alepredării şi ale învățării, coord. G., Pohoaţă, Pro Universitaria, Bucureşti.

Marin, T., (2012), Fundamentele pedagogiei. Teoria şi metodologiacurriculumului. Problematica educaţiei contemporane, Pro Universitaria,Bucureşti.

Perrenoud, Ph., (2005), Developper des competences, mission centrale oumarginale de l’universite?, texte d’une Conference au Congres Internationalede Pedagogie Universitaire 12-14 septembre, Universite De Geneve.

Perrenoud, Ph., (1995), Des savoirs aux competences. De quoi part –t-on enparlant des competences? In Revue Pedagogie Collegiale, Vol. 9, nr. 1, AQPCMontreal.

Popescu–Neveanu, P., (1978), Dicţionar de psihologie, Ed. Albatros,Bucureşti.

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