Europe 1500-1650

Outwards vs. Inwards

Inwards: Ming China Early 15th century voyages for Tribute But they had decided outsiders were useless,

thanks to Mongols, so they gave up reaching out Also, China had little need for outside goods

Outwards: Europe Europe finally overcome centuries of invasion and

death Economy was growing Europe needed goods from other regions due to

temperate climate.

The Silk Road

The Thousand Buddha Cave (On Silk Road)

The Silk Road and Spice Trade

Romans, Han, Maurya, and Parthians together assembled this route

Rise of Islam disrupted the trade Black Pepper and Cloves were valuable trade

items along with silk and Porcelain Venetians controlled Mediterranean end Fall of Constantinople prompts search for new

routes

Prince Henry the Navigator (March 4, 1394–November 13, 1460)

Sponsors voyages of exploration and new technologies

New Technologies: Caravel

Technical Innovations

Caravel combined European square rigging and Arabian lateen rigging, allowing it to sail better against the wind and thus return up coast of Africa

Compass: Allowed sailing away from shore Gunpowder: Military edge Chinese invented Compass and Gunpowder,

but rejected large scale sea exploration for political / cultural reasons.

The Rounding of Africa

1488—Bartholemew Dias rounds the Cape of Good Hope

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

Italian Sailor Approaches Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to

go west to reach Asia Based on thinking Earth is much smaller than it

actually is They sponsor him, having just conquered

Grenada in 1488.

The Four Voyages of Columbus

Columbus “Discovers” America

1492—First Voyage October 12, 1492—Discovers San Salvador He brings back natives, tobacco, gold, chile

peppers Also brings back syphillis and gives the natives

the “gift” of Black Plague, Herpes, Gonorhea, measles, small pox, etc, etc.

Thought he'd found India

“America”

Amerigo Vespucci (1451-1512) and Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) explored the coast of South America and began mapping it.

Amerigo named the new world after himself and the name stuck.

The Ravages of Disease

As civilization grows, nastier plagues can last longer

Human trade networks spread disease Cities become plague pits Isolation of Americas had protected them from

Eurasian Diseases These now crossed the ocean and slaughtered

30-50% of Indians Mexico loses 95%

The Columbian Exchange: Food

To Europe From America Potato Corn Beans and Squash

From Africa to America The Yam

From Europe and Asia to America Wheat and Spices Alcohol

The Impact of Domesticated Animals

End of Lack of Draft Animals: Better agriculture Easier Long Distance Trade

Impact on Nomads Plains Indians (North); Llanos and Pampas Indians

(South) now became horse nomads and much more powerful

Family Life in Early Modern Europe

• Average European is a poor farmer who probably rents his land

• Problem of the Little Ice Age (1450-1850)

• People marry later to save up resources for own business or farm

• Familes are part of extended families

• You expect to lose half your kids by age 10

• Live until 50 or 60 if you make it past 10.

• Birth Control is not very high quality

– Nursing children is the most effective way

Family Life II

• Family life is rather utilitarian in order to survive

• Children are apprenticed young to give them a future

• Towns are small by modern standards (most are 5-10,000 or less. Largest is Naples with 212,000

• Towns dominated by artisan guilds and merchants and clergy

Leadup to the Reformation

• 15th century clergy is 6-8% of urban population

• Many literate are technically clergy but don't work as priests/nuns/monks

• Church owns 1/3rd of land

• Church controls the rituals of life

• Church Services in Latin

• Upper class dominates the upper Priesthood

Problems of Renaissance Catholicism

• Temptations of Temporal Power

• Rising Heresies from Rising Literacy

• Monastic Corruption

• The Indulgences Issue

Northern Renaissance Humanism

• Christian Humanism wanted to use Humanist studies to reform the Church.

• Desiderus Erasmus (1466-1536): Erasmus "aspired to unite the classical ideals of humanity and civic virtue with the Christian ideals of love and piety." (THOWC, p. 444).

• He wanted a religion which focused on ethics, not symbolism, magic, relics, etc.

• Tried to restore religious texts to original, pure state

• His work laid the foundation for new translations

Desiderus Erasmus (1466-1536)

English Humanism

• Sir Thomas More (1478-1535)

• Criticized the accretion of traditions and superstitions

– Wanted to focus on ethical reform

– Executed by Henry VIII for refusing to become Protestant

Why Germany?

1. A growing literate population, combined with the printing press, which made it easier for new ideas to spread and for translations of the bible to be produced.

2. Political divisions which made it hard for central authorities to suppress heresy; German princes agreed that the Emperor needed to be kept weak, which made it hard for him to fight local princes who hid and supported reformers.

3. Problems of clerical corruption and a low-point in the morale and behavior of the monastic orders.

4. Acceptance of secular influence over the church; because local secular authorities controlled church appointments, they could change the content of religion without their populace necessarily turning on

them.

The Reformation: Martin Luther (1483-1586)

• Origins: Luther was a German Augustinian monk, who came to feel he wasn't holy enough despite being a monk, and who came to criticize the Church, leading to him nailing the famous 95 Theses (a list of complaints about the Church) to the door of his local cathedral.

• His Protests: – Sale of Indulgences

– The Focus on Penances and Works as key to salvation

– The refusal to translate the Bible into modern languages.

Martin Luther

Luther's Theology

• Teachings: – Salvation by Faith– An End to Celibacy– Translation of the Bible into German– Sola Scriptura

• His Impact: Luther shattered the unity of the Western Church and opened the way for the creation of the several thousand Protestant denominations which exist today.

Spread of the Reformation

• Reformation spreads in the urban centers and the literate elites

• Nobility could use it to justify autonomy from royal or imperial control

• Denmark and Sweden made it the state religion

• So did many German Princes

• Peace of Augsburg (1555) stated that each prince would have the right to set his territory's religion

Luther's Flaws

• Luther's revolt made modern religious toleration and freedom possible

• But Luther didn't seek religious freedom, he sought religious TRUTH. Thus, he felt free to persecute those who disagreed with him, as they were clearly agents of the Devil

• Despised peasants and Jews too

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) and Swiss Reformation

• He led rejection of indulgences and superstition / tradition in Zurich

• Abandoned any practice not literally mentioned in scripture

– Religious art

– Much of the mass

– Music

• He translates the Froschauer Bible (printed between 1524-1531)

• He dies fighting Swiss Catholics

Anabaptists and Radicals

• Rejected Infant Baptism

• Only adults could consciously choose to accept grace.

• Some practiced communal living

• They tended to withdraw from society into isolated communities of only the faithful

– Only those who underwent a conversion experience could be baptized and join the church

• Over time, it becomes an oft persecuted rural faith.

John Calvin and Thomas Hobbes...or not

John Calvin

John Calvin (1509-1564)

• Calvin would fuel revolution across Europe

• Calvinists felt it their duty to force God's law down everyone's throat, even though most were damned and no human action could change that.

• This required control of government, and the overthrow of 'ungodly' magistrates

• A perfect tool for rebellious nobles and city folk

John Calvin (1509-1564)

• A French student of the Bible

• Drew up guidelines for the Geneva church

• Created a model for alliance of Church and State copied by many

– Civil magistrate enforces religious law

– All must be made to act like the elect, though most are damned

• Predestination: God decided who was saved or damned when the world began. Human action can't change it. BUT YOU MUST PREACH ANYWAY.

Anglicanism

• Henry VIII (1491-1547, ruled 1509-1547) wants a son; his wife Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) gives him a daughter Mary (1516-1558, ruled 1553-8) but no legitimate sons.

• Henry needs an annulment (which would declare the marriage invalid so he is free to remarry)

• So he founds his own church!!!!

Anglicanism: Quest For a Son

• Pope won't give Henry an annulment; he is a puppet of Charles V, nephew of Catherine of Aragon.

• Henry now gets Parliament to help him take over the Church

– Appoints his own Archbishop, Thomas Cranmer, who gives him an annulment

– He sends Catherine to a nunnery

– He marries Anne Boleyn, his mistress

Anglicanism: Quest For a Son II

• Anne Boleyn is a Protestant. She gives birth to Elizabeth I (1533-1608, ruled 1558-1603),

• So Henry trumps up charges and kills her.

• The Anglican Church at this stage is mostly Catholic in theology

• Monasteries are shut down

• Parliament's involvement strengthens its power and importance.

The Heir Troubles

• Jane Seymour, Wife 3, dies in childbirth producing Edward VI (1537-1553, theoretically ruled 1547-53 (actually a regency))

• Henry churns through three more unfortunate wives and dies a bloated, evil, syphillitic beast of a man in 1547.

• Edward VI is too young to rule; his uncles take the country in a more protestant direction.

• But his death at 16 means STILL CATHOLIC Mary I, his sister, inherits...

The Catholic Reaction Under Mary

• Mary I (r. 1553-58) persecutes Protestants, restores Catholicism

• But she has no child and foolishly marries Phillip II of Spain, who just wants her kingdom and is basically focused on killing Dutch people and Turks

• When she dies, the throne passes to her sister Elizabeth I

The Elizabethan Settlement

• Elizabeth I (1558-1603) just wants a compromise which will please the largest possible group; the lunatic fringes can be driven out, she hopes.

• Catholic style hierarchy and top-down control of theology and ritual

• Local gentry, lords, merchants appoint parish priests and theology and ritual are Protestant in nature.

• This creates a split between High Churchmen (like fancy ritual) and Puritans (Calvinists)

Catholic Reform and Counter-Reformation

• Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) and the Society of Jesus

– Loyola was a courtier and soldier

– Turns to religion after an injury

– Author of Spiritual Exercises (1548)

– Founder of Society of Jesus (1534)

– Jesuits became educators and intellectuals

Council of Trent (1545-63)

• It abolishes various kinds of corruption

– the sale of office, indulgences, etc., by Popes to raise money for palaces and wars ('Simony')

• Forced higher moral quality on clergy

• Increased Bishopric staff

• Seminaries created

• Retained traditional theology and sacraments

• Created a better behaved church, but one still using most old practices

Counter Reformation

• Spain, Italy, Poland—Reformation is rolled back by better clergy and Inquisition

• Protestantism flourishes in North and Central Europe, however

Results of Reformation

• Clergy Shrinks 2/3rds

• Many monasteries destroyed and Church lands taken

• Worship is now in everyday language and Bible too

• Old practices (Shrines, relics, pilgrimages, confession, etc.) abandoned.

• Clergy can marry; subject to secular authority

• A fifth of Europe is Protestant in 1650.

The Wars of Religion (1560-1650)

• Geneva vs. the Society of Jesus

– Jesuits: Provide a spiritual revival on Catholic tradition, improved clergy, obedience to authority. Stabilizing, usually. Episcopal model.

– Calvinists: State enforces godly law, community of believers, predestination and salvation by faith alone. Revolutionary, often. Presbyterian model.

French Wars of Religion

French Wars of Religion (1559-1600)

• Henry II dies while jousting, leaving weak child-heirs dominated by his wife, Catherine de Medici

• Rebellious French nobles use Calvinism to excuse rebellion against the throne (Huguenots)

– Bourbon and Montmorency-Chatillon

– 2/5ths of nobility, many peasants

• Guise are Ultra-Catholics but also challenge royal power

French Wars of Religion (1559-1600)

• Catherine tries to play Protestants vs. Guise to preserve her own autonomy, but finally feels it necessary to slaughter Protestants in the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (3000 dead), only to find this leaves her totally alone

• War now erupts for decades

• Rise of the politiques

• Henry IV (1589-1610) Bourbon emerges as winner, converts to Catholicism. “Paris is worth a mass” Allows toleration of all Christian faiths.

The Troubles of Mary, Queen of Scots

• Mary I of Scotland (1542-1587, Queen of Scots 1542 at age 6 days to 1567) took the throne at the age of 6 days old

• Married Francis I of France and had a French education

• She was not well suited to rule over Scotland with its violent, hard-to-control nobles who began turning to Calvinism, in part due to preacher John Knox (c. 1510 – 24 November 1572)

John Knox (c. 1510 – 24 November 1572) and The Scottish Presbyterians

• Theologically, John Knox combined Calvinism (salvation by faith alone, predestination, Bible is only source of authority, rejection of old traditions) with extreme misogyny

– Wrote multiple books on why no woman should ever be in charge of anything

– Believed women should be submissive to men in all things and have no autonomy or independence at all

– Married a 17 year old at age 50 (she gave him three more kids); this was his second marriage

John Knox vs. Queen Mary

• Queen Mary was faced with ongoing problems between her Catholicism and the Protestant nobles, especially Knox.

• Her own bad decisions as ruler and in marriage (including blowing one of her husbands to bits with gunpowder. He was her half-first cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley) ultimately led the Scottish nobles to overthrow her and drive her out

• John Knox was a dominant figure in the ensuing regency for her son James VI (1567-1625)

The End of Queen Mary

• Queen Mary fled to England, but plotted against Elizabeth

• First Elizabeth had her imprisoned, and then eventually when she kept plotting, Mary was murdered (possibly Elizabeth's orders, possibly someone trying to curry favor)

• Mary Queen of Scots is the source of the Children's rhyme “Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary”

Imperial Spain and Phillip II (1556-1598)

• Spain becomes head of the Counter-Reformation

– Dutch Revolt in 1564, lasts off and on to 1648

– Phillip marries Mary I of England, but it is largely nominal

– After death of Mary Queen of Scots, he invades England in 1588, the famous Spanish Armada, which fails.

– His meddling in France only increases the Death Toll

– But he crushes the Turks at Lepanto in the Med.

Further Collapse in Holy Roman Empire

• HRE is divided into hundreds of tiny to small states by 1618

• Three Bishops, 3 Protestant “Princes” and the elected monarchy of Bohemia choose the Holy Roman Empire

• This enables the Catholic Habsburgs to monopolize the Throne

Thirty Years' War (1618-48)

• In 1618, Fredrick II, elector of the Palatinate, is elected King of Bohemia. He is the Protestant son-in-law of James I of England

• Habsburgs respond with war, touching off a series of wars which devastate Germany

– Bohemia + Palatinate vs. Habsburgs

– Danes vs. Habsburgs

– Sweden vs. Habsburgs

– France vs. Habsburgs

Thirty Years' War (1618-48)

• War goes from Protestants vs. Catholics to France vs. Austria to dominate Central Europe

• France also beats up Spain

• Treaty of Westphalia leaves the nation devastated and divided

• Elites increasingly disgusted with religion

Superstition and Enlightenment: The Witch Panic

• Massive Witchhunting in 1400 to 1700: About 70-100,000 are accused and tried for it

• Some villagers tried to leverage old superstitions to gain power in villages

• But old village unity was crumbling and marginal people were most likely to be attacked as witches

• Further, the Clergy had declared since 13th century that all non-Church 'powers' were of the Devil

• Reformation triggered religious turmoil

Superstition and Enlightenment: The Witch Panic II

• Scapegoating: Europe was in a cold period, harvests were often bad, society was in turmoil and old social niceties were being abandoned. Many sought to blame witches

• Why Women?: Single women tended to be poor widows and those who had never married and both had more independence than women were allowed but also were poor and vulnerable. Many of the accused were midwives, which was a socially dangerous job, given so many babies died

• Witchhunting declines as elites become secularized. .

Writers and Philosophers: Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547-1616)

• Traditional Spanish literature was obsessed with Chivalry and Knighthood (King Phillip III nearly drowned trying to re-enact an Arthurian Story)

• Cervantes was a realistic soldier

• Don Quixote was published in halves in 1605 and 1615

– Story of a delusional old would-be Knight and his peasant squire

– Parodies traditional chivalry

– It ends with him a broken man

Pablo Picasso's Don Quixote

William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

• Greatest of English Playwrights

• Wrote a mixture of historicals, tragedies, comedies and English “historicals” (not very accurate)

• Accepted the culture of his day but sometimes teased it and examined it

• Tragedies seen as his greatest: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth (1603-6)

• His English Historicals are basically propaganda for the monarchs who patronized his work

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

• Mathematician, Philosopher, Theologian

• He fought vs. both skepticism and dogmatism

• Religion had to be based on a leap of faith

• Reason was a tool for the material world

• God was a loving being who would redeem the undeserving

• Pascal's Wager: It's better to act as if God exists than gamble he doesn't, as the consequences for being wrong he exists are not as bad as the ones for if you gamble he doesn't and you're wrong.

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)

• Dutch Jewish Philosopher

• God and Nature are one and the same

• Mind and Material are both made out of God

• God's Will rules all

• Human minds may think they control the world, but they merely observe

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

• Leviathan (1651)

– Hobbes thinks humanity is basically, fundamentally NASTY

– Only brute force can tame the beasts

– Thus, society must be ruled by a tyrant who crushes all underfoot to a semblance of civilization

– Fails totally to explain how this monarch won't be a hideous beast too.

– Hobbes preferred Tyranny to the anarchy of post-Civil Wars England when he wrote this

John Locke (1632-1704)

• John Locke, by contrast, thought men began as blank slates and were then shaped by their experience and upbringing—Blank Slate Theory: Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

• The best government was not an absolute monarch, but rather, the legitimacy of all government flows from the consent of the governed; they may revoke this in face of tyranny (Two Treatises of Government (1690)) and form a new government. A basis for the American Revolution