Europe at mid-century (ca. 1850)Europe at mid-century (ca. 1850) Industrialism continues to grow and spreadIndustrialism continues to grow and spread Second Industrial Revolution brings more rapid changeSecond Industrial Revolution brings more rapid change Rapid urbanization brings new social problemsRapid urbanization brings new social problems Failure of the Revolutions of 1848 changes attitudes Failure of the Revolutions of 1848 changes attitudes

about reform and revolution; trend toward democracyabout reform and revolution; trend toward democracy Middle Class joins the system of the Middle Class joins the system of the status quostatus quo; works ; works

for votes and control through electionsfor votes and control through elections Radical movements (socialism, Communism, anarchism) Radical movements (socialism, Communism, anarchism)

continue; polarize: mellow and/or more violentcontinue; polarize: mellow and/or more violent Nationalism continues to grow becoming more Nationalism continues to grow becoming more

conservative or practical; Liberals and Conservatives conservative or practical; Liberals and Conservatives unify on support for nationalismunify on support for nationalism

Emergence of Emergence of Realpolitik Realpolitik (Era: 1850(Era: 1850–World War I)–World War I) Unification movements in Italy and Germany taken over Unification movements in Italy and Germany taken over

by pragmatic, non-romantics: achieved, ca. 1870by pragmatic, non-romantics: achieved, ca. 1870 Balance of power stable (to be upset by unification of Balance of power stable (to be upset by unification of

Germany and Italy)Germany and Italy) Transformed peasantry: Serfdom exists only in RussiaTransformed peasantry: Serfdom exists only in Russia

The (Second) Industrial Revolution Invention of cheap steel (Bessemer process)Invention of cheap steel (Bessemer process) Discovery and development of electricity as Discovery and development of electricity as

a source of power: dynamo, generator, a source of power: dynamo, generator, electric lighting, etc.electric lighting, etc.

Discovery and development of petroleum as Discovery and development of petroleum as a source of power: gasoline, kerosene, etc.a source of power: gasoline, kerosene, etc.

Electronic communication: Telegraph, Electronic communication: Telegraph, telephone, radio (wireless), etc.telephone, radio (wireless), etc.

Invention of internal combustion engine Invention of internal combustion engine and the automobileand the automobile

Invention of the airplaneInvention of the airplane

Second Industrial Revolution 1856-70 Investors protected by Joint Stock

Company laws 1857 Bessemer process for making steel 1869 Suez Canal opens 1873 Major economic recession 1876 Invention of the telephone by Bell 1879 Edison perfects the electric light bulb 1881 First electric power plant built in Britain 1886 Internal combustion engine invented by

Daimler; Daimler and Benz build first automobile

1895 Marconi invents wireless telegraphy 1890sPetroleum becomes major source of fuel 1903 First airplane flight by Wright brothers 1904 Panama Canal begun (—’14) 1909 Ford uses assembly line to manufacture first

“Model T”

(1) Workhouses to be built in every parish or in unions of small parishes;(2) No able-bodied person to receive money or other help from the Poor Law authorities except in a workhouse; (3) Conditions in workhouses to be very harsh to discourage people from wanting to receive help;(4) Taxpayers in each parish to elect a Board of Guardians to supervise the workhouse, to collect the Poor Tax and to send reports to the Central Poor Law Commission; (5) The 3-man Central Poor Law Commission appointed by the government and responsible for supervising the Act throughout the country.

POOR LAW OF 1834

1796 Jenner introduces smallpox vaccine1796 Jenner introduces smallpox vaccine1842 First surgery performed using ether1842 First surgery performed using ether1848 First successful appendectomy1848 First successful appendectomy1854-1858 Great cholera epidemics in London and the 1854-1858 Great cholera epidemics in London and the

“Great Stink”“Great Stink”1864 Louis Pasteur invents ‘pasteurization’1864 Louis Pasteur invents ‘pasteurization’1865 Lister performs first antiseptic surgery; Pasteur 1865 Lister performs first antiseptic surgery; Pasteur

demonstrates airborne microbes cause fermentation demonstrates airborne microbes cause fermentation leading to ‘germ theory’leading to ‘germ theory’

1876 Koch discovers anthrax bacillus1876 Koch discovers anthrax bacillus1878 Koch discovers micro-organisms cause infection1878 Koch discovers micro-organisms cause infection1882 Koch discovers micro-organisms cause tuberculosis1882 Koch discovers micro-organisms cause tuberculosis1884 Koch discovers micro-organisms cause cholera1884 Koch discovers micro-organisms cause cholera1885 Pasteur creates rabies vaccine1885 Pasteur creates rabies vaccine1886 First use of steam to sterilize surgical instruments1886 First use of steam to sterilize surgical instruments1894 Discovery of the plague bacillus1894 Discovery of the plague bacillus1895 Discovery of x-rays1895 Discovery of x-rays1898 Discovery of malaria bacillus1898 Discovery of malaria bacillus

Medical Progress

Theories of DiseaseTheories of DiseaseDemonic Theory (pre-history)Demonic Theory (pre-history)

Cause: Demons within the bodyCause: Demons within the body Cure: Driving out the demonsCure: Driving out the demons

Miasmatic Theory (Middle Ages)Miasmatic Theory (Middle Ages) Cause: Bad surrounding airCause: Bad surrounding air Cure: Avoidance of the air; changing the air; Cure: Avoidance of the air; changing the air;

stopping the emission of the airstopping the emission of the airHumouristic Theory (4Humouristic Theory (4thth century B.C.) century B.C.)

Cause: Imbalance of the four bodily humoursCause: Imbalance of the four bodily humours Cure: Remove bodily fluids by bleeding or purging Cure: Remove bodily fluids by bleeding or purging

to allow fluids to rebuild in balanceto allow fluids to rebuild in balanceGerm or Pathogenic Theory (19Germ or Pathogenic Theory (19thth century) century)

Cause: Micro-organisms (bacteria, viruses) enter Cause: Micro-organisms (bacteria, viruses) enter the bodythe body

Cure: Kill or otherwise eliminate the micro-Cure: Kill or otherwise eliminate the micro-organisms; make the body immune to the organisms; make the body immune to the organisms (vaccination)organisms (vaccination)

Compte’s LAW OF THREE STAGES“From the study of the development of human intelligence, the discovery arises of a fundamental law – that each branch of our knowledge passes successively through 3 different theoretical conditions: the Theological, or fictitious; the Metaphysical, or abstract; and the Scientific, or positive.”Auguste Compte, Positive Philosophy

Social Darwinism (Spencerism): The view of life based on Darwin’s biological observations which justified the opposition to any social reform on the basis that social reform interfered with the operation of the natural law of the “survival of the fittest”, using the phrase to describe the improvement of society through laissez faire policies and cut-throat competition.

Literary Realism and Literary Realism and NaturalismNaturalism

Movement in literature and the arts Movement in literature and the arts of the late nineteenth-century that of the late nineteenth-century that

united Romantic individualism with united Romantic individualism with social determinism and sought to social determinism and sought to

highlight the ills of society. highlight the ills of society. Influenced strongly by scientific Influenced strongly by scientific

discoveries, it held that heredity and discoveries, it held that heredity and environment largely determined the environment largely determined the

human condition.human condition.

RealpolitikRealpolitik PronunciationPronunciation:: rA-'äl-"pO-li-"tEk Function:Function: noun; Usage:Usage: often capitalized Etymology:Etymology: German, from real = actual + Politik = politics Definition:Definition: Politics based on practical and material factors rather than on theoretical or ethical objectives.

Time: Time: Mid-19th century to World War I and . . . . Examples of practitioners: Examples of practitioners: Napoleon III, Emperor of France; Camilo Benso di Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia/Italy; Otto von Bismarck,

Chancellor of Prussia/Germany

The Programme of Napoleon IIIThe Programme of Napoleon IIIThe “The “Liberal EmpireLiberal Empire”: 1852-1870”: 1852-1870

Protect CatholicismProtect Catholicism Rebuild Paris as the model city of the Rebuild Paris as the model city of the

Industrial AgeIndustrial Age Economy: Build up industry and provide Economy: Build up industry and provide

jobsjobs Rebuild pride in French militaryRebuild pride in French military Expand the French EmpireExpand the French Empire Gain prestige in Foreign AffairsGain prestige in Foreign Affairs Become the diplomatic leader of EuropeBecome the diplomatic leader of Europe

The Rise and Fall of Napoleon IIIThe Rise and Fall of Napoleon III1848 Elected President of Second Republic1849 French troops restore Pius IX in Rome1851 Napoleon takes power in military coup d’etat1852 Plebiscite proclaims Second Empire: Napoleon III1853 Haussmann begins re-design of Paris 1853-56 Crimean War1856 Hosts Paris Conference ending Crimean War1859 Alliance with Piedmont drives Austria from Lombardy: France gains Nice and Savoy1859 Suez Canal begun; completed 18691860 Colonization of Indo-China begun1861 Maximilian becomes Emperor of Mexico with French support1866 France fails to gain during Austro-Prussian War1867 French withdraw from Mexico1870 Defeated in Franco-Prussian War: resigns

Final steps to Italian UnificationFinal steps to Italian Unification1855 Piedmont-Sardinia enters Crimean War1856 Cavour makes Italian unification issue at Paris

Peace Conference1858 Treaty of Plombières: France will aid Piedmont-

Sardinia against Austria in exchange for Nice and Savoy1859 War: Piedmont-Sardinia and France against Austria

conquers Lombardy; France gets Nice and Savoy, Piedmont-Sardinia gets Lombardy

1860 Garibaldi and Red Shirts land in Sicily, conquer southern Italy

1861 Kingdom of Italy declared; Cavour dies; Naples and Sicily become part of Italy

1866 Italy allies with Prussia in Seven Weeks’ War; Venetia ceded to Italy by Austria

1870 Franco-Prussian War: France withdraws troops from Rome; Italy annexes Rome; Pope protests: “Prisoner of the Vatican”

Italy and Germany: Phases of UnificationItaly and Germany: Phases of UnificationPre-1800Pre-1800 Fragmentation: Broken into smallFragmentation: Broken into small

sovereign statessovereign states1800-18101800-1810 Napoleon’s conquests ousts old rulers; Napoleon’s conquests ousts old rulers;

Empire organized re-doing boundariesEmpire organized re-doing boundaries1810-18151810-1815 Rising Nationalism across Europe in Rising Nationalism across Europe in

opposing Napoleon helps bring his opposing Napoleon helps bring his defeatdefeat

1814-18151814-1815 Congress of Vienna restores old rulers Congress of Vienna restores old rulers and attempts to halt Nationalism and and attempts to halt Nationalism and LiberalismLiberalism

1815-18481815-1848 Liberals, Romanticists, intellectuals, Liberals, Romanticists, intellectuals, students, and others lead Nationalist students, and others lead Nationalist MovementMovement

1819-18491819-1849 Revolutions fail to bring unificationRevolutions fail to bring unification1850-18601850-1860 Rise of new, pragmatic leadershipRise of new, pragmatic leadership1860-18701860-1870 RealpolitikRealpolitik: Final unification through : Final unification through

compromise, diplomacy, and warcompromise, diplomacy, and war

Prussia: Obstacles to German Prussia: Obstacles to German UnificationUnification

Desire of states to remain

sovereign

Russia

Britain

France

Austria

Industrial profits increase

cooperationZollverein

War unifies them for self

defense

No interference in Poland

No desire to expand colonies

Defeated in 7 Weeks’ War

Defeated in Franco-Prussian War

DOMESTIC BARRIERS

GREAT POWERS

Final steps to German Unification1862 Bismarck becomes Chancellor of Prussia1863 Increases power of Chancellor; Reduces power of

Reichstag1864 Prussia and Austria defeat Denmark in war over

Schleswig-Holstein1866 Seven Weeks’ War / Austro-Prussian War1867 North German Confederation formed1870 Crisis: Hohenzollern nominated as King of

Spain; Ems Telegram published1870 France declares war on Prussia; 4 southern

German states join Prussia1870 France defeated at Sedan; Napoleon III captured1870 Third Republic of France proclaimed1871 France surrenders; German Empire proclaimed;

Kaiser William I crowned at Versailles

Consequences of theConsequences of theFranco-Prussian WarFranco-Prussian War

German states unified under Prussian monarchy as the German EmpireFrance’s Second Empire ended in defeatFrance established the Third RepublicFinal unification of Italy with the addition of Rome and the Papal StatesUprising and defeat of Paris CommuneLoss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany leaves France bitter and wanting revengeBalance of power upset; Germany dominates Central EuropeGermany: united, nationalist, militarist, industrializing rapidly, ambitious

au·toc·ra·cyPronunciation: o-'tä-kr&-sEFunction: noun; Plural -cies;Date: 16551. government in which one person possesses unlimited power2. the authority or rule of an autocrat3. a community or state governed by autocracy

Reforms of Alexander IIReforms of Alexander IIPardoned the Decembrist rebelsAbolished serfdomLoaned money to peasant villages to buy landOrganized new form of local governmentRelaxed censorshipAbolished corporal punishmentInstituted trial by juryLowered the use of capital punishmentSponsored industrial growthBegan building railroad to the Black SeaReformed judiciary and law codeReduced military service: 30 years to 25

Emancipation Decree, 1861Emancipation Decree, 1861From Decree to RevolutionFrom Decree to Revolution

Created landless peasants from land-bound serfsCreated landless peasants from land-bound serfs Many landless peasants moved to cities Many landless peasants moved to cities Discontent increased in the cities Discontent increased in the cities Control of the provinces taken away from the Control of the provinces taken away from the

landownerslandowners Created need for new form of local government Created need for new form of local government New local governments kept power in the hands of New local governments kept power in the hands of

the wealthy the wealthy System offered no outlet for discontentSystem offered no outlet for discontent Alexander II, the Reformer, assassinated 1881 Alexander II, the Reformer, assassinated 1881 Following Tsars turned reactionary, anti-reform Following Tsars turned reactionary, anti-reform

Revolution of 1905 gains were undone: Duma was Revolution of 1905 gains were undone: Duma was

only advisory; Membership of Duma was changedonly advisory; Membership of Duma was changed

WesternersWesterners• Russia has a European

base and connection• Russia can copy and

outdo Europe• Favored by Intellectual

Elite• Favored by Merchants,

Businessmen• Favored by Progressives,

Young• Progressive, reforming

Tsars

• Russia is unique like no other country

• Russia is its own example and sets its own pace

• Favored by Russian Orthodox Church

• Favored by Military• Favored by Boyars• Favored by Peasants• Conservative, reactionary

Tsars

The Pendulum of RussiaThe Pendulum of RussiaSlavophilesSlavophiles

Russia on the Road to RevolutionRussia on the Road to Revolution1855 Alexander II becomes Tsar1856 Russia defeated in Crimean War1861 Emancipation of the Serfs1863 Suppression of revolt in Poland1864 Reorganization of local government

and reform of judicial system1874 Military enlistment reduced (25 years

6 years)1879 Formation of “The People’s Will”1881 Assassination of Alexander II;

Alexander III reverses reforms1894 Nicholas II becomes Tsar1904 War with Japan begins1905 Bloody Sunday revolt; Surrender to

Japan: Loss of concessions in Korea

The Progress in Women’s RightsThe Progress in Women’s Rights1857 English divorce law revised1865 University of Zurich admits women1869 Mill: The Subjection of Women1878 University of London admits women1882 Married Women’s Property Act in Britain1894 Germany: Union of Women’s Organization1901 France: Nat’l Council of Women1903 Britain: Women’s Social and Political

Union founded by Emmeline Pankhurst1907 Norway grants women the vote1910 British suffragettes adopt radical tactics1914-18 World War I: 17 nations pass women’s

suffrage1918 British women over 30 get vote; Germany

grants women the vote1922 France defeats bill giving women the vote1928 Britain grants all women the vote

Women’s Rights and the Great WarWomen’s Rights and the Great WarWomen’s Suffrage through 1920Women’s Suffrage through 1920

Pre-war ( before 1914): New Zealand, Australia, Pre-war ( before 1914): New Zealand, Australia, NorwayNorway

1915: Denmark, Iceland1915: Denmark, Iceland 1917: Netherlands, Russia, Canada1917: Netherlands, Russia, Canada 1918: Britain, Germany, Austria, Sweden, Hungary, 1918: Britain, Germany, Austria, Sweden, Hungary,

Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia, ChinaChina

1919: Luxembourg, India, British East Africa, 1919: Luxembourg, India, British East Africa, RhodesiaRhodesia

1920: United States1920: United States European nations still without women’s suffrage: European nations still without women’s suffrage:

France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Switzerland, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Switzerland, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, TurkeyRomania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Turkey

France: 3France: 3rdrd Republic to WWI Republic to WWI18701870 Third Republic establishedThird Republic established18711871 Paris Commune crushedParis Commune crushed18731873 Last German Troops withdrawn; Last German Troops withdrawn;

Frances pay $1 billion to GermanyFrances pay $1 billion to Germany18751875 Republican constitution adoptedRepublican constitution adopted18891889 Boulanger scandalBoulanger scandal18941894 Alliance with Russia signedAlliance with Russia signed

Panama Canal company failsPanama Canal company failsDreyfus Affair beginsDreyfus Affair begins

19041904 Entente-Cordiale with BritainEntente-Cordiale with Britain19051905 Separation of Church and StateSeparation of Church and State19061906 Dreyfus pardoned and releasedDreyfus pardoned and released19071907 Triple Entente signedTriple Entente signed19141914 World War I beginsWorld War I begins

Britain moving toward Democracy1867 Second Reform Act extends suffrage1869 Disestablishment of Church of Ireland1870 Education Act and 1st Irish Land Act1871 Purchase of army commissions abolished1872 Ballot Act instituted the secret ballot1875 Public Health and Artisan Dwelling acts1881 2nd Irish Land Act and Irish Coercion Act1884 Third Reform Act extends suffrage1885 Fourth Reform Act passed; Gladstone supports

Irish home rule1903 3rd Irish Land Act1909 People’s Budget proposed1911 House of Lords loses veto power 1912 Irish Home Rule passed (after being twice

defeated)1914 Irish Home Rule suspended due to World War I

Major Assassinations before WWI 1881Tsar Alexander II of Russia 1881President James Garfield of US 1894President Sadi Carnot of Italy 1895PM Stambulov of Bulgaria 1898Empress Elizabeth of Austria 1900King Umberto I of Italy 1901President William McKinley of US 1903King Alexander I of Serbia 1908King Carlos I of Portugal 1911Russian PM Peter Stolypin 1913King George I of Greece 1914Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria