Europe in 1914 19 th Century Politics Political Changes between 1815 and 1914 Prussia & other states...

Europe in 1914

19th Century PoliticsPolitical Changes between 1815 and 1914

• Prussia & other states = Germany • Italy is united• New nations in the Ottoman Empire

Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria (BALKAN PENINSULA)

• New nations: Belgium, Norway

The Causes of WW1

•Militarism•Alliances•Imperialism•Nationalism•Significant individuals

By A. Finemesswww.SchoolHistory.co.uk

MAIN Causes of the War

Imperialism– Definition: policy in which a strong

nation seeks to dominate other countries politically, economically, and/or socially

– European countries competed for colonies in Africa and Asia

– Dominated by Great Britain and France (Italy and Germany were late to take colonies)

– Compete for influence in the Balkans

Imperialism

• All the great powers were competing for colonies / territory.

• The British feared Germany in Africa.

• The Austrians feared Serbia / Russia in the Balkans

Eu

ropean

Imp

erialism in

Africa

European Imperialism in Asia

Nationalism

–Deep Devotion to One’s Nation–Competition and Rivalry

developed between European nations for territory and markets• (Example France and Germany- Alsace-Lorraine)

Crisis and Wars in Europe in late 1800’s and early 1900’s

• Austria-Hungary lost a war to France in 1848

• Austria-Hungary lost a war to Prussia in 1866

• Germany defeats France in the Franco-Prussian War(1870-1871) -Germany receives Alsace-Lorraine from France

• United States defeats Spain in the Spanish-American War(1898)

• Japan defeats Russia in the Russo-Japanese War(1904-05)

• France and Germany almost go to war over Morocco(1905& 1911)

• The Pig War between Austria-Hungary and Serbia - a economic war not military

• Italy defeats Turkey in the Tripolitanian War(1911)

• The Balkan League(Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria & Greece) defeated the Ottoman Empire(Turkey) in the First Balkan War(1912)

• Serbia and Greece defeat Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War(1913)

Otto Van Bismarck

•Chancellor of Germany from March 1871 – March 1890•Bismarck resigned at Wilhelm II's insistence in 1890

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bismarck_pickelhaube.jpg

Kaiser Wilhelm II Rein: 15 June 1888 – 9 November 1918

Militarism 1.

• Germany was competing with the UK to build battleships.

• The British feared an attack on their Empire

Militarism 2.

• Germany was competing with Russia and France to expand their armies

18801914

• Germany 1.3m 5.0m• France 0.73m 4.0m• Russia 0.40m 1.2m

Arms Race and the First World War:

Increase in Spending

There was a four-fold increase in defence spending of the great powers, 1870-1914.

Defence Spending, 1870-1914

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

£m 94 130 154 268 289 398

1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1914


Armies - 3

As well as their STANDING ARMIES, the nations introduced CONSCRIPTION, so they also had large numbers of trained RESERVES. All the nations except Britain had HUGE armies.


Navies - 2

Both BRITAIN and GERMANY started building Dreadnoughts – the most advanced class of warship in the world. The Dreadnought essentially reduced everybody else’s number of warships to zero.


Navies - 3

There was a race between Germany and Britain to build the most Dreadnoughts. The graph shows the number built each year.

Building Dreadnoughts, 1906-1914

0

2

4

6

8

Germany 0 0 4 3 1 3 2 3 1

Great Britain 1 3 2 2 3 5 3 7 3

1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914


Navies - 5

In the end, Britain’s built many more Dreadnoughts than Germany.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Total Dreadnoughts

Germany 0 0 4 7 8 11 13 16 17

Britain 1 4 6 8 11 16 19 26 29

1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914

Alliances and the First World War:

Essential Background - Fact 1

World War I was all about the place of Germany in Europe


Essential Background - Fact 2

France and Germany hated each other! When Germany became united country in 1870-1, France went to war to try to stop it … but got WHOPPED!


Essential Background Fact 2 (cont.)

France also lost Alsace-Lorraine in 1870-1.The French never forgave the Germans. They wanted REVENGE.


Germany in the Middle

Germany’s BIG problem was that it was IN THE MIDDLE.

That made it VULNERABLE if it came to a war.


Three Emperors’ League, 1881

In the 19th century, Germany’s brilliant Chancellor, Bismarck, solved this problem by keeping friends with RUSSIA and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY (the Dreikaiserbund).


Triple Alliance, 1882

Then Bismarck allied with Italy and Austria-Hungary (the TRIPLE ALLIANCE, 1882). Together with his friendship with Russia, this kept Germany safe.


Germany encircled

But when Kaiser Wilhelm became Emperor, he dumped the Russian alliance. He kept the Triple Alliance, but this did NOT solve the problem of Germany’s encirclement.


Franco-Russian Alliance, 1892

Instead, in 1892, Russia made an alliance with FRANCE.Although it was only a DEFENSIVE alliance, it was Germany’s worst nightmare!


Entente Cordiale, 1904

… which allowed Britain to make the Entente Cordiale (‘friendly relationship’) with France in 1904.


Triple Entente, 1907

In 1907 Russia joined Britain and France to make the Triple Entente. So by 1914 Europe had divided into two massive superpower blocs.

People thought this BALANCE OF POWER would keep the peace.


The Balkans

But Russia was also allied to Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria. When trouble erupted in the Balkans in 1914, the nations found their alliances dragged them into war…


How the Alliances caused war

… like mountain climbers tied to the same rope.(i.e. it is arguable that THE SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES CAUSED WORLD WAR ONE.)

Alliances

• By 1914 all the major powers were linked by a system of alliances.

• The alliances made it more likely that a war would start.

• Once started, the alliances made it more likely to spread.

Pan-Slavism in the Balkans

1914

“Powder Keg” of Europe

The Balkans: The Restless Region

- Ottoman Empire declining- Nationalism = powerful force in the

Balkans- Austria-Hungary takes over

struggling nations and vows to crush any efforts to undermine authority

- Serbia – supported by Russia; wants to break free from Austria-Hungary

Significant Individuals 1.

• Kaiser Wilhelm II • Built up German army

and navy• Aggressive foreign

policy• Determined to make

Germany a top nation.• Distrusted by other

powers

“Germany must have its place in the sun”“The world belongs to the strong.”

Significant Individuals 2

• Count Berchtold• Austrian Prime

Minister.• During the July

Crisis, decided on a very tough ultimatum for Serbia “Were the Serbs to

agree to all the demands, this would not be to my liking”

Significant Individuals 3

• Bethmann Hollweg• German Prime

Minister• Gave very strong

support to Austria during the July crisis while Kaiser was cruising on his yacht

“The Austrian demands are moderate. Any interference by Britain, France and Russia would be followed by incalculable consequences”

The Crisis 1.

28 June 1914Heir to Austrian

throne Franz Ferdinand visits Sarajevo.

Capital of Bosnia, recently grabbed by Austria.

Hotbed of Slav nationalism Seal of the

Black Hand group

The Crisis 2.

“Black Hand” terrorists attack the Arch Duke

Bomb attempt fails in morning

Gavrilo Princip shoots Archduke and wife in the afternoon.

Austrians blame Serbia for supporting terrorists.

The Crisis 3.

Austrians, supported by Germany, send Serbia a tough ultimatum.

Serbia agrees to all but two terms of the ultimatum.

Russia mobilises her troops to support Serbia

Germany demands that Russia stands her armies down.

Germany declares war on Russia

“Demands must be put to Serbia that would be wholly impossible for them to accept …”

Why did Britain get involved?

• Britain had Ententes with France and Russia.

• Only “friendly agreements” but French and Russians given impression Britain would fight.

• The Schlieffen Plan

Sir Edward GreyBritish Foreign Secretary … “There’s some devilry going on in Berlin”

The Schlieffen Plan

Germany’s military plan to defeat France and Russia.

“Knock out blow” aimed at France first.

Avoid French defences by invasion of Belgium.

Germans thought Britain would not intervene.

Britain’s Reaction1838- UK had signed a

Treaty to protect Belgium.Britain also scared of

Germany controlling Channel ports.

Did not want Germany to defeat France and dominate Europe. Britain next?

UK issued ultimatum to Germany to withdraw troops from Belgium. War declared August 4 1914

The Great War 1914-1918

• Questions to ask:If war seemed “inconceivable”

why did it happen?

How was this a “world war”?

• The Textbook list of Primary Causes:

Imperialism (colonialism), Nationalism, Militarism and Alliances.

“A Place in the Sun”

“Splendid Isolation”

Naval Race

Diplomacy 1900-1914

• Confusing Array of Alliances

• Distrust: Boer War, Russo-Japanese War, Africa, Chinese concessions, colonial disputes

• Moroccan Crisis (1905 & 1911)

• Bosnian Crisis (1908-09)

• Trouble in the Balkans (1912-1913)


• Setting the StageI. Crisis in the

BalkansII. The SparkA. Black Hand &

Assassination (6/28/1914)

Franz Ferdinand


• The Spark (continued)

Inquiry: How could an assassination set off a world war?

B. German “Blank Check”

C. Russian Mobilization

D. “Saber Rattling”


• The Players:

Central Powers = Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire

Allied Powers = Great Britain & Commonwealth, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia, Japan, Italy (1915), USA (1917)


III. The Armed StalematePeter Browning & The Changing

Nature of Warfare. Shift from Political Warfare to Position Warfare.

A. The Schlieffen Plan and its significance. 8/3/1914: Belgium’s neutrality is violated

B. The War on Land and the Western Front

War in the Trenches, Battle of Verdun, Battle of the Somme.

“The lamps are going out all over Europe;we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”Sir Edward Grey (Aug. 4, 1914)


B. The War at SeaNaval blockade, Submarine warfare, the

Lusitania

C. Diplomatic ManeuversItaly, Zimmermann Telegraph, Asia,

German Expansionism

D. Russia & Eastern FrontRussian Revolution, Provisional

Government, The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

E. U.S. Enters the WarW. Wilson: “Peace without victory.” and “To make the world safe for democracy” (?)

F. The World at War: Africa & Asia

G. Germany’s declineH. ArmisticeDid the Central Powers surrender?

Questions Historians ask:

• Schlieffen Plan: Was the Schlieffen Plan of the German General Staff a sound war strategy?

• Yes. The various directives that made up the German war plan indicate a high level of flexibility and a willingness to respond to events. (Robert T. Foley)

• No. The Schlieffen Plan was predicated on an inexorable progression to an all-or-nothing victory. (Antulio Echevarria)

• No. The Schlieffen Plan seriously underestimated the capabilities of enemy forces and did not take into account their tenacity and rapid deployment. (John Wheatley)

• Belgian Neutrality: Was the violation of Belgian neutrality in 1914 the reason for Great Britain’s declaration of war on Germany?

• Yes. The international treaty of 1839 had formally acknowledged that Belgian neutrality was an important element in European stability and British strategic interests. (Paul Du Quenoy)

• No. The British had already determined to declare war once Germany had mobilized its military forces. (John Wheatley)

Historiography of WWI

• The Fisher ThesisGerman documents prove expansionist aims. War used to

contain domestic unrest.• Barbara Tuchman: The Guns of August (1962)Historical narrative of August, 1914• G. Lowes Dickinson: International Anarchy (1926)Alliance system blamed for the war• Sidney Fey: The Origins of the World War (1928)Blames Russia & A-H• Vladimir LeninInevitable outcome of capitalism is war• Nye Committee (1934-6) for U.S. involvement

Peace of Paris 1919

• Five Treaties:Austria = Treaty of St. Germaine

Hungary = Treaty of Trianon

Bulgaria = Treaty of Neuilly

Turkey = Treaty of Sevres

Germany = Treaty of Versailles

• Big FourFrance (Clemenceau), G.B. (George),

U.S. (Wilson), Italy (Orlando).

32 countries total with only 8 meetings

Germany & Russia not invited!

Treaty of Versailles 1919

• Wilson’s Fourteen Points- Germany’s armistice hinged on

the provisions of the Fourteen Points. New democratic Germany hoped to be treated as an equal.

- End to secret treaties and secret diplomacy; freedom of the seas; removal of barriers in international trade; evacuation of occupied territories; self-determination of nationalities; redraw the map of Europe; League of Nations.

Wilson’s 14 Points

- Wilson hoped to revive the idealism of 19th century Europe with American Democracy = a new era

- Controversy: France demanded reparations, UK vetoed “freedom of the seas”. League of Nations covenant debated: U.S. & religious freedom, Japan & racial discrimination.

- U.S. senate never ratifies the League due to Article 10 (protection of territorial independence of all members). Senate = Republican Party, election year (1920)


• France:Number one concern = security from

Germany aggression

Revenge for Franco-Prussian War?

1. Anglo-French-American Guarantee Treaty (protection against Germany).

2. Alsace-Lorraine returned to France (lost in F-P War).

3. German military banned from Rhineland + Allied occupation. France controls Saar coal mines in Rhineland for 15 years.

France: Punish Germany

4. Disarm Germany. How and in what way?

5. War Reparations. Due in part to emotions, reparations paid to Germany for F-P War, and debt owed to U.S.

Great Britain: wanted a peaceful united Germany to stop Bolshevism and to become a strong market for British goods.

Treaty was a compromise between the two nations


• Germany and Disarmament

1. Rhineland demilitarized2. Military demobilized. No

air force allowed.3. Limited to 7 divisions of

infantry, 3 of cavalry: total can’t exceed 100,000 men & 4,000 officers


4. No Navy. Germans scuttled fleet at Scapa Flow. No submarines allowed. Merchant Marine allowed providing it does not compete with allied interests.

5. Germany assumes “War Guilt Clause”

6. “Diktat” = Germany not consulted on matter

Was this done in the spirit of idealism to end armed conflict?

How would Germany defend itself from any aggression?


• The Map of Europe1. Danzig Corridor – created a passage to the sea for Poland.

Danzig a free city, mainly German in ethnicity. East Prussia separated from Germany.

2. Russia loses Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Each become “new” nations. Cordon Sanitaire created to contain Bolshevism.

3. Austria-Hungary carved up. Creation of Yugoslavia & Czechoslovakia. Empire in decline, separated from Germany.

4. Italy makes small gains from Treaty of London.


• The World Map1. Germany lost all colonies. The League gave mandates to powers

for administration. 2. African Colonies: mainly to France, GB. Belgian Congo enlarged,

S. Africa gains land.3. Japan gained German Pacific Islands, concessions in China. 4. Australia & New Zealand gain Pacific islands.5. China sought to abolish special concessions and extraterritorial

rights of Europeans. They lost, walked out of the conference.6. Italy gains nothing from colonies.7. New nation of Turkey emerges from Ottoman Empire. Land

restricted, area carved up into new nations 1920 & 1923.

The Mandates

Colonies and territories not yet able to “stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world” are governed by (mainly) GB and France

Middle East, Pacific, Africa- Considered paternalistic and

condescending- Nations had to submit yearly

reports to the League. Unrest meant a League committee.

- Self-determination was established for a future date of independence.

Mandates in Africa and Asia

Outcomes of the Peace of Paris

• Germany refused to sign. Threat of hostilities to commence by allies. Germany signs with a delegation of two people. Germany humiliated.

• New nations affirmed by “self-determination”. Actually, they declared themselves before Paris. Trouble with minority groups caught in borders.

• Many of the terms were too harsh or too lenient. They were later amended after emotions and rationality returned.

Outcomes of the Peace of Paris

• United States gets out of European affairs. Isolation.

• “Ancient institutions of monarchy and aristocratic feudalism” are gone (Palmer-Colton, 731)

• League of Nations emerges as new step toward democracy.

• Great Britain and France emerge as the status quo.

• Margaret McMillian (Peace of Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World): The peacemakers worked with the best solutions given the time. Enforcement was left for a new generation (who failed).

Outcome of the other Treaties

• Treaty of St. Germaine: Austria made into a small state of 8 million. New states made: Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. No alliances allowed with Germany.

• Treaty of Trianon: Hungary lost 2/3 of land to Czechoslovakia, Romania & Yugoslavia.

• Treaty of Nevilly: Bulgaria lost land to Greece and Serbia.

• Treaty of Sevres: The harshest treaty; Turkey loses to the MANDATES; ethnic groups pulled out; GB and France control the Middle East.

Questions for Versailles

• ‘The Versailles Treaty was criticized by both winners and losers.’ How justified was this criticism?

• How would you evaluate the success of the Paris Peace treaties in resolving armed conflict as a means to settle disputes and in restoring peace and normality?

• What problems do you believe will emerge in Europe from the outcomes of the Paris Peace Treaties for both the victorious and defeated nations?

• How far do you agree with the view that Versailles was a brave attempt to deal with difficult, perhaps impossible problems?

Impact of the Great War

• Acceleration of Government Intervention

Nationalism & Propaganda bound together

Economic Control (due to war mobilization) Laissez Faire Capitalism changes

U.S. and Japan begin to control world trade

New political structures = Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia (ethnic enclaves), Soviet Union (economic coalition)

Self-Determination? The German Question


• Disruption of Rationality & Liberalism

Enter the “Age of Uncertainty”:

Sciences = Quantum Physics Art & Music = Cubism,

Surrealism, Expressionism, Dadaism

• Human Cost“The Lost Generation”

Miro’s Birth of the World (1925)


• EconomicAmerica assumes banking roleInflation ravages Germany; Middle

Class declinesPopular speculation in markets

• Societal NormsWomen’s Suffrage MovementBacklash: Church, family, childrenU.S.: Temperance & Prohibition

• New Mass CultureFilm, Radio, NewspapersAdvertisement IndustryLeisure Time

Max Ernst: Celebes (1921)

Intellectual Thought to War

• The Short War IllusionMain reason for intellectual acceptance

of the the war. Minority against war labeled as “pacifists”

• Meliorist MythNations can no longer remain neutral

• Irrational ThoughtFreud and Nietzsche gain acceptance

unlike pre-war era.

• Versus HabitPolarization of conflict increases:

“Us against Them”Freud, Nietzsche, Kafka, Hesse, Heidegger


• Humanism & Positivism Destroyed

War challenged the belief of progress to ambiguity & uncertainty

Literary examples:

• Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West (1918-22)

• Franz Kafka, The Trial (1925)

• Aldous Huxley, Brave New World (1932)

• Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents

Rodchenko, Composition with Circles(1920)


• Moods of the time: angst & cultural despair

End of the Modern Period? Beginning of the Postmodern Period?

Art from the Great War

Marcel DuchampNude Descending Staircase

Salvador Dali The Persistence of Memory

Marc ChagallThe Woman and the Roses

Joan MiroChiffres et Constellation

http://www.mcs.csuhayward.edu/~malek/Miro6.html

Wassily KandinskyComposition VII

Egon SchieleAgony[1912]

http://www.canvasreplicas.com/Schiele102.htm

Gustav KlimtDeath and Life[1916]

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Europe in 1914 19 th Century Politics Political Changes between 1815 and 1914 Prussia & other states...

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