Europe in Space: An Example of Successful European Cooperation (WPS 10, 1988) Reimar Lüst

8/4/2019 Europe in Space: An Example of Successful European Cooperation (WPS 10, 1988) Reimar Lst

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Europe in Space: An Example ofSuccessful European Cooperation

by Reimar LustDirector General, European Space Agency

Working Paper Series #10

This paper was presen ted on April 14, 1988, as part of the Harvard-MIT "Technology inEurope" Series organized by Professor Eugene Skolnikoff an d Dr. Jean de Gunzburg. Sponsorsfor the Series were the Harvard Center for European Studies, th e Kennedy School ofGovernment Center for Science and International Affairs (Harvard), the MIT Center forInternational Studies, and the MIT Center for Science, Technology an d Society.


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Europe i n Space

An Example of S u c c e s s f u l European Coopera t ioR

Reimar Lus t

European Space Agency

I . I n t r o d u c t i o n

Economic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s an d r e q u i r e m e n t s have been th e

s t r o n g e s t d r i v e m o t i v a t i n g European S t a t e s to work more c l o s e l y

t o g e t h e r .

European c o o p e r a t i o n r e a l l y s t a r t e d i n t h e c o a l and s t e e l

s e c t o r s when s ix European S t a t e s dec ided to e s t a b l i s h a common

m a r k e t i n th e framework of th e Schuman p l a n . In my view i t i s

s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t th e p o l i t i c a l w i l l to work j o i n t l y f i r s t

m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f in t h e s e two s e c t o r s which were t r a d i t i o n a l l y

c o n s i d e r e d t he ve ry backbone of European I n d u s t r y.

The n e x t s t ep was th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of c o o p e r a t i o n in th e most

advanced i n d u s t r i a l f i e l d . namely the e x p l o i t ~ t i o n of n u c l e a r

energy th rough EURATOM. However, th e c o o p e r a t i o n wi t h in Euratom

d id n o t i n v o l v e t h e t e c h n i c a l deve lopment s o f n u c l e a r power

p l a n t s , s i n c e t h i s wa s r e s e r v e d to p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y w i t h i n

n a t i o n a l programmes.


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- 2

N e v e r t h e l e s s . a t t h a t t ime European c o u n t r i e s were n o t cons id

e r i n g c o o p e r a t i n g i n th e f i e l d of t e c h n o l o g y. T h i s i s becausernill

vgovernments a s such were no t invo lved in t e c h n o l o g i c a l deve lop

ment a t a l l . But i n th e 19605. when th e g e n e r a l t e c h n o l o g i c a l

gap between t h e i r c o n t i n e n t and the Uni ted S t a t e s wa s s t a t e d .

t echno logy became a p o l i t i c a l i s s u e . But be fo re r e a l measures

were t aken a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of t ime e l a p s e d . For i n s t a n c e

Germany e s t a b l i s h e d an independen t r e s e a r c h and t e c h n o l o g y

m i n i s t r y only a t the beg inn ing of th e s e v e n t i e s .

Cons ider ing th e o r g a n i s a t i o n of th e European c o o p e r a t i v e

e f f o r t s . i t i s i m p o r t a n t to r e a l i z e t h a t Europe i s made up of

i n d e p e n d e n t s o v e r e i g n S t a t e s whose governments a re e x c l u s i v e l y

r e s p o n s i b l e to n a t i o n a l p a r l i a m e n t s e l e c t e d by th e c i t i z e n s of

i n d i v i d u a l S t a t e s . Th e re fo r e . i t i s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y f o r an

i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n to be s u c c e s s f u l to fo l low th ecommon i n t e r e s t s and g o a l s an d to t r y and harmonize n a t i o n a l

aims and a s p i r a t i o n s . True c o l l a b o r a t i o n i s only p o s s i b l e when

a consensus between t h e s o v e r e i g n p a r t n e r s can be r e a c h e d .

Space has aroused i n t e r e s t in p r a c t i c a l l y a l l European

c o u n t r i e s . Although t h e m o t i v a t i o n might d i f f e r from S t a t e to

S t a t e i t was always p o s s i b l e to i d e n t i f y common i n t e r e s t s and

common g o a l s fo r J o i n t space a c t i v i t i e s . From th e o u t s e t i t

became c l e a r t h a t th e s t a k e s were such t h a t t h i s was a m a t t e r

fo r governments and cou ld no t be l e f t to th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r .


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- 3, .

The v e r y d i v e r s i t y o f th e European c o n t e x t e x p l a i n s th e r e q u e s t

f o r f l e x i b i l i t y in a European i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n . For

some S t a t e s th e d r i v i n g f o r c e a t th e b e g i n n i n g was b a s i c

s c i e n c e , an d space r e s e a r c h in p a r t i c u l a r ; f o r o t h e r s th e

a p p l i c a t i o n s were more i m p o r t a n t , such as w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g ,

e a r t h o b s e r v a t i o n o r t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . Some c o u n t r i e s were

a l s o i n t e r e s t e d i n th e c o n n e c t i o n between space t e c h n o l o g y and

t h e i r defence o r s e c u r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s .

A s t r o n g m o t i v a t i o n f o r European c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n space i s th e

f a c t t h a t no European S t a t e can c o v e ~ a l l space a c t i v i t i e s by

i t s e l f due t o l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s and th e r e l a t i v e l y h igh

f i n a n c i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a c o m p e t i t i v e and u s e f u l space

programme. In t h i s r e s p e c t the s m a l l e r S t a t e s depend even more

on European c o l l a b o r a t i o n s i n c e l a r g e r S t a t e s a r e more a b l e to

c a r r y ou t some n a t i o n a l programmes i n d e p e n d e n t l y and a p a r t from

a j o i n t European programme.

S m a l l e r S t a t e s a r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y a l s o s e n s i t i v e to th e f a c t

t h a t l a r g e r S t a t e s have more p o t e n t i a l i n r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p

ment f a c i l i t i e s : t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e when th e s i z e o f a

t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h programme has t o be agreed upon. Indeedl a r g e r S t a t e s have t h e i r own f a c i l i t i e s , whi le s m a l l e r S t a t e s

depend on t h o s e o f j o i n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s , such as th e European

Space Agency, ESA.


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.. - 4 .

A very i m p o r t a n t motive f o r s e t t i n g up ESA was th e f a c t t h a t

European s t a t e s d id no t want to l e a v e space e n t i r e l y to th e

Americans and th e R u s s i a n s . The p r ide and p r e s t i g e o f Europeangovernments was a t s t a k e , but more wa s r e q u i r e d : a l l Member

S t a t e s had the promise o f s u b s t a n t i a l g a i n s th rough advanc ing

t e c h n o l o g y.

I w i l l now t r y to o u t l i n e how th e Europeans have deve loped

t h e i r j o i n t a c t i v i t i e s and wh y they have succeeded i n some

c a s e s b e t t e r t han i n o t h e r s . In the second p a r t o f m

p r e s e n t a t i o n I w i l l desc r i be ESA's i n i t i a t i v e i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l

deve lopment s fo r th e f u t u r e of th e European space a c t i v i t i e s .

Th e European Cent re f o r Nuclea r Resea rch i n Geneva, CERN, i s

very o f t e n ment ioned as the b e s t example o f a s u c c e s s f u l

European O rg a n i s a t i o n and t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y t r u e . But one

shou ld no t f o r g e t t h a t CERN i s invo lved i n b a s i c s c i e n c e

e x c l u s i v e l y. Commercial a s p e c t s never came i n t o p l a y,

s i g n i f i c a n t l y n o t even when th e i n d u s t r i a l c o n t r a c t s f o r the

deve lopment o f th e l a r g e n u c l e a r a c c e l e r i l t o r s were placed i n

i n d u s t r y .

T h i s i s i n c o n t r a s t to Space a c t i v i t i e s which from th e

b e g i n n i n g n e v e r r e l a t e d e x c l u s i v e l y to b a s i c s c i e n c e . Tech

no l o g i c a l advancement , c o m p e t i t i o n between i n d u s t r i e s and

commercia l a s p e c t s were always o f i m p o r t a n c e .


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- 5 .

2 . The EurQpean Space Agency a s a EurQPean O r g a n i s a t i Q n

FQIIQwing t h e l a u n c h Qf t h e R u s s i a n ' S p u t n i k ' i n OctQbe r 1957

and t h e Amer i can ' E x p l Q r e r ' i n J a n u a r y 1 9 5 8 . a s m a l l grQUp Qf

EurQpean s c i e n t i s t s r e c Q g n i s e d t h e impQr tance Qf s p a c e r e s e a r c h

f o r b o t h s c i e n c e and t echnQIQgy. R e a l i s i n g t h a t cQmpe t i t iQn

w i t h t h e Amer i cans and Rus s i a n s wa s PQ S S i b l e o n I y i f EurQpe

wQrked a s o n e e n t i t y , t h e y met i n J a n u a r y 1960 tQ work ou t

p l a n s fQ r a EurQpean c o o p e r a t i v e v e n t u r e i n s p a c e . They

i d e n t i f i e d CERN a s a gQQd example fQr s u c h a c Q Q p e r a t i o n . CERN

was d e v e l Q p i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y and mQst EurQpean c o u n t r i e s had

been p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n i t s i n c e t h e m i d - f i f t ie s .

I shQuld l i k e tQ s t r e s s t h a t i t was t h e f Q r e s i g h t and

d e d i c a t i Q n Qf th e s c i e n t i s t s which jQgged t h e p o l i t i c a l elbQw

a s i t w e r e , t o d i s p e l t h e i d e a t h a t s c i e n t i s t s a l w a y s have

t h e i r head i n a c l o u d , o r t h e i r e y e s to a t e l e s c o p e . The

s c i e n t i s t s s u c c e e d e d i n c o n v i n c i n g t h e i r v a r i o u s gQvernmen t s .

and gQve rnmen t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s met fQr t h e f i r s t t ime a t t h e

end Qt 1960 a t t h e p r e m i s e s o t CERN.

I n th e b e g i n n i n g p en

p Le had d e u bt

s a b o u t t h e s e p r o j e c t s , b u tf e a r s t h a t s c i e n t i s t s were b e i n g c a r r i e d away by t h e i r

e n t h u s i a s m was d i s p e l l e d by t h e s u c c e s s Qt t h e s c i e n t i f i c

s a t e l l i t e s , SQ t h a t a p p l i c a t i Q n s s a t e l l i t e s c o u L d be added t o

t h e programme as a n e x t s t e p .


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Governments were i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e r e s t e d i n th e wide s o c i a l and

economic b e n e f i t , which i t wa s f e l t would come from th e

development of a p p l i c a t i o n s s a t e l l i t e s . At th e same t imei n d u s t r y s t a r t e d to e x h i b i t a r e a l i n t e r e s t . They were proved

r i g h t : Th e r e cep t i on by th e u s e r communi t ies of th e meteoro

l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s an d th e o r b i t a l communicat ion t e s t s a t e l l i t e

w i t h i t s mar i t ime and communicat ion s ucce s s o r s was c l e a r

ev idence t h a t we were in a growing and commerc ia l ly promis ing

marke t .

Two e v e n t s gu ided E u r o p e ' s nex t s t e p : t h e a c c e p t a n c e by th e USA

t h a t Europe had emerged as a space power. l e a d i n g to an o f f e r

to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the p o s t - A p o l l o programme, an d a f t e r th e

demise of th e European Launcher Development O rg a n i s a t i o n (ELDOl

th e demand from some Member S t a t e s t h a t Europe should s t i l l

seek autonomy i n the l a u n c h e r market as a p r e r e q u i s i t e to a

s t r o n g , independen t European space p o l i c y . This i s why th e

European Space Agency was c r e a t e d .

At p r e s e n t ESA has t h i r t e e n Member S t a t e s : A u s t r i a , ' Belgium,

Denmark, F r a n c e , Germany, I r e l a n d , I t a l y , N e t h e r l a n d s , Norway,

S p a i n , Sweden, Swi tze r land an d the Uni ted Kingdom. F i n l a n d i s

an A ssoc i a t e Member, and Canada i s what we c a l l a Coopera t ing

S t a t e .


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ESA's c o n v e n t i o n l a y s down i t s main aims which a r e :

- t o p r o v i d e f o r and to promote , f o r e x c l u s i v e l y p e a c e f u l

p u r p o s e s , c o o p e r a t i o n among European S t a t e s i n space

r e s e a r c h , space t echno logy, an d t h e i r space a p p l i c a t i o n s .

- to e l a b o r a t e and implement a European space programme.

- to e l a b o r a t e and implement an i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y .

The ESA Head O ff i c e i s s i t u a t e d i n P a r i s and has a s t a f f of

some 350 . The s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l c e n t r e ESTEC (European

Space Research and Technology Cent re ) i s l o c a t e d a t Noordwijlt

i n th e Nethe r l ands . I t s s t a f f of abou t 1000 c o n s i s t s mainly of

s c i e n t i s t s . e n g i n e e r s and t e c h n i c i a n s who a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

th e s t u d y. d e s i g n , development . and t e s t i n g o f s p a c e c r a f t .

a s s o c i a t e d t e c h n o l o g y, and some p a y l o a d ~ , i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n wi th

i n d u s t r y and th e s c i e n t i f i c and o t h e r u s e r communi t ies .

The European Space O p e r a t i o n s Cent re (ESOC) i s l o c a t e d a t

Darmstad t i n Germany. I t s permanent s t a f f . some 2 8 0 . a re in

charge o t a l l s a t e l l i t e o p e r a t i o n s and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g ground

f a c i l i t i e s an d communicat ion Networks .

-The Agency ' s I n f o r m a t i o n Cent re , ESRIN, i s a t F r a s c a t i , near

Rome: i t houses two s e p a r a t e a c t i v i t i e s - ESA-IRS ( I n f o r m a t i o n

R e t r i e \ r a l Se rv i ce ) and E a r t h n e t which c o l l e c t s , p r e p r o c e s s e s

and d i s t r i b u t e s images and d a t a t rom r e m o t e - s e n s i n g

s a t e l l i t e s . I n a d d i t i o n , a group o t t e c h n i c i a n s i s on

de tachment to the French l aunch base i n Kourou, French Guiana .


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To f a c i l i t a t e c o l l a b o r a t i o n among ESA Member S t a t e s , tw o k i n d s

of ESA programmes were conce ived : th e Mandatory Programme to

which a l l Member S t a t e s p a r t i c i p a t e a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r GNP, and

a whole s e r i e s o f O p t i o n a l Programmes f i n a n c e d by Member S t a t e s

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r i n t e r e s t in each p a r t i c u l a r programme.

The Mandatory Programme i n c l udes th e s c i e n t i f i c programme and

th e b a s i c a c t i v i t i e s n e c e s s a r y f o r th e g e n e r a l o p e r a t i o n of the

o r g a n i s a t i o n and i n c lu des c o s t s f o r r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d ou t a t th e

t e c h n i c a l c e n t r e a t Noordwijk .

The O p t i o n a l Programme covers Space a p p l i c a t i o n s in th e w i d e s t

s e n s e . Examples a re th e programme f o r communicat ion s a t e l l i t e s ,

f o r E a r t h O b s e r v a t i o n , as wel l a s f o r r e s e a r c h i n th e

m i c r o g r a v i t y env i ronment , and space t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sys tems such

as A r i a n e , th e manned space l a b o r a t o r y ( S p a c e l a b ) an d th e Space

S t a t i o n Programme, Columbus.

3 . 1 . S c i e n c e Programmes

ESA's s c i e n c e programme i s d i r e c t e d t owards t h e f o l l o w i n g

t a r g e t s :- th e E a r t h ' s n e a r- s p a c e env i ronment

- th e S o l a r - Te r r e s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p

- th e I n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium

- th e P l a n e t a r y system w i t h t h e Moon, p l a n e t s and th e o t h e r

b o d i e s

- th e S t a r s and t h e U n i v e r s e .


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To i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s e o b j e c t s . ESA l a n d i t s f o r e r u n n e r ESRO) h a s

d e v e l o p e d and l a u n c h e d 14 s c i e n t i f i c s a t e l l i t e s . a l l o f which

f u n c t i o n e d s u c c e s s f u l l y , and o f w h i c h tw o a r e s t i l l i n o r b i t

and o ne i n o p e r a t i o n . S e v e r a l o f them had a l i f e - t i m e much

l o n g e r t h a n p l a n n e d . a n d t h e s c i e n t i f i c c o m m u n i t y ' s e n t h u s i a s m

f o r k e e p i n g them i n o p e r a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n h a s . p a r a d o x i c a l l y .

c a u s e d t h e Agency f i n a n c i a l e m b a r r a s s m e n t a t t i m e s .

SCIENTIAC SPACECRAFT LAUNCHED

SPACECRAn MISSION LAUNCH DATe END OF UF E

U R O - a 8 COSMIC RAYS AND SOLAR X-RAYS 17 .0S . " . 0 ' .01.71

ESAo-1A POLAR IONOSPHERE AND AURORAL PHENOMINA 03 .10 . " . a1.0I .70

HEOS-1. SOLAR WIND AND INTERPLANETARY MEDIUM 01 .12 . " . 21.10.71

E.SRo-18 POLAR IONOSPHERE AND AURORAL PHENOMENA . 01.10." . n .11 . "

HEos-a POLAR MAGNETOSPHERE AND INTERP\.AHETARY MEDIUM . '1.01.71 . oa.0I .74

TO-1. ULTRAV1Ql.eT ASTRONOMY 12.03.72. 04.01.74

E.SRo-4 IONOSPHERE AND SOLAR PART1 CLU . 22.11.71 . 1I.04.T4

cos-e . GAMMA RAY ASTRONOMY. Ot .o l . n . 21.04.12

GEOS-1 MAGHElOIPHEM 20.04.77 . n . 0 I . 7 '

I K E - 2 MAGNETOSPHERE AND SUN-EARTH RELATIONI 22.10.77 . 2 ' . 0 .I T

IUE . ULTRAVIOLET ASTRONOMY 11.01.7 ' .

GEOs-a.

EXOSAT.

MAGNETOSPHERE

COSMIC X-RAYS

14.07.7 ' .1I .0 . . . a .

2 1 . 0 1 . "

Ot.04 '"

GlOTTO . FLYBY OF HALLEY'S COMEr . 02.07.1' . "." ..... !SA/NA SA PROJECT AT PAEKNT DORMANT

S e v e r a l o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c s p a c e c r a f t a r e a t p r e s e n t u n d e r

d e v e l o p m e n t o r a w a i t i n g l a u n c h .

The s c i e n c e programme a s a m a n d a t o r y programme i s t h e b a c k b o n e

o f t h e agency and i t p l a y s a n e m i n e n t r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f o u r a p p l i c a t i o n s p r o g r a m m e s . F i r s t l y i t p r o v i d e s t h e

kno wl e dge o f t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e n e a r - s p a c e

e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e E a r t h Wi t h o u t t h i s k n o w le d e we c o u l d n e v e r


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b u i l d s a t e l l i t e s t h a t c o u l d w i t h s t a n d t h e ex t r eme c o n d i t i o n s

e x p e r i e n c e d when i n o r b i t t o r many y e a r s . Second ly s c i e n t i f i c

m i s s i o n s v e r y o f t e n demand e x t r a o r d i n a r y t e c h n o l o g i c a l

i n n o v a t i o n s . They r e p r e s e n t g r e a t c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e e n g i n e e r s

n o t m e r e l y t o a p p l y known t e c h n i q u e s b u t t o t r i g g e r f u r t h e r

t e c h n o l o g i c a l deve lopmen t which can t h e n be p u t a t th e s e r v i c e

o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n programmes .

3 . 2 . A p p l i c a t i o n Programme

The a p p l i c a t i o n programmes a r e a l l o p t i o n a l programmes , s i n c e

h e r e t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e Member S t a t e s m i g h t be q u i t e

d i f f e r e n t . The t e rm a p p l i c . a t i o n s c o v e r s a gamut of w i d e l y

d i f f e r i n g s p e c i a l i s a t i o n s such as E a r t h O b s e r v a t i o n , r e s e a r c h

i n M i c r o g r a v i t y e n v i r o n m e n t and t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

d e v e l o p m e n t o f m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s which i n t h e meant ime

So f a r ESA has d e v e l o p e d and p u t i n o r b i t 8 a p p l i c a t i o n

s a t e l l i t e s t h a t o p e r a t e d v e r y w e l l . I t s t a r t e d w i t h t h e\

have grown i n t o e s s e n t i a l t o o l s t o r w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g i n

E u r o p e . The majo r momentum t o r a p p l i c a t i o n s a t e l l i t e s came,

h o w e v e r, f rom communica t i on r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h communica t i on

s a t e l l t e s r e p r e s e n t i n g an i m p o r t a n t pa r t o f t h e comme r e i a l

s p a c e m a r k e t .


13/29

- 1 1

ESA APPUCATIONS SATELLITES LAUNCHED

SATELLITE MISSION LAUNCH DATE.METEOSAT-1 . METEOROLOGY 23.11.1177

OTS-2 COMMUNICATIONS 11.5.1171

METEOSAT-2 . METEOROLOGY 19.8.1981

MARECS-A MARmME COMMUNICATIONS . 20.12.1981

ECS-1. COMMUNICATIONS 18.8.1983

ECS-2 . COMMUNICATIONS 4.8.1984

MARECS B - 2 . MARITIME COMMUNICAnONS . ... 10.11.1984

ECS-4 . COMMUNICATIONS

. . 15.09.1987(OPERATIONAL SYSTEM) .

The e x p l o i t a t i o n o f m i c r o g r a v i t y i s s t i l l i n i t s i n f a n c y . b u

i t may w e l l have c o n s i d e r a b l e h i d d e n p o t e n t i a l s . No-one can s a y

t o d a y w h e t h e r a w e i g h t l e s s e x i s t a n c e w o u l d . t o c o i n a p h r a s e .

t a k e a l o a d o f f o u r s h o u l d e r s : b u t we do know t h a t many t h i n g s

w o u l d be r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t : t h e u s u a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

a b o v e ' and b e l o w ' w o u l d no l o n g e r a p p l y ; l i q u i d s w o u l d g

h a y w i r e ; and i n p a r t i c u l a r . a l l c o m p e n s a t i n g c o n v e c t i o n

p r o c e s s e s w o u l d c e a s e t o o p e r a t e . Many o f t h e phenomena and ne w

p r o c e s s e s become p o s s i b l e . T h e s e h a v e a l r e a d y awakened t h e

k e e n e s t s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t . above al l i n s u c h a r e a s a s :

- m a t e r i a l s c i e n c e s

- c h e m i s t r y

- f l u i d d y n a m i c s

- p h a r m a c y

- l i f e s c i e n c e s .


14/29

\ - 12

But i t i s above a l l because performance l e v e l s i n high t e c h

nology a re o t t e n co ns t r a ine d by th e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

m a t e r i a l s invo lved t h a t i t i s wide ly be l i e ved t h a t advances i n

knowledge i n mic rog ra v i t y r e s ea r ch w i l l , i n th e long term, l ead

to new t e c h n i q u e s fo r p r o c e s s i n g s p e c i a l m a t e r i a l s and w i l l

t h u s have economic consequences on a s c a l e t h a t i s s t i l l to o

d i f f i c u l t to imag ine .

I t was a g a i n s t t h i s background t h a t ESA developed Space1ab, th e

f i r s t space l a b o r a t o r y. Spacelab a l so opened th e door to

European manned s p a c e f l i g h t - th e f i r s t miss ion wa s f lown i n

November 1983 on a US S h u t t l e with th e European a s t r o n a u t

U lf Herbo ld on board .

The f i r s t Space lab miss ion accomodated 72 s c i e n t i f i c

e x p e r i m e n t s from a v a r i e t y of f i e l d s . Hare than 120 s c i e n t i s t s

from many p a r t s of the world were invo lved in the e x p e r i m e n t s .

Some o f th e exper iments were des igned to be execu ted f u l l y

a u t o m a t i c a l l y , whi le o t h e r s r eq u i r ed th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of th e

o n - b o a r d pay load s p e c i a l i s t s .

S i n c e t h e n Space lab has been used on t h r e e o t h e r occas ions

t w i c e f o r NASA miss ions and once fo r the F ed e ra l Republ ic o f

Germany ' s D1 m i s s i o n . f lown in October/November 1985. The D

m i s s i o n a t t r a c t e d widespread a t t e n t i o n . 75 exper iments were on

b o a r d . Two German a s t r o n a u t s , Reinhard F u r r e r and E r n s t M e s s e r

schmid, and ESA's Wubbo Ockels , from th e N e t h e r l a n d s , were on


15/29

- 13

3 . 3 . European Laynchers

While i t i s impor t an t t o develop an d b u i l d s a t e l l i t e s . i t may

be even more impor t an t to p lace them i n the a p p r o p r i a t e o r b i t .

Without independent acces s to space . Europe would have been

unable to compete i n . th e wor ld s a t e l l i t e market . Th e

s e r i o u s n e s s of such an i n a b i l i t y became p a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r

a t the beginning o f th e 1970s when the Americans were u n w i l l i n g

to provide the Europeans with gua ran teed l aunch s l o t s f o r t h e i r

commercial s a t e l l i t e s . Today Europe has i t s own l a u n c h e r.

Ar iane , and t h rough the f o r e s i g h t of those who i n s i s t e d o

Europe developing such a v e h i c l e , has a s t r o n g p lace i n the

world l aunche r market . A t o t a l of 17 s u c c e s s f u l Ariane

l aunches , p l a c i n g 26 s a t e l l i t e s i n th e d e s i r e d o r b i t , have

conf i rmed European competence i n t h i s a r e a .

ARIANE: THE EUROPEAN HEAVY LAUNCHERLAUNCH RECORD

24.12.19 LO 1 A ll CN'SW NlWIf TECHNOlOGlCU (CAt)23.05.10 LO 2 A ll CR. FIlEWHm. OSCAR 9 (IAUNCM MIWlII19.06.11 LO J A ll CR. ME1EOSAI - '- AI'I'I.I20.12.11 LO A ll CR. MNlECS - A09.0U2 L ' A ll w.RECS .. SIlO - 2 (IAUNCM ~ l6.06.U L' A ll ECS - t, NIl 'W PHME I11.10.u L7 A ll N f ( lW - VA I - 7OU." L' A ll Nf(lW-VAI- '23.05." V " A ll SlW:ENEf F104.0&." V 10 A lJ ECS - '- mICOM - 1A09.11." V 11 A lJ SlW:ENEf - F'- w.RECS 1201.02.11 V 12 A lJ ~ ' " RASILW - 101 .05 . . V 1J A lJ c; - SWt - t, 18.ECOM - 1102.0UI V ,. A ll GIOTTOlJ.09.16 V16 A lJ ECS - 3. $MCNET fJ (lAUNCH ~ 22.02.16 V 1tI A ll $POT t, . . . . . . .21.OJ.16 V " A lJ c; - swt, IRASlLW F2~ . 0 5 . 1 6 V 11 A lJ M a w V AI - , . lIAUNCH ~ 15.09.17 V 19 A lJ NJ$$N D , ECS - 17.11.17 V 20 Al 2 'IV - SAl 112.OJ.II V21 A lJ SAACENlT 8OS1AR 101 - 1BICCIM 1C

Dr'Sl$ ".03.19111


16/29

- 14

Today th e Ariane l a u n c h e r fami ly compr i ses t h r e e v e r s i o n s w i t h

d i f f e r e n t pay load c a p a c i t i e s . A f o u r t h v e r s i o n has been

deve loped and w i l l be added v e r y soon. The f i r s t t e s t l a u n c h of

Ariane-04 i s schedu led fo r June of t h i s y e a r. Ariane-04 w i l l

become th e new workhorse u n t i l the middle of th e n i n e t i e s .

4 . ESA's Con t r i bu t i on to t e c h n o l o g i c a l deve lopments

I f on e a n a l y s e s th e mot ives and i n t e r e s t s o f th e European

S t a t e s i n s p a c e , one can i d e n t i f y s i x r e a s o n s f o r a European

commitment to s p a c e .

Space Research , which covers a broad spec t rum of s c i e n t i f i c

d i s c i p l i n e s , i s a major component of modern b a s i c r e s e a r c h .

I t e p i t o m i s e s t h e human search f o r knowledge. c u l t u r a l

advancement , and t e c h n i c a l i n g e n u i t y.

Space has a l so played a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n m o d e r n i s i n g Euro

pean i n d u s t r y. n o t only i n i t s t e c h n i c a l o u t l o o k . b u t i n th e

way i t s t r u c t u r e s and manages i t l a f f a i r s . Having to c r o s s

many n a t i o n a l bound a r i e s , d i f f e r e n t tax r eg imes and f l u c t u a

t i n g c u r r e n c i e s has t a u g h t Europeans ' to t h ink and a c t in a

more f l e x i b l e way - always an advan tage when s e e k i n g wor ld

m a r k e t s .

* Space opens up new f i e l d s of economic a c t i v i t y . Space a c t i v i

t i e s and th e use o f space have g iven r i s e to a new m u l t i - p r o

d u c t marke t f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m s , s a t e l l i t e s and


17/29

- 15

a s s o c i a t e d ground f a c i l i t i e s . M i c r o g r a v i t y l o o k s l i k e l y to

p r o v i d e a new p o t e n t i a l f o r economic and i n d u s t r i a l

a c t i v i t i e s . the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f which remain to be e x p l o r e d .

and can t h e r e f o r e n o t y e t be e s t i m a t e d .

* Communications s a t e l l i t e s a re n o t on ly i m p o r t a n t commerc ia l

l y . bu t have a l r e a d y r e v o l u t i o n i s e d g l o b a l communica t ions .

T h e i r s o c i a l an d p o l i t i c a l impact w i l l be f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d

w i t h . th e advent of d i r e c t b r o a d c a s t i n g by s a t e l l i t e . One

c a n n o t he lp commenting t h a t t e c h n o l o g y i s w e l l ahead of the

a b i l i t y of t e l e v i s i o n companies and o t h e r s to p r o v i d e ne w

m a t e r i a l to occupy th e many e x t r a o p p o r t u n i t i e s d i r e c t b r o a d

c a s t i n g w i l l p r e s e n t . S a t e l l i t e s f o r mar i t ime and a e r i a l

n a v i g a t i o n w i l l be of p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n t f u t u r e advan tage

f o r s a f e t y and o t h e r u s e s . These a re o n l y in t h e i r i n f a n c y.

* Although E a r t h o b s e r v a t i o n by s a t e l l i t e i s a l r e a d y i n u s e ,

i t s f u l l p o t e n t i a l remains to be a c h i e v e d . Space-based recon

n a i s s a n c e w i l l c e r t a i n l y l e a d . w i t h th e f u r t h e r development

of m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s and. above a l l . i n c o n j u n c t i o n

w i t h th e use of l a r g e compute r s . to g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n i n

w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g . T h i s could l e a d ~ o c o n s i d e r a b l e s a v i n g s

i n . f o r example . a g r i c u l t u r e . o f f - s h o r e ~ x p l o r a t i o n . f i s h i n g .

and s h i p p i n g . S p e c i a l e f f o r t s a re be ing pu t i n t o E a r t h o b s e r

v a t i o n a t th e p r e s e n t t i m e . and many a r e a s w i l l b e n e f i t from

t h i s . no t l e a s t env i ronmenta l p r o t e c t i o n .


18/29

- 16

* F i n a l l y , one shou ld no t f o r g e t th e g r e a t p o l i t i c a l impac t

- i n d e e d p r e s t i g e - of l a r g e - s c a l e space p r o j e c t s , e s p e c i a l l y

when t h e y ar:e manned. Of course , t h i s canno t p r o v i d e th e main

impe tus f o r a European space p o l i c y, b u t as a p o l i t i c a l

symbol and a f a c t o r of p o l i t i c a l s e l f c o n f i d e n c e , manned

space e x p l o r a t i o n i s of p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e . And a l o n g s i d e

t h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n a re th e s c i e n t i f i c b e n e t i t s which having

a s t r o n a u t s on board co.nfer on some d i s c i p l i n e s .

A s e v e n t h r e a s o n i s being d i s c u s s e d now b u t i t r emains to be

s e e n w h e t h e r ESA should be invo lved i n th e deve lopment of a

European o b s e r v a t i o n s a t e l l i t e f o r d e f e n s e p u r p o s e s . T h i s cou ld

be a t a s k f o r ESA only i f a l l o b s e r v a t i o n s would be made

a v a i l a b l e to th e publ ic a t l a r g e .

One might ask now: what has ESA done fo r t e c h n o l o g i c a l

deve lopments? ESA has regarded i t s e l f as a r e s e a r c h and

development o r g a n i s a t i o n in o r d e r to h e l p s c i e n t i f i c i n s t i t u t e s

and u s e r s i n th e Member S t a t e s . As soon as a sys tem becomes

o p e r a t i o n a l an e f f o r t i s made to t r a n s f e r i t to o t h e r o r g a n i s a

t i o n s be t h e y commercia l or governmenta l .

In t h i s s p i r i t th e communicat ion s a t e l l i t e s f o r t e l e v i s i o n have

been t r a n s f e r r e d . t o a n o t h e r European O r g a n i s a t i o n , th e European

Telecommunica t ions S a t e l l i t e s O rg a n i s a t i o n , lEUTELSAT1, an

O r g a n i s a t i o n tormed by 26 PTTs t rom European S t a t e s n o t o n l y


19/29

- 17

Member S t a t e s of ESA. The two s a t e l l i t e s f o r t h e communica t ion

with s h i p s on th e oceans have been l e a s e d to th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l

Mar i t ime S a t e l l i t e O r g a n i s a t i o n (INMARSATl. The o p e r a t i o n a l use

of th e M e t e o s a t e l l i t e s has been t aken over by th e newly c r e a t e d

European M e t e o r o l o g i c a l S a t e l l i t e O rg a n i s a t i o n (EUMETSATl.

F i n a l l y th e Ariane l a u n c h e r i s now marketed by ARIANESPACE, a

p r i v a t e company s e t up by th e Member S t a t e s which i n v e s t e d i n

ESA's development o f th e l a u n c h e r.

A r i a n e s p a c e has t o cover a l l c o s t s o th e r than d eve 1 0 pment

c o s t s which a r e borne by ESA Member S t a t e s - by income f rom i t s

c u s t o m e r s . Even b e f o r e t h e C h a l l e n g e r d i s a s t e r , A r i a n e s p a c e had

succeeded i n winn ing h a l f the wor ld market f o r commerc ia l

s a t e l l i t e l a u n c h e s . A r i a n e s p a c e has to d a t e managed to c h a l k up

64 s a t e l l i t e launch ' c o n t r a c t s : 42 of th e s a t e l l i t e s b e i n g f o r

l aunch - a t a p r i c e of 14 .1 b i l l i o n f r a n c s (abou t 2 .35 b i l l i o n

US d o l l a r s l ,

One might a sk what i s th e impac t o f space p r o j e c t s c a r r i e d o u

by t h e European i n d u s t r i e s beyond th e s p e c i a l i z e d space t e c h

n o l o g i e s ? A group of e c o n o m i s t s a t th e U n i v e r s i t y of S t r a s b o u rg

made a s t u d y on t h i s . T h e i r f i r s t p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e

t h a t a l m o s t 50'1 of a l l c o n t r a c t payments are be ing s p e n t i n

s m a l l e r o r medium s i z e d f i r m s . S e c o n d l y, t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r

a b l e b e n e f i t with r e s p e c t to improved t e c h n o l o g y, h i g h e r

q u a l i t y p r o d u c t s , s a l e s i n c r e a s e s , b e t t e r o r g a n i s a t i o n , a s w e l l

a s h i g h e r p r o d u c t i v i t y and an im,prove d wo rk f ac t o r . A l l t h i


20/29

- 1 8 '

r e s u l t s i n gene ra l b e n e f i t s e x p r e s s e d by a r e t u r n c o e f f i c i e n t

3 . 6 . Th e s tudy proves t h a t t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t i s r i s i n g and t h a t

t h e r e e x i s t s a remarkable t r a n s f e r of t e c h n o l o g y from th e space

s e c t o r to the more gene r a l non-space s e c t o r s of the i n d u s t r y.

In 1986 t h e r e were 3 4 . 5 0 0 employees working i n space p r o j e c t s .

Accord ing to a r e c e n t a n a l y s i s conduc ted by Eurospace . an

a s s o c i a t i o n of European space companies . Of t h i s t o t a l abou t

26 000 j o b s were i n th e space i n d u s t r y . and 8 5 0 0 ( 2 4 . 6 1 ) i n

i n s t i t u t i o n s an d l a b o r a t o r i e s . This compares w i t h about 250 000

j o b s i n th e USA' s space s e c t o r ( c i v i l and m i l i t a r y l . an d a

t o t a l space s e c t o r in th e USSR ( c i v i l and m i l i t a r y ) of rough ly

6 00 000 p e o p l e . Also the t u rno ve r s r e s u l t i n 23 b i l l i o n $ in

th e US. 2 b i l l i o n $ i n Europe an d roughly 1 b i l l i . o n $ i n

.Japan. U n f o r t u n a t e l y. no r e l i a b l e f i g u r e s of th e USSR can be

o b t a i n e d .

The f o r e c a s t f o r the end of the ce n tu ry s ugg es t s t h a t European

s p a c e s e c t o r s t a f f i n g w i l l need 14 500 employees i n i n s t i t u t e s

and l a b o r a t o r i e s . an d 47 000 in space i n d u s t r y .

I n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y i s th e most d i f f i c u l t a s p e c t when t r y i n g to

promote th e advancement of t echnology.

As an open ing p r e m i s e , i t i s f a i r to s ay t h a t every Membe

S t a t e - q u i t e n a t u r a l l y - has an i n t e r e s t i n o b t a i n i n g as many

c o n t r a c t s as p o s s i b l e f o r i t s i n d u s t r y. T h e o r e t i c a l l y each Mem

b e r S t a t e shou ld r e c e i v e i n d u s t r i a l c o n t r a c t s e q u i v a l e n t to i t s

con t r ibu t ion . This i s not poss ib le , but i t ' s up to the Agency


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- 19

to f i n d an a p p r o p r i a t e s o l u t i o n when a l l o c a t i n g m a j o r

p r o j e c t s . I n s e l e c t i n g E u r o p e a n c o n t r a c t o r s t h e r i g h t mix h as

t o be f o u n d : o n e which o f f e r s t h e b e s t t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n . i s

f i n a n c i a l l y j u s t i f i a b l e and f i n a l l y d o e s n o t t h row t h e

i n d u s t r i a l r e t u r n s i t u a t i o n c o m p l e t e l y o u t o f b a l a n c e . T h a t

s o u n d s l i k e t r y i n g t o s q u a r e t h e c i r c l e . I t i s howeve r. a

r e m a r k a b l e f a c t t h a t ESA. i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h European

i n d u s t r y . h a s a l w a y s s u c c e e d e d i n f i n d i n g s o l u t i o n s t h a t were

b o t h t e c h n i c a l l y and f i n a n c i a l l y v a l i d . N e v e r t h e l e s s . c o n s i d e r

a b l e e f f o r t s w i l l s t i l l be n e e d e d i n t h e f u t u r e i f g i v i n g up

r e a l c o m p e t i t i o n i s n o t t o become t h e p r i c e f o r s t i c k i n g t o t h e

e q u a l r e t u r n p r i n c i p l e ' . I t i s n o t o n l y i n c r e a s i n g c o s t s f o r

ESA b u t a l s o t h e c o m p e t i t i v i t y o f European i n d u s t r y on t h e

w o r l d m a r k e t t h a t i s a t s t a k e h e r e .

Whi l e t h e l a r g e Member S t a t e s-

w i t h t h e i r i n d i g e n o u sa e r o s p a c e

c o m p a n i e s - have no r e t u r n - i n v e s t m e n t p r o b l e m s I some s m a l l e r

Member S t a t e s a r e i n a d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n . I n t h o s e c o u n t r i e s

t h e k e y i s s u e i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s o f a fe w s m a l l

o r medium s i z e d f i r m s . I f t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s m a l l Member

S t a t e s a r e n o t t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e r e w i l l be no hope

. o f c r e a t i n g a s t r o n g E u r o p e . An e f f o r t t o make t h e r i g i d n a t i o

n a l p r o c u r e m e n t p o l i c i e s i n t h e l a r g e Member S t a t e s more

f l e x i b l e c o u l d a l s o o p e n t h e way t o r e a l p r o g r e s s i n t he ' a r e a

o f i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y . Only i n t h i s way w i l l i t be p o s s i b l e i n

t h e l o n g r u n f o r p o w e r f u l European i n d u s t r i a l c o n s o r t i a .

c a p a b l e o f c o m p e t i n g i n t h e w o r l d s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y m a r k e t t o

e m e rg e .


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- 20

5 , EurQPe ' s space e f f o r t in compar ison to th e US. Japan and the

The compar i son-of Europe ' s space e f f o r t to t h a t of o t h e r space

powers r e v e a l s some c ons ide r ab l e d i f f e r e n c e s .

There i s f i r s t Qf a l l th e n a t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e due to th e s i z e o f

p o p u l a t i o n s . Th e p o p u l a t i o n of the ESA Member S t a t e s amounts to

r o u g h l y 330 m i l l i o n compared to 240 US c i t i z e n s and 120 m i l l i o n

i n h a b i t a n t s of J a p a n , But more s i g n i f i c a n t i s th e Gross

N a t i o n a l Produc t c r ea t ed by these p o p u l a t i o n s . In 1985 the ESA

Member S t a t e s had a GNP of rough ly 2760 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s

whereas th e US r eached 3950 b i l l i o n s and Japan 1330 b i l l i o n

d o l l a r s .

The most s i g n i f i c a n t gap, however, i s caused by th e degree of

p r ep a rednes s of th e d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n s to i n v e s t i n Research and

Development . Whi lse h igh l y developed c o u n t r i e s i n Europe and

th e r e s t of th e world b e n e f i t from r emarkab le exp e nd i t u r e s i n

Research and Development which can r each up to 31 o r t h e i r GNP

t h e r e a re many o t h e r c o u n t r i e s i n Europe which can only a f f o r d

to i n v e s t l i t t l e more than 0 . 5 1 of t h e i r GNP on R&D.


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- 21

Thi s i s r e f l e c t e d i n the pe r c a p i t a e x p e n d i t u r e f o r space

a c t i v i t i e s . A s tudy of EUROCONSULT shows t h a t i n 1986 th e US

i n v e s t e d 99 S per c a p i t a i n space . Thi s has to be compared to

Japan with 6 .4 $ and Europe with 5 .7 $. One has , however, to

c o n s i d e r t h a t the 99 $ of th e US a l so c o n t a i n 68 $ which a re

spen t f o r m i l i t a r y purposes . N e i t h e r Japan no r Europe a t t a c h a

s i m i l a r ' i m p o r t a n c e to defence and s e c u r i t y a s p e c t s .

Never the l e s s between the remain ing 31 $ o f the US and the 5 .7 $

of Europe ' s per c a p i t a expend i tu re f o r c i v i l space a c t i v i t i e s

t h e r e r e a l l y e x i s t s a f a c t o r o f more than 5 .

Another y a r d s t i c k f o r the compar i son of space e f f o r t s might be

the number of s a t e l l i t e l aunches . In 1985 the US l aunched

17 s a t e l l i t e s , Europe 3. Japan 2, China 1 and th e USSR 98.

Between 1957 and 1987 th e Americans l aunched 1300 s a t e l l i t e s .

40'1 of which were fo r m i l i t a r y purposes ; the Russ ians p laced

2400 s a t e l l i t e s i n o r b i t . t h r e e q u a r t e r s of which fo r m i l i t a r y

purposes .


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- 22

6 . ESA's f u tu r e long term programme

At a m i n i s t e r i a l meet ing i n November i n th e Hague th e m i n i s t e r s

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r e s e a r c h and fo r i n d u s t r y approved ESA's long

term programme which w i l l cover th e space a c t i v i t i e s to th e

y e a r 2000. Three main aims f o r t h i s p e r i o d were de f i ne d :

1 . E u r o p e ' s autonomous c a p a b i l i t y in space shou ld be expanded.

2 . E u r o p e ' s c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s i n a l l s e c t i o n s of space shou ld be

m a i n t a i n e d and enhanced;

3 . Europe ' s s tand ing as a cOll\petent p a r t n e r fo r i n t e r n a t i o n a l

c oope ra t i on in p a r t i c u l a r fo r coo pe ra t i on with th e Uni ted

S t a t e s should be s t r eng t he ne d .

I n o r de r to ach ieve t h i s . a programme has been deve loped d u r i n g

th e l a s t t h r ee years in c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h a l l th e Member

S t a t e s . The programme i s marked by i t s c o h e r e n c e . i t s comple te

n e s s and i t s b a l a n c e . I t i s c o h e r e n t w i t h r e g a r d to th e d i f f

e r e n t programme e lements in s c i e n c e , a p p l i c a t i o n and th e

ne c e s sa ry i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n space and on th e ground . I t i s

comple te i n the sense t h a t a l l major space d i s c i p l i n e s a r e

r e p r e s e n t e d and th e s p e c i a l i s a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s

g i v e n a f a i r po r t i on of th e programmes. F i n a l l y i t i s ba lanced

w i t h r e g a r d to th e d i f f e r e n t d i s c i p l i n e s and i n p a r t i c u l a r to

those programmes making use o f space and t h o s e i n v e s t m e n t s i n

b u i l d i n g up th e means to go i n t o space and to s t a y i n s p a c e .


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- 23

Th e l ong te rm programme c o n t i n u e s t h e a c t i v i t i e s i n space

s c i e n c e . e a r t h o b s e r v a t i o n . m i c r o g r a v i t y r e s e a r c h an d t e l e

communica t ion . In a d d i t i o n to t h e s e . f o u r major programmes ha d

been d e c i d e d .

1 . In o r d e r t h a t Europe remains c o m p e t i t i v e i n th e l a u n c h e r

marke t th e more power fu l ARIANE 5 , w i l l be deve loped .

2. Europe i s prepared to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e development o f th e

Space S t a t i o n t o g e t h e r with the US. Canada an d Japan . The

European c o n t r i b u t i o n - c a l l e d th e COLUMBUS Programme - w i l l

i n c l u d e a P r e s s u r i z e d Module docked to th e Space S t a t i o n . A

f u r t h e r e l e m e n t , to be launched by Ariane 5 , w i l l be a f r e e

f l y i n g l a b o r a t o r y equipped with a r e sou rce module which w i l l

be s e r v i c e d from t ime to t ime by a s t r o n a u t s . An a d d i t i o n a l

f r e e - f l y i n g p l a t f o r m to be placed in p o l a r o r b i t fo r Ear tho b s e r v a t i o n purposes i s a lso i n c l u d e d .

)

3 . A s p a c e p l a n e , c a l l e d HERMES, w i l l be deve loped as a f u r t h e r

s t e p t owards European autonomy i n th e manned space f l i g h t .

The s p a c e p l a n e Hermes w i l l be l aunched by Ariane 5. I t w i l l

be used f o r s e r v i c i n g the Space S t a t i o n as w e l l as th e Man

Te n d e d - F r e e - F l y e r.

4 . ESA w i l l deve lop a D a t a - R e l a y - S a t e l l i t e to e s t a b l i s h an

inde p e n d e n t c ommunica t i on 1 ink to th e Spa c e S t a t i o n , the

M a n - Te n d e d - F r e e - F l y e r an d the P o l a r P l a t f o r m .


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- 24

A l l Member S t a t e s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e UK a r e s t r o n g l y i n

f a v o u r o f t h i s Long Term Programme. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e UK c o u l d

n o t a g r e e w i t h c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h e l o n g - t e r m s t r a t e g y of t h e

Ag ency.

C o o p e r a t i o n w i t h i n Europe a p a t c h w o r k o f i n d e p e n d e n t and

a u t o n o m o u s S t a t e s i s no s i m p l e m a t t e r , a s p a s t e x p e r i e n c e

h a s shown. ESA's a c h i e v e m e n t s a r e a r e m i n d e r t h a t s u c c e s s f u l

c o o p e r a t i o n can be a c h i e v e d even i n an a r e a o f growing economic

i m p o r t a n c e . I n t h i s s e n s e . s p a c e i s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o E u r o p e a n

un i t Y . The p o l i t i c a 1 r 0 a d t o a un i t ed Eu ra p e , ma p p e d 0 u t b

R o b e r t Schuman as e a r l y as 1950 i n h i s Montan p l a n , i s s t i l l

v a l i d t o d a y , i n t h e m i d - 1 9 8 0 s . However, Europe a s an e n t i t y

w i l l n o t be a c h i e v e d o v e r n i g h t n o r w i l l i t happen a l l a t once !

T h i s e n t i t y w i l l g r a d u a l l y come t o e x i s t a s a r e s u l t o

p r a c t i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t s which i n t u r n w i l l b r i n g a b o u t r e a l

E u r o p e a n s o l i d a r i t y .


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,.

EIJR)PE m SPACEAn Exanp1e ot successfu l Eurq:lean ~ t i a \

Lis t o f viewgraphs

1. Esa Member s t a t e s2.Main aims o f Esa3. Esa establishments4.Esa s ta f t5.Fs tec6. Fstec ( l :u i ld in)7.Fsoc8 . Fsoc ( l :u i ld in)9. Fsoc (main con t ro l roan)

10.Esr.in11.Esr.in ( l :u i ld in)12.Ka1rcu13.Ka1rcu:Ela 1 & 214. Esa programmes15. Space scierx::e16. sc ient i f ic spacecraft 1aUl'lC'hed17. sc ient i f ic projects urder deve1cpnent18.1q:p1ication s a t e l l i t e s launched19.Meteosat image20.Earth Observat ioo programme 121. Ear th Observat ioo progranune 222.Mia:ogravi ty23.Esa Mia:ogravi ty Research proJramme24.Space1ab I25. Space1ab26.Space1ab I I27. Esa Space Telecarm..mi.cations progranune 128. CClnnunication s a t e l l i t e s in Europe29. In-oJ:bit Geostationcu:y Ccrmmmications am Meteorological

s a t e l l i t e s fo r Year Erx:i 198630. 'n1e Ariana 1aurd1ers31.Ariana 1auncb :t'eCX)rd 132.Ariana 1auncb :t'eCX)rd 233.seven r e a s a 1 S to r a European camnitJnent to space34 .1ropean c:ontr ibIt ion to the Space s t a t i o n46.ARf47.MrFF48.Pf1t49.Revised Base l ine Configuraticm o f Space s t a t i a l


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50.Hermes51.Hermes se rv i c inq H1'FF52 . l sa ~ 1988 (expeniitures)53 . l sa l:u:lget 1988 (inoaDe)54.Protile o t expeniitures for Esa 1lI'P55.Protile o t expeniitures for Esa 1lI'P by progranmes5 6 . ~bodies o t !sa57.Faa ozoganigranme

Addi t iona l (new ones) :

l . T i t l e

2. SChuman-Plan ard EurataD3 Headi.rqs o f chapters (G1iecleru:rq)4. Fsa establishments5.AI:P1icat iat s a t e l l i t e ss.six r e a s a 1 S for a European camdtment t o space7.GOP o f Fsa Jtfe!nber cnmtries in 1985a.oross danes t ic ~ t u r e a t R & D in 19859.Gross danes t i c ~ t u r e a l R & D in 1985 a s percent o f GOP

10.Gross danes t ic ~ t u r e a l R & D . in 1985(R & D financed by Govemment ard bJs1ness enteIprise)

11.Arlanespace launch contracts

12 Space r e l a t ed eq>loyment 198613.AiIrs o f 1lI'P


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The Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies

The Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies is an interdisciplinary programorganized within the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences and designed to promote thestudy of Europe. The Center's governing committees represent the major social sciencedepartments at Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Since its establishment in 1969, the Center has tried to orient students towards questionsthat have been neglected both about past developments in eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury European societies and about the present. The Center's approach is comparativeand interdisciplinary, with a strong emphasis on the historical and cultural sources whichshape a country's political and economic policies and social structures. Major interests ofCenter members include elements common to industrial societies: the role of the state inthe political economy of each country, political behavior, social movements, parties andelections, trade unions, intellectuals, labor markets and the crisis of industrialization,science policy, and the interconnections between a country's culture and politics.

For a complete list of the Center for European Studies Working Papers and informationabout its other publications (German Politicsand Society, a journal appearing three timesannually; French Politicsand Society, a quarterly journal; and the East European WorkingPaper Series) please contact the Publications Department, 27 Kirkland St, Cambridge MA

02138. Additional copies can be purchased for $4.00. A monthly calendar of events at theCenter is also available at no cost.

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Europe in Space: An Example of Successful European Cooperation (WPS 10, 1988) Reimar Lüst

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