european journalof postclassicalarchaeologies · werk, retrieved from

RESEARCH - DISASTERS AND RESILIENCE

C Kostick F Ludlow The dating of volcanic events and their impact upon European society 400-800 CE

GP Brogiolo Flooding in Northern Italy during the Early Middle Ages resilience and adaptation

A Volkmann Climate change environment and migration a GIS-based study of the Roman Iron Age to theEarly Middle Ages in the river Oder region

C Arteaga-Cardineau Tsunamis and earthquakes in Spain during the Early Middle Ages

TP Newfield Domesticates disease and climate in early post-classical Europe the cattle plague of c940and its environmental context in particular

PJ Brown Coasts of catastrophe The incidence and impact of aeolian sand on British medieval coastalcommunities

BEYOND THE THEME

T Lewit The Second Sea exchange between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea in late antiquity

R Martorelli Cagliari bizantina alcune riflessioni dai nuovi dati dellrsquoarcheologia

M Wolfram The necropolis of Torre de Palma (Monforte Portugal)

A De Guio M Migliavacca R Deiana G Strapazzon Remote sensing e archeologia di un paesaggio marginale

P Diarte-Blasco V Beolchini M Zanfini L Pentildea-Chocarro Costruire lrsquoimmagine di una cittagrave medievale ediliziaabitativa e spazi del potere a Tusculum

DOSSIER - OPEN ACCESS AND OPEN DATA IN ARCHAEOLOGY

JD Richards J Winters Digging into Data Open Access and Open Data

F Anichini G Gattiglia Verso la rivoluzione DallrsquoOpen Access allrsquoOpen Data la pubblicazione aperta in archeologia

RETROSPECT

M Johnson The first fact discourses of lsquoculturersquo in anglophone archaeology

PROJECT

JM Martiacuten Civantos MT Bonet Garciacutea MEMOLA project Mediterranean Mountainous Landscapes an historical approach to cultural heritage based on traditional agrosystems

REVIEWS

Volume 5May 2015

ISSN 2039-7895 euro 4200

pca5

2015

pcapostclassicalarchaeologies

european journalof

SAPSocietagraveArcheologica

PCA 5 copertina_yellowqxp_Layout 2 280415 0859 Pagina 1

pca

volume 52015

SAP Societagrave Archeologica srl

Mantova 2015

postclassicalarchaeologieseuropean journal of

PCA 5qxp_gao 6 130515 1453 Pagina 1

EDITORS

Gian Pietro Brogiolo (chief editor)

Alexandra Chavarriacutea (executive editor)

ADVISORY bOARD

Martin Carver (University of York)

Matthew H Johnson (Northwestern University of Chicago)

Giuliano Volpe (Universitagrave degli Studi di Foggia)

Marco Valenti (Universitagrave degli Studi di Siena)

ASSISTANT EDITOR

Francesca Benetti

LANGUAGE EDITOR

Rebecca Devlin (University of Florida)

pcaEDITORIAL bOARD

Gilberto Artioli (Universitagrave degli Studi di Padova)

Andrea Breda (Soprintendenza bbAA della Lombardia)

Joseacute M Martiacuten Civantos (Universidad de Granada)

Girolamo Fiorentino (Universitagrave del Salento)

Caterina Giostra (Universitagrave Cattolica del Sacro Cuore di Milano)

Susanne Hakenbeck (University of Cambridge)

Vasco La Salvia (Universitagrave degli Studi G DrsquoAnnunzio di Chieti e Pescara)

Bastien Lefebvre (Universiteacute Toulouse - Jean Jauregraves)

Alberto Leoacuten (Universidad de Coacuterdoba)

Tamara Lewit (Trinity College - University of Melbourne)

Federico Marazzi (Universitagrave degli Studi Suor Orsola benincasa di Napoli)

Dieter Quast (Roumlmisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz)

Andrew Reynolds (University College London)

Mauro Rottoli (Laboratorio di archeobiologia dei Musei Civici di Como)

Colin Rynne (University College Cork)

Post-Classical Archaeologies (PCA) is an independent international peer-reviewed journal devoted to the communicationof post-classical research PCA publishes a variety of manuscript types including original research discussions and reviewarticles Topics of interest include all subjects that relate to the science and practice of archaeology particularly multidisci-plinary research which use specialist methodologies such as zooarchaeology paleobotany archaeometallurgy archaeom-etry spatial analysis as well as other experimental methodologies applied to the archaeology of post-classical Europe

Submission of a manuscript implies that the work has not been published before that it is not under consideration forpublication elsewhere and that it has been approved by all co-authors Each author must clear reproduction rights forany photos or illustration credited to a third party that he wishes to use (including content found on the Internet) Formore information about ethics (including plagiarism) and copyright practices and guidelines please visit the web sitewwwpostclassicalit

PCA is published once a year in May starting in 2011 Manuscripts should be submitted to editor postclassicalitin accordance to the guidelines for contributors in the webpage httpwwwpostclassicalit

Post-Classical Archaeologiesrsquos manuscript review process is rigorous and is intended to identify the strengths and weak-nesses in each submitted manuscript to determine which manuscripts are suitable for publication and to work with theauthors to improve their manuscript prior to publication

This journal has the option to publish in open access For information please visit the web site wwwpostclassicalit

How to quote please use ldquoPCArdquo as abbreviation and ldquoPost-Classical Archaeologiesrdquo as full title

Cover image courtesy of Schaffhausen Stadtbibliothek (Switzerland) Gen 8 f 271v ndash Klosterneuburger Evangelien-werk retrieved from wwwe-codicesunifrchensbs0008271v0Sequence-1030

ldquoPost-Classical Archaeologiesrdquo was approved on 2015-05-13 according to ERIH PLUS criteria for inclusion Classified Aby ANVUR (Agenzia Nazionale di Valutazione del sistema Universitario e della Ricerca)

DESIGN

Paolo Vedovetto

PUbLISHER

SAP Societagrave Archeologica srl Via Fienili 39a 46020 Quingentole Mantovawwwarcheologicait

PRINTED bYTecnografica Rossi Via I maggio Sandrigo (VI)

Authorised by Mantua court no 42011 of April 8 2011

For subscription and all other information visit the web site wwwpostclassicalit

ISSN 2039-7895


PAGES

EDITORIAL


C Kostick F Ludlow The dating of volcanic events and their impactupon European society 400-800 CE

C Arteaga-Cardineau Tsunamis and earthquakes in Spain during the EarlyMiddle Ages

GP Brogiolo Flooding in Northern Italy during the Early Middle Agesresilience and adaptation

A Volkmann Climate change environment and migration a GIS-basedstudy of the Roman Iron Age to the Early Middle Ages inthe river Oder region

TP Newfield Domesticates disease and climate in early post-classicalEurope the cattle plague of c940 and its environmentalcontext

PJ Brown Coasts of catastrophe The incidence and impact ofaeolian sand on British medieval coastal communities

BEYOND THE THEME

T Lewit The Second Sea exchange between the Mediterraneanand the Black Sea in late antiquity

R Martorelli Cagliari bizantina alcune riflessioni dai nuovi dati dellrsquoar-cheologia


A De Guio M Migliavacca R Deiana G Strapazzon Remote sensinge archeologia di un paesaggio marginale

P Diarte-Blasco V Beolchini M Zanfini L Pentildea-Chocarro Costruirelrsquoimmagine di una cittagrave medievale edilizia abitativa espazi del potere a Tusculum


5

7

31

47

69

95

127

149

175

201

245

261

volume 52015

CONTENTS

european journal of



JD Richards J Winters Digging into data Open Access and Open Data

F Anichini G Gattiglia Verso la rivoluzione DallrsquoOpen Access allrsquoOpenData la pubblicazione aperta in archeologia

RETROSPECT

M Johnson The first fact discourses of ldquoculturerdquo in anglophonearchaeology

PROJECT

JM Martiacuten Civantos MT Bonet Garciacutea MEMOLA project Mediterranean Mountainous Landscapes an historicalapproach to cultural heritage based on traditional agrosystems

REVIEWS

N Sykes Beastly Questions Animal Answers to Archaeological Issues - byA Chavarriacutea Arnau

E Possenti (ed) Necropoli longobarde in Italia Indirizzi della ricerca e nuovidati - by M Valenti

S Harrington M Welch The Early Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of Southern Britain AD 450-650 Beneath the Tribal Hidage - by V La Salvia

E Lorans X Rodier (eds) Archeacuteologie de lrsquoespace urbain - by B Lefebvre

C-N Douady et lrsquoeacutequipe Morphocity De la trace agrave la trame La voie lecture du deacuteveloppement urbain - by F Giacomello

D Ferdani Architettura e potere in una terra di confine Edilizia vescovilenella Diocesi di Luni fra XI e XIV secolo - by P Vedovetto

C Walker N Carr Tourism and Archaeology Sustainable Meeting Grounds -by F Benetti

285

298

327

347

357

PCA volume 52015 ISSN 2039-7895P o s t - C l a s s i c a l A r c h a e o l o g i e s


Received 16-01-2015 - Accepted 26-02-2015 - Revised 28-03-2015 95

1 Introduction

The health and disease of domesticated animals in the past has gar-nered little attention Few scholars would deny that the welfare of do-mesticated species was crucial for preindustrial societies but system-atic research on animal health and disease in postclassical or earlier

PCA 5 (2015) ISSN 2039-7895 (pp 95-126)Post - Classical Archaeologies

Domesticates disease and climate in early post-classical Europe the cattle plague of c940 and

its environmental context

TIMOTHY P NEWFIELD

This article begins with a synthesis of recent scholarship on the written and zooarchaeo-logical evidence for episodic livestock mortality events in early postclassical Europe (400-1000 CE) It addresses major and minor disease outbreaks in domesticates as well asanimal mortalities associated directly with anomalous climate and extreme weather In linewith the evidence available the focus is set on large disease outbreaks and on cattleplagues in particular The second portion of the article attempts to identify the triggersof animal pestilences Particular attention is given to the indirect role of climatic anomaliesin the spreading of epizootic pathogens It is argued that climate via intermediary factorsfacilitated the spread of epizootics The role of anomalous climate in animal disease diffu-sion is explored in a case study of the cattle plague of c940Keywords epizootics animals disease climate famine

Dopo una sintesi sulla recente letteratura scientifica riguardante eventi episodici di morta-litagrave delle mandrie nellrsquoEuropa postclassica (400-1000 dC) lrsquoarticolo si concentra sulle epi-demie negli animali domestici e su episodi di mortalitagrave causati da condizioni climatiche ano-male ed estreme In linea con i dati disponibili il testo si focalizza sullo scoppio di violenteepidemie specialmente di bovini indagando poi le cause scatenanti delle pestilenze animalidedicando particolare attenzione al ruolo indiretto delle anomalie climatiche che tramitefattori intermediari avrebbero contribuito alla diffusione dei patogeni epizootici Infine ilcaso studio dellrsquoepidemia bovina del 940 illustra il ruolo del clima nel contagio animaleParole chiave epizootica animali malattie clima carestia

Princeton University Department of History Princeton New Jersey newfieldprincetonedu

research

WINNER OF THE PCA AWARD 2015


eras has lagged far behind that of human populations Scholars havestudied the bovine panzootics of the 18th and 19th centuries in some de-tail1 but even the large pestilential animal mortalities of earlier centurieshave been considered peripheral to the story of human demographics forall that the two were clearly linked2 Livestock provided meat dairy trac-tion fertiliser and raw materials such as bone horn fibre sinew skinand tallow Their health was deeply intertwined with human health econ-omy politics and society Linkages were omnipresent From writtensources archaeology and zooarchaeology some connections both unex-ceptional and exceptional can be teased out but countless others re-main obscure

The linkage of animal morbidity and mortality could be both ordinaryand extraordinary The ordinary day-to-day illness and death associatedwith enzootic disease is faintly visible in written sources (in offhanded re-marks like that encountered in the Capitulare de villis (XXIII 85) regard-ing a distaste for beef from diseased animals) though animalpalaeopathology has begun to illuminate the baseline of animal disease inthe preindustrial past (Vann Thomas 2006 Mikliacutekovaacute Thomas 2008Thomas 2012 Bartosiewicz (with Gaacutel) 2013) Extraordinary excessmortality events associated with epizootic disease anomalous climateand food shortage are more apparent in written sources When animalswere sick and died en masse people noticed Then the ubiquitous depend-ence on animals shifted from background scenery to foreground dramasince widespread excess mortality meant significant production loss anddisruption to normal human routines Intermittent excess mortalityevents are also visible archaeologically in the form of mass animalgraves (Auxiette Meniel 2013) and bioarchaeologically in the form ofpathogenic remnants extracted from skeletal specimens thoughpalaeomicrobiologists have yet to turn their attention in earnest to thehistory of farm-animal disease (cattle bones from a major early medievalFrench burial were however sent recently for laboratory study Renouet al 2013 p 140) While these linkages were indirect zoonotic farm-animal disease directly affected human populations These zoonosescaused morbidity and mortality in livestock and colonised and possiblyspread in human populations Prominent recent examples include H1N1and H5N1 swine and avian influenzas Middle East Respiratory Syn-

Timothy P Newfield

1 A sample focusing on recent scholarship MuLLET 1946 DORWART 1959 FABER 1962 BROAD

1983 SPINAGE 2003 pp 103-150 241-262 VALLAT 2009 APPuHN 2010 HuumlNNIGER 2010 2011STuumlHRING 2010 20112 The exception now is the 1314-1325 cattle panzootic NEWFIELD 2009 SLAVIN 2010 2012 CAMP-BELL 2010a 2010b 2011 DEWITTE SLAVIN 2013

96


drome Coronavirus is also possibly enzootic in dromedary camels Earlypostclassical plague-scale interspecies disease events are also visible intexts and may be teased out bioarchaeologically as well

This paper establishes linkages between livestock health and humanhealth through the mediums of climate food shortage and disease in theearly postclassical period (400-1000) It engages the growing scholar-ship on late antique and early medieval climate and it builds on recentproposals that early medieval disease outbreaks in humans notably theinitial occurrence of the Justinianic Plague were triggered by or asso-ciated with climatic anomalies (Baillie 1994 p 212 McCormick 2003pp 20-21 Arjava 2005 p 76 McCormick et al 2012 pp 198-199)The paper has three parts The first surveys recent scholarship on writ-ten and zooarchaeological evidence for livestock mortality events Majorand minor disease outbreaks as well as weather- and famine-related an-imal mortalities are addressed In line with the evidence available thefocus is set on large disease outbreaks and on cattle plagues in particu-lar A few notable events appear to have been zoonotic and some atten-tion is given to episodes of concurrent plague-scale deaths in people andcows Two mass cattle graves potential bovine ldquoplague pitsrdquo and small-er interments of cows are discussed

The second portion of the paper attempts to identify triggers of largedisease-associated animal mortalities The role of climate is explored inparticular and it is argued climatic anomalies ndash anomalous periods oftemperature andor precipitation years not decades or centuries in du-ration ndash triggered the outbreak of some major cattle plagues in the post-classical era via their effect on food production and the socioeconomicconsequences of food shortages The triggers of many epizootics andzoonotic farm-animal plagues remain elusive Some animal plagues ap-pear to have been associated with human migrations and major conflictsMany others may have been the product of unexceptional events Ordi-nary phenomena such as trade in live animals trade in bulk goods involv-ing pack and draft animals horizontal pastoralism and animal-dependenthuman communication may have been responsible for the irruption in Eu-rope of several of the plagues discussed below Certainly far from everyanomalous climate triggered disease outbreaks in domesticates Indeedthe sources give no indication epizootic diseases were flowing into andcirculating within Europe during some of the most severe climatic anom-alies of the Early Middle Ages the downturn of 536-544 for instance(Baillie 1994 2008 Stathakopoulos 2003 pp 251-255 Arjava 2005Larsen et al 2008) There was a causal connection between cattleplagues and climate but it was dependent on intermediary factors Thedifficulties inherent in untangling the relationship between epizootic dis-

Domesticates disease and climate in early post-classical Europe

97


ease climate and intermediaries like famine in the early postclassical pe-riod are explored in the last segment of the paper a case study on thecattle plague subsistence crisis and volcanic climate forcing c940

Two assumptions underpin the analysis herein It is assumed large an-imal plagues were spread primarily intraspecies directly animal-to-ani-mal Pathogens transmitted directly between susceptible species bestaccount for large rapidly developing plagues that spread geographicallyPlagues of cattle known to modern science capable of disseminatingquickly between regions such as contagious bovine plueropneumonia(Geering Amanfu 2002 pp 6-7 Food and Agriculture Organization2002 p 4) foot-and-mouth disease (Geering Lubroth 2002 pp 10-13) and rinderpest (Anderson et al 1996 p 7 Obi et al 1999 pp 5-6 Roeder Taylor 2002 pp 527 530) are all transmitted primarily inthis way other indirect routes are thought to be largely ineffective It isalso assumed that the pathogens responsible for the large plagues thatearly medievals documented were not enzootic or native to the regionsin which they were encountered Rather they were ecdemic or foreignand imported in live animals Large epizootics therefore attest to move-ments of animals otherwise unknown in the Early Middle Ages The dis-ease pools in which the causative pathogens of these plagues were en-zootic were probably located some distance from the regions in whichthe plagues were reported considering that epizootics are episodic andanimals susceptible to wide-spreading and lethal pathogens are generallyunfamiliar with them3 The pathogens likely originated east of Europe orpossibly in Africa (Newfield 2013a pp 75 88-90) The animal plaguesof 569-570 809-810 939-942 and 986-988 among others thereforerepresent episodes of confluence when two normally isolated diseasepools coalesced and traded disease4

A final prefatory comment The focus on interregional (or transbound-ary) disease and large animals plagues herein affects the role climate can

Timothy P Newfield

3 Disease pools or disease landscapes are distinct repertoires of pathogens with shifting temporaland spatial boundaries They are porous vary in scale and overlap Multiple ldquomicro-poolsrdquo composedof pathogens with specific environment or demographic preconditions may exist within one ldquomarco-poolrdquo In other words some pathogens are ecdemic to the overarching pool (perhaps Variola major inearly medieval Europe) and others particular to pools within (Plasmodium vivax in early medieval Eu-ropean riverine settlements and Mycobacterium tuberculosis in urban centres) Macro-pools exist inopposition to each other but may share pathogens in micro-pools4 Pathogens were experienced differently between disease pools A regular widespread occurrencebut mild disease expression and low mortality may be expected where a pathogen was enzootic andepisodic widespread occurrence severe disease and high mortality where it was epizootic So priorto its 2011 eradication rinderpest was common but largely benign in enzootic zones causing milddisease in young animals after their inherited resistance dissipated and very low mortality while inepizootic zones it caused grave disease (fever emaciation inappetence lethargy and profuse diar-rhea) in animals of all ages and mortality in upwards of 95-100 of infected animals (ANDERSON et al1996 pp 6-7 9-11 MERCK VETERINARY MANuAL 1998 p 543)

98


be given in shaping the early medieval animal disease experience Morecircumscribed regional and local outbreaks of disease enzootic or notwithin Europe took place On the basis of the extant written evidence itis possible most epizootics recorded in the immediate postclassical peri-od were in fact regional or local affairs The evidence is so meagre how-ever that it is equally possible that the many brief singular referencesto animal mortalities (the boum quoque et ovium pestilentia supra modi-um grassata est in Francia at 887 in the Annales fuldenses (105) for in-stance) are but glimpses of large events plagues like those of 809-810or 939-942

Climate could directly affect pathogens capable of irrupting on smallerscales Incidence and occurrence rates of arthropod- and soil-borne dis-eases like anthrax bluetongue and eastern equine encephalitis for exam-ple can climb or fall dramatically with fluctuations in temperature andprecipitation (Sellers 1980 Jimeacutenez Clavero 2012 Pioz et al 2012)as can vector-borne human diseases such as bubonic plague dengueand malaria (Gublner 2009 Ben Ari et al 2011 Thomson 2014) Out-breaks of these pathogens are often seasonal and environmentally sen-sitive Though typically endemicenzootic in the right conditions they cantake on epidemicepizootic proportions Anomalous climate can createopportunities for vector populations to expand in number and range aswell as extend the pathogenrsquos annual window of activity Morbidity andmortality associated with these pathogens also climb dramatically whensusceptible naiumlve populations move into endemicenzootic zones The791 equine epizootic is thought to illustrate such an event Then easternequine encephalitis possibly broke out in Charlemagnersquos warhorses asthey passed along the marshy banks of the middle Danube (Gillmor2005 Lubelczyk et al 2013 assess a more recent EEE outbreak) With-out palaeomicrobiological evidence for pathogens causing early medievalanimal disease however synergy between soil- or vector-borne animalpathogens and climate is elusive

2 Early medieval animal mortality events

Searches for evidence of animal disease in heterogeneous early me-dieval sources ndash annals capitularies chronicles correspondence ha-giography history poetry ndash have turned up 87 references to epizooticsand zoonotic disease outbreaks in livestock and humans (Newfield2013a pp 80-84 Newfield 2015 pp 6-7) The majority of the pas-sages date to the 8th (16) 9th (28) and 10th (28) centuries There areonly four 5th-century references nine 6th -century references and two


99


7th-century references (fig 1) Whether there were more animal andhuman-farm animal plagues in the Carolingian period (750-950) than ear-lier as the sources suggest is uncertain The higher rates of sourcecomposition and survival characteristic of Carolingian Europe may ac-count for the notable increase in epizootic and zoonotic human-domesti-cate disease after 750

The 87 passages contain no fewer than 63 references to cattle 24references to ldquoanimalsrdquo 4 references to horses and 2 references eachto sheep and pigs (fig 2) There are 3 reports of dead and diseased wildanimals (deer (591) birds (671) and bees (993)) a single report of a ca-nine epizootic (776) and several references to simultaneous pestilentialdeaths in multiple non-human species cattle and deer (591) cattle andhorses (725-26) cattle and sheep (887) cattle and birds (917) cattleand bees (993) cattle pigs and sheep (994) and cattle and pigs (996)There are 29 references to zoonotic plagues affecting humans and domes-ticated species 20 of which were plagues of humans and cattle and nineof which afflicted humans and ldquoanimalsrdquo Cattle account for 66 of thereferences to diseased domesticates Moreover no fewer than 13 of the24 ambiguous references to dead animalia were unquestionably bovinesmeaning that cattle in fact account for 80 of the references to domes-ticates5 (fig 3) Of the 29 passages pertaining to zoonotic human-domes-ticate plagues at least 25 targeted people and cows6 (fig 4)

Timothy P Newfield

5 Multiple passages survive for several large plagues like those of 809-10 c820 868-70 939-43and 986-988 Most explicitly refer to cattle Some however refer vaguely to ldquoanimalsrdquo These ani-malia were surely bovines6 The remaining four passages were plagues of humans and unidentifiable ldquoanimalsrdquo This reckoningdiffers from that presented in NEWFIELD 2013a as the 569-570 and 986-988 plagues are now un-derstood to have been zoonotic

100

Fig 1 (left) Passages per century Fig 2 (right) Non-human species referenced in 87 collected passages (uAC = unidentifiedanimalia clearly cattle uA = unidentified animalia NL = non-livestock)


The bulk of the passages 51 of them refer to a mere 8 major inter-regional cattle plagues (in 569-570 583-584 699-701708 809-810c820 868-870 939-942 and 986-988) These large events rangedin scale and severity and in all likelihood the dates affixed to them mis-represent their actual chronologies The 986-988 outbreak for in-stance is visible in England Wales Ireland and possibly Scotland yetthe pathogen was almost certainly ecdemic to northwestern insular Eu-rope Likewise the 583-584 bovine deaths are traceable in central andnorthern France but the causative microorganism likely spread west-ward or northward into these regions These 8 plagues represent theminimum occurrence of large transboundary animal disease outbreaks inthe early postclassical era Sources are scant for several European re-gions throughout the period and thin in general for many quarter and halfcenturies Several of the seemingly minor disease outbreaks ndash the gravismorbus that Gregory of Tours has irrupting in cattle and deer in 591ldquothe great murrain of cowsrdquo documented in Ireland in 777-779 or theboum pestilentia of 878 read in the Annales fuldenses (Newfield 2013a)ndash may have been as prevalent long-lasting and severe as the plaguesidentified above

Bovines suffered in all of the clearly major pestilences On at leastthree occasions people suffered too (in 569-570 868-870 986-988and possibly 809-810 and c820) For medical and veterinary historiansthis is problematic No pathogen is known to modern science that is ca-pable of causing significant widespread mortality in both bovines and hu-mans Plagues affecting cattle alone may be tentatively identified asrinderpest or contagious bovine pleuropneumonia Were the foot-and-mouth disease virus more lethal in the distant past than it is now (it killsless than 5 of its victims) it too may have been responsible for some


101

Fig 3 (left) Non-human species referenced in 87 collected passages uAC grouped withCattle Fig 4 (right) Non-zoonotic epizootic disease bovine-human disease and unidentified ani-malia (uA)-human disease


large cattle die-offs though its ability to cause disease in sheep and pigsdomesticates rarely encountered as diseased or dead in early medievalsources would have to be accounted for (Geering Lubroth 2002 pp 17 10-15) When diarrhea or gastrointestinal symptoms are reported arinderpest identification of a cattle plague acquires stronger footing asloose bowels are a unique and classic expression of the virus7

Scholars have attributed large zoonotic disease outbreaks to con-temporary observers erroneously conflating concurrent disease mortal-ity in people and cows To quote one veterinary historian ldquothere was atendencyrdquo in the distant past ldquoto observe a lsquosimultaneityrsquo of epidemicsin man and animalshellip and to attribute the same cause to themhellip nowwe know that such epidemicshellip had different causeshelliprdquo (Mantovani2001 p 41) Localised disease mortality simultaneous in humans andother animals may be tentatively assigned to anthrax though that viru-lent soil-borne pathogen typically occurs in special climatic contexts(droughts preceded by heavy rain and flooding) and most commonly af-flicts grazing animals cattle and sheep (Gates et al 2001 p 407)Bacillus anthracis may lie behind the seemingly circumscribed 591bovine-cervine mortality or the 887 bovine-ovine pestilence but it can-not account for large plagues (Spinage 2003 p 85 Newfield 2013app 91-92) Recent studies of the evolution of morbilliviruses present apossible solution Molecular clocks carried out on the phylogeneticallysimilar measles and rinderpest independently testify that these virusesdiverged postclassically (Furuse et al 2010 Wertheim KosakovskyPond 2011 on molecular clocks Lemey Posada 2009 pp 362-372)In other words a rinderpest lineage colonised human populations andbecame measles not several millennia ago as was long thought (c3000BCE was often put forward Barrett Rossiter 1999 pp 93-94 Bar-rett 1999 pp 1559 1563-1564 Griffin 2001 p 1401 Roeder Tay-lor 2002 p 516 Cliff et al 2004 pp 42-43 (with maps) Roeder etal 2013) but in the Early Middle Ages (c1000 CE) Prior to this di-vergence a RPV predecessor likely endemicenzootic in Asia circulat-ed in bovines and it has been proposed periodically jumped to andspread within human populations until it burnt itself out (Banyard et al2006 p 23 Furuse et al 2010 p 3 Newfield 2015) The ancestralmorbillivirus may account for large zoonotic human-bovine plagues in Eu-rope in the pre-divergence period

Timothy P Newfield

7 ANDERSON et al 1996 p 9 WOHLSEIN SALIKI 2006 pp 70-71 Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus is fairlycontagious but not especially lethal with a 4-8 mortality rate Its victims suffer diarrhea but thevirus is considered new (emerging in the 1940s) and it does ldquonot behave like rinderpestrdquo (DEREGT

2005)

102


Postclassical climatic anomalies and extreme weather also killed do-mesticates Three of the 87 plague passages assessed herein may infact concern climate- or weather-related animal deaths For instancethe 916-917 ldquomortality of cattle and birdsrdquo documented in the Annalsof Inisfallen is assigned no specific cause but the Annals of ulster andChronicon Scotorum attribute these deaths to frost cold and ldquogreatsnowrdquo In 962 the latter text reports ldquocattle suffered a great plaguewith snow and diseasesrdquo (Newfield 2013a p 83) Several other pas-sages explicitly intertwine anomalous climates extreme weather andpathogens with livestock health There is Nithardrsquos account (not includedin the foregoing analysis) of an ldquoexcessively cold and longrdquo 842-843 win-ter that was ldquofull of diseasesrdquo and ldquoharmful to cattlerdquo (Newfield 2013app 83-84) and an early entry in the Annales xantenses (4) that asso-ciates uniquely the 809-810 panzootic with a hiemps valde dura TheAnnales regni francorum (154) Annales fuldenses (22) and Astronomer(Vita XXXVII 420 422) align the c820 pestilence with continual heavyrains and humidity the three passages pertaining to the 860 mortalitasanimalium affix it to a hiems magna (Annales alamannicorum continuatiosangallensis prima 50 Annales weingartenses 66 Annales sangallens-es 76) the Annales fuldenses (105) has the 887 bovine-ovine die-offoccurring within the context of a hard winter and many of the sourcesfor the 939-42 cow plague have it occurring in the context of the as-perrima hiemps (Annales colonienses 98 Widukind of Corvey Res ges-tae saxonicae XXVI 89 XXXII 93-94 Cronicon suevicum universale67 Hermann of Reichenau Chronicon 113) and a period of flooding(Curschmann 1900 p 106)

The majority of climate- and weather-related deaths however are ex-plicitly reported as such Some Carolingian annalists were unusually fondof documenting cows suffering electrical charges (lightning strikes) infields (for example Annales regni francorum 163-164 Annales fuldens-es 76-77) More than a cow or two may have indeed suffered electro-cution on occasion lightning strikes can kill multiple bovines sheltering be-neath a single tree in a storm One-off strikes claimed 45 cows in DarbyPennsylvania uSA in July 2014 (Backus Missoulian) 55 cows in RiacuteoBueno Los Rios Chile in April 2014 (Anonymous Diario el ranco) and18 cattle in Yellow Creek Saskatchewan Canada in July 2013 (Anony-mous CBC news) But most weather-related livestock deaths were tiedto periods of severe cold drought or persistent heavy rain So in 824874 881 and 893 ldquoextreme coldrdquo and ldquolonger than usualrdquo winters andin 839 875 886 and 919 ldquoviolent stormsrdquo ldquoheavy rainsrdquo and ldquosuddenfloodingrdquo killed many Frankish animals (Annales regni francorum 164Astronomer Vita 470 472 Annales bertiniani 18 Annales fuldenses


103


81 84 96 104 123 127 Annales sancti germani minores 3) Thesesorts of deaths occurred elsewhere too A hard winter claimed ldquohorsescamels and other animalsrdquo in Thrace in 716717 (Theophanes ConfessorChronicle 546) and Irish animals died in hard winters and ldquosnow of un-usual depthrdquo in 747748 798799 and as noted 9169178

Animal losses from anomalous climate and extreme weather were like-ly marginal relative to losses sustained in disease outbreaks Generalflooding probably killed hundreds of domesticates on occasion and longsevere winters were undoubtedly lethal too though domesticates mayhave suffered more from a dearth of fodder and pasture than low tem-peratures These animals like victims of disease became feed for scav-enging birds and dogs were interred in individual pits or possibly collect-ed and buried in mass graves The Annales fuldenses (92) reports in thecontext of the 878 cattle plague that diseased animals were dragged outof their stalls and abandoned in fields The Poeta Saxo relates cows wereldquowere lying deadrdquo in fields after the 809-810 panzootic though he wasnot a contemporary (Annalium de gestis IV236-253 51-52) Whethercontemporaries harvested meat or raw materials from them is unknownEarly medieval annals and histories are quiet on the consumption of un-slaughtered animals There were of course biblical restrictions on theeating of carrion (Leviticus 228 Exodus 2231 Deuteronomy 1421)and some early medieval penitentials forbade the eating of animals thatdied a natural death (Meens 1995) suggesting carrion was consumedThe Capitulare de villis implies diseased animals were eaten though per-haps not by the elite but no references to the consumption of ldquoplaguecattlerdquo in early medieval sources are known (for the high medieval periodNewfield 2012b pp 619-639) The available zooarchaeology indicatesthat animals that died in early medieval mortality events were not alwaysconsidered edible (cf Putelat 2013 p 266)

Zooarchaeological evidence for mass animal burials possibly evidenc-ing epizootics or climate- or weather-associated mortality events ispresently meager Several sites have been identified but few have beenanalysed in depth (Binois 2013 pp 277 279-280 285 Renou et al2013 pp 133 135 Putelat 2013 pp 259-263 surveys known Frenchsites evidencing extraordinary medieval animal mortality) Two large ani-mal ldquoplague pitsrdquo dating to the Early Middle Ages have been unearthedand studied in Shapwick Somerset England and Luxeacute CharenteFrance (Gidney 2012 pp 240-245 Gidney forthcoming Renou et al2013) The first has been carbon-14 dated to 980-1160 and the latter

Timothy P Newfield

8 Annals of ulster 211 281 433 The Au dates the first and second of these events to 747 and798 They appear a year later in the so-called Chronicle of Ireland (219 260)

104


to the early 7th century though some 14C dates from the Luxeacute bones ex-tend as far back as 570 Seven articulated adult male bovines likelydraft animals were uncovered in a single partially excavated mass graveat Shapwick They evidenced no skeletal stigmata and were buried simul-taneously in a former limekiln with lime (a traditional agricultural disinfec-tant) indicating that they were healthy died a sudden death and suc-cumbed to disease Ten largely articulated bovines were discovered inclosely situated singular pits at Luxeacute (figs 5-6) They were mostly be-tween one and six years of age deposited deeply and quickly and dis-played no skeletal evidence for malnutrition or chronic infection Therewas no or little evidence for the salvaging of meat or raw materials atShapwick or Luxeacute

The Luxeacute bovines possibly died in the 569-570 plague and Shapwickbovines in the 986-88 plague but other epizootics occurred near thesesites that also match the rough dates affixed to them the aforemen-tioned 583-584 and 591 epizootics and the 1041 and 1048 cattle pesti-lences recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (163 167) While thereare several indicators that the Shapwick and Luxeacute animals died of dis-ease climatic anomalies extreme weather and food scarcity cannot beruled out Laboratory identification of causative pathogens is needed be-fore these English French or Swiss burials are considered definitive evi-dence for epizootic disease


105

Fig 5 Luxeacute bovine 1555 (photo Dr Sylvain Renou)


Smaller mass graves have been uncovered in Bure Jura Switzerland(five bovines) and in nearby Bourogne Franche-Comteacute and Vel-lechevreux Franche-Comteacute France (three and four bovines respectively)(Putelat 2013 pp 250-258) Most of these animals (11 of 12) weremore than a year old and all appear to have been healthy (showing nosigns of chronic disease or malnutrition) Some of the Swiss animalswere flayed and dehorned (postmortem) It has been proposed thesethree graves evidence a regional mortality event possibly an epizooticconsidering some of the Bure animals were buried with limestone at theend of the Early Middle Ages

3 Animal plague triggers

Evidence for large early medieval animal mortalities is growing Thetriggers origins temporal and spatial extent pathogenic causes andconsequences of these disease- climate- and weather-associated largeanimal die-offs however are poorly understood Significant short- andweaker long-term consequences have been expected of large bovine mor-talities in the Middle Ages and attempts have been made to trace thechronologies and trajectories of several medieval animal plagues (Gillmor

Timothy P Newfield

106



2005 Newfield 2009 2012a Slavin 2010 2012 Campbell 2010a pp288-291 DeWitte Slavin 2013) It has also been suggested vast in-terregional cow die-offs the 1314-1325 panzootic in particular wereassociated to climate Campbellrsquos synthesis of the available palaeoclima-tology demonstrates beyond doubt that the 14th-century bovine pesti-lence which claimed a million plus head when it passed through Englandc1319-1321 occurred in the midst of ldquoa sharply defined and distinc-tiverdquo climatic anomaly (Campbell 2010a p 293 Campbell 2010b pp14 20-24 31-32 Campbell 2011 pp 184-197 Jordan 1996 p 35)This anomalous climate is proposed to have triggered the event and pos-sibly augmented the virulence of the causative pathogen

An assessment of the triggers for early medieval epizootics foundthat neither climatic anomalies food shortages human migrations norwars routinely coincided with animal disease events and therefore thatthese were not quintessential triggers of transboundary livestockplagues (Newfield 2013a pp 98-113) There are of course exceptionsThe arrival of the Lombards in Italy in 568 with their possessions fromwestern Hungary and their brief forays into France immediately there-after (Gregory of Tours Libri historiarum X IV41 174 Paul the Dea-con Historia langobardorum II7-9 76-77) correlate well with the 569-570 human-bovine pestilence reported to have spread through much ofItaliam Galliamque (Marius of Avenches Chronica 238 Newfield2013a pp 98-99 111) Knowledge of early medieval climatic anom-alies food shortages human migrations and wars is also partial mean-ing triggers may have occurred that are unknown or poorly understoodnow As large bovine plagues in all probability originated in disease poolsto the east or south more attention is required of extra-European evi-dence A survey of Western Asian texts for livestock disease in the earlypostclassical period in particular may better illuminate the origins andtriggering events of major plagues reported in European sources

Still some strong associations emerge from the known evidenceSeveral cattle plagues were clearly associated with anomalous climatesthat triggered poor harvests and food shortages In fact multiple majorand seemingly minor disease outbreaks coincide well with year-long ormulti-year periods of food availability decline generated by short-term cli-matic shocks The major plagues of c820 868-870 939-942 and theseemingly lesser events of 445 447 551552 591 and 699-701708for instance match up with food shortages Countless subsistencecrises occurred however for which there is no evidence for animal dis-ease (at least 18 in the Carolingian period Newfield 2013a p 107) andboth major and minor plagues took place in lieu of food shortages notably


107


the 809-810 panzootic but it is perhaps no coincidence that largeplagues occurred often in the midst of genuine famines Ten of the 22food shortages reported in the Carolingian period have been identified asparticularly long-lasting general and severe These ten famines weregenerated undoubtedly by anomalous climate (multi-year periods excep-tionally cold dry andor wet) and three of these ten famines were con-temporary to widespread acute bovine disease (food shortages andanomalous climates 750-950 CE McCormick et al 2007 Newfield2013b) Put another way 75 per cent of major Carolingian-era cattleplagues occurred during major climate-triggered famines The implicationis that large food shortages worked in synergy with epizootic diseasesfacilitating their circulation That seemingly minor Carolingian-era animalmortalities do not coincide with major food shortages underscores thisconnection The association would gain more currency if large bovineplagues were spread directly intraspecies which they almost certainlywere The specifics are blurry but it is possible that the regional and in-terregional movements of people and their animals that shortages fos-tered put plagues in motion

Climatic anomalies and food shortages may have also contributed toepizootic mortality through the medium of malnutrition In many anom-alous climates domesticates may have suffered from a prolonged dearthof fodder and pasture When harvests failed human-domesticate compe-tition for food resources intensified to the determinant often of live-stock That some modern plagues of cattle notably rinderpest canachieve a mortality rate of 95 to 100 per cent in epizootic zones regard-less of the nutritional standing of their victims however suggests thatmajor early medieval cattle pestilences may have killed whether or notcattle were well fed (Wohlsein 2006 p 69 Newfield 2009 pp 177-178 181) The Shapwick and Luxeacute bovines may testify to this

4 A case study the anomalous climate famine and epizootic c940

Multiple sources record a bovine epizootic in late 930s and early940s in areas of modern-day France and Germany Widukind of Corveyand Flodoard of Rheims two mid 10th-century historians both docu-ment the plague Like most early postclassical accounts of epizooticdisease Widukindrsquos report is short In his Res gestae saxonicae (XXXII93-94) put to parchment no earlier than 962 the monk working inwhat is now eastern North-Rhine-Westphalia writes simply of a boumpestilentia in 941 The Champagne-based Flodoard provides a lengthier

Timothy P Newfield

108


passage In his Annales (389) likely composed on a year-by-year basishe writes of the mortalitas maxima boum in 942 Flodoard emphasisesthat the mortality was so thorough ut pauca huiusmodi animalia in hisremanserint terris

Widukind and Flodoardrsquos passages are corroborated by other ac-counts some of which are interdependent The Annales colonienses athin and noncontinuous collection of annals running from 776 to 1028possibly kept at Cologne in the mid 900s records a mortalitas animal-ium in 939 (98) In this it is unique All other accounts of the plagueaffix it to 940-942 As the Annales colonienses correctly dates the941 death of Muumlnsterrsquos bishop Rumoldus but assigns the 936 deathof Henry I to 935 (these events immediately follow and precede the an-imal mortality) it is possible its account of the plague should be re-dated to 940 The Chronicon suevicum universale likely composed atReichenau and completed c1045 documents a mortalitas animalium in940 (67) the same year Hermann of Reichenau reports a pestis ani-malium in his Chronicon (113) finished in the year of his death (1054)This year was adhered to by later texts such as the 13th-century An-nales capituli cracoviensis which drew on earlier sources and then doc-uments a mortalitas iumentorum (15) Like Widukind the Annales san-gallenses maiores which is associated with the monastery of St Galland seems to be independent from other texts from 918 has a mor-talitas boum occurring in 941 (78)9 Like Flodoard Adalbert of Magde-burg the archbishop on the Elbe references an immensa mortalitasboum in 942 in his continuation of Regino of Pruumlmrsquos Chronicon (16)completed in 967 or 968 though he is almost certainly a year late ashe reports the die-off as occurring in tandem with the comet reportedin 941 by Widukind and others10

Only Flodoard provides spatial parameters As far as he was con-cerned the plague affected cattle in Francia and Burgundia But its oc-currence was not restricted to these regions which correspond rough-ly to modern-day central and northeastern France Belgium theNetherlands and western Switzerland The Annales colonienses andAnnales sangallenses maiores possibly refer to dead cows in western


9 An epigram encountered in Melchior Roumlchellrsquos 16th-century work on Muumlnsterrsquos bishops may alsorefer to the 941 cattle plague Following mention of a food shortage and the 941 comet one encoun-ters fera prosternit corpora multa lues (ldquoa plague overcame many bestial bodiesrdquo) Zusaumltze Roumlchellrsquoszu fruumlhern chronisten 187-18810 So too the later (written in the 1050s) Annales einsidlenses 142 The 941 comet is reported inEuropean West Asian and East Asian sources Although not free of errors (Widukind is here English)try KRONK 1999 pp 152-155

109


Germany and northern Switzerland and Widukind and Adalbert toplague cattle in what is now central and eastern Germany If Flodoardrsquosdate is correct it would appear that the outbreak progressed west-ward through these regions As the pathogen was unlikely soil- orarthropod-borne but rather spread directly between susceptible ani-mals it was almost certainly ecdemic within the epizootic zone and in-troduced from somewhere else It is possible that this plague and themid-10th-century cattle mortality reported by Constantinopolitan JohnSkylitzes who drew extensively on earlier Greek histories in his Synop-sis historion composed c1100 were one and the same Skylitzes hasByzantine cattle suffering an acute disease that ldquowastes and destroysbovinesrdquo (XII8 242-243) known then as krabra (κράβρα) in the reignof emperor Romanos II (959-963) but by Skylitzesrsquo reckoning first af-fected animals in the region during the reign of Romanos I (919-944)He associates the plaguersquos onset in Greek lands with Romanos Irsquos con-struction of the palace of Bonos When construction started on thatpalace is not known The meaning of krabra is also obscure it is notmentioned in the Geoponika (a mid 10th-century Byzantine anthology oflate antique anthologies of earlier agricultural treatises which toucheson livestock disease)

Skylitzes emphasises that the disease was widespread in Byzantiumas Flodoard emphasises its expansiveness in Francia and Burgundia It isnot implausible therefore that the plague they document is the same asthat encountered in the year AH 326 (937938) in 12th-century Bagh-dadi Ibn al-Jawzirsquos al-Muntaẓam fī tarsquorīkh al-umam wa l-mulūk (XIII 374)a historical work also based on earlier texts11 In the manner of Widukindand the Central European annalists al-Jawzi keeps his account brief ldquointhis year there was a plague (wabārsquo) among cattlerdquo He provides no indi-cation of the pestilencersquos scope though it afflicted presumably animals inthe area of modern-day Iraq Firm connections between Flodoard Skyl-itzes and al-Jawzirsquos plagues are elusive but it is possible a cattle pesti-lence irrupted into Western Asia c937938 spread westward throughByzantine lands c939 and reached Central and Western Europe c940-942 The disease victims that made their way into Flodoard andWidukindrsquos histories may represent a small percentage of the causalitiesof a mid-10th-century confluence of Eurasian disease pools

These bovine mortalities occurred in a particular environmental andsocioeconomic context a period of anomalous climate and famine The

Timothy P Newfield

11 Dr Conor Kostick has kindly provided a translation of this passage (and others discussed below)from al-Jawzirsquos text which was made by Or Amir with funding from Dr Kostickrsquos Nottingham AdvancedResearch Fellowship

110


Annales colonienses positions the animal mortality within the context ofa hiemps valida in 939 (again possibly 940) and Widukind writes of theasperrima hiemps and fames validissima in 940 a year before the cattleplague For the annalist of the Annales sangallenses maiores 940 wasalso an annus durus deficient in grain (deficiens fructus) The Chroniconsuevicum universale Hermann of Reichenau and Annales capituli cra-coviensis as well document a difficult winter in 940 alongside the animaldie-off Hermann specifies the hard winter preceded the epizootic Theinterdependent Annales laubienses (16) and Annales leodienses (16) thecommon source of which was likely kept at Lobbes or Liegravege report asubsistence crisis (fames) in 941 There is also evidence of a severe foodshortage in the area of Muumlnster in that year A passage from Florenzvon Wevelinghovenrsquos 14th-century Chronik der bischoumlfe von Muumlnster(12-13) based on non-extant sources about the Muumlnstersche bishop Ru-moldus refers to the maxima fames in conjunction with the 941 comet12Flodoard reports a fames magna concurrent with the cattle mortality in942 and two independent sources document a food shortage in 943 theAnnales iuvavenses (fames valida fuit late) (743) and Annales lobienses(fames) (234) but this date is incorrect possibly in both instances Thesecond text related to the Annales laubienses and Annales leodienseshas the shortage occurring alongside the 941 comet and the first textmuddles the timing of several events around this time (it assigns the 943Bavarian defeat of the Magyars to 942 and the 947 death of the Bavar-ian duke Berthold to 948 the fames is sandwiched between these oc-currences) There are however indications that the subsistence crisispersisted beyond 942 Whether the demons Flodoard has destroyingParisian crops in 944 were part of long-standing shortage is uncertain(Annales 391)

Flodoard has the fames like the plague affecting Francia and Burgun-dia Florenz von Wevelinkhoven (Chronik 12) presents the subsistencecrisis at least in the area of Muumlnster as universal A claim of widespreadfood shortage is not in the early 940s unjustified (McCormick et al2007 pp 888-889 Newfield 2013b pp 146-148) Severe food short-ages and hard winters are reported far beyond Germany and France thenThe Annals of ulster which were likely kept in the 940s in Northern Ire-land possibly at Armagh (Evans 2010 pp 28-30 44) reports a greatfrost and the freezing of Irish lakes and rivers in 940 and 944 (461465) though does not mention failing harvests or a food shortage


12 Roumlchellrsquos work on Muumlnsterrsquos bishops also references a horrenda fames in association with the 941comet (Zusaumltze Roumlchellrsquos zu fruumlhern chronisten 187-188)

111


Liudprand of Cremona the Lombardian historian refers to a major sub-sistence crisis in Italy around this time in his Antapodosis composedc950 (V2-4 877-878) He references a fames ldquowhich with its great-ness sadly devastated Italyrdquo after Ramiro IIrsquos defeat of Abd al-Rahman IIIat Simancas in 939 but before Hugh of Italyrsquos appointment of Anscar ofSpoleto who died in 940 as Duke of Spoleto in 936 Yet Liudprandrecords the subsistence crisis alongside the appearance of a comet likelythe same comet reported in conjunction with a fames in transalpine textsin 941 The Tarsquorīkh jazīrat Şiqilliya (also know as the Cronica di Cam-bridge) a short 10th- or 11th-century account of events in Muslim Sicilybetween 827 and 965 recounts a ldquogreat faminerdquo in the region of al-Madī-na (Palermo) in 940 and the spread of that famine across Sicily in 941(XXVII 288-289) To the east al-Jawzi documents severe Baghdad-areasubsistence crises from 941 through 945 Neither Liudprand nor the au-thor of the Tarsquorīkh jazīrat Şiqilliya identify any cause of the Italian crisesbut al-Jawzi mentions infrequent rain and excess human and bovine mor-tality (possibly still the plague) in 940 a locust infestation in 943 andheavy rains and a late winter in 944 (al-Muntaẓam XIV 7 XIV 19 XIV27 XIV 34 XIV 47) Bar Hebraeus a 13th-century Baghdadi historianwho like al-Jawzi drew on earlier material also documents mortal foodshortages in Baghdad in 940 and 945 In connection to the 940 dearthhe relates flooding (contradicting al-Jawzi) and an epidemic (Chronogra-phy 162 164) Farther east Chinese annals record three consecutivehard winters starting with the winter of 939940 (Fei et al 2003 pp214-225 Fei Zhou 2006 pp 447-451)

Of course no text identifies a single overarching forcing mechanismbehind these food shortages but the concurrence of crises in disparateregions suggests one This is not to say that food entitlement decline touse Senrsquos language (Sen 1981 Sen and medieval food shortagesFranklyn-Lyons 2013) did not play an important role in these events al-Jawzi and Bar Hebraeusrsquo references to soaring foodstuff prices evidencethat it did While entitlement decline exacerbated shortage-associatedpenury and mortality c940 there is no evidence it triggered it Naturalarchives of past climate however illuminate an anomalous environmen-tal context that was probably the underlying cause meaning poor har-vests or food availability decline generated shortage conditions

Two large stratosphere-clouding volcanic eruptions took placec940 Implicated are Eldgjaacute in southern Iceland and Tianchi (otherwiseknown as Baitoushan Changbaishan or Paektu) on the North Korean-Chinese border Exceptional cold and famine conditions in Europe andAsia at this time were linked with Eldgjaacute in the 1990s (Zielinski et al

Timothy P Newfield

112


1995 Stothers 1998 Fei Zhou 2006 McCormick et al 2007 pp888-889 Ludlow et al 2013) Tianchirsquos so-called Millennium eruptionhas been overlooked presumably on account of its shifting date thoughit like the Eldgjaacute event (Zielinski et al 1995 Thordarson et al 2001)is thought to have loaded the stratosphere with enough material to coolNorthern Hemispheric climate subdecadally (Horn Schmincke 2000Zou et al 2010 Yin et al 2012)

Volcanic eruptions can have a pronounced if short-lived effect on cli-mate (Kelly Sear 1984 Bradley 1988 Robock 2000 Schmincke 2004Cole-Dai 2010) Volcanic ash from large explosive events falls from theatmosphere within two weeks but sulphur dioxide (SO2) injected into thestratosphere and there converted to sulphuric acid (H2SO4) can circu-late as fine sulphuric acid aerosols (H2SO4H2O) for multiple years beforeits deposition as sulphate (SO4

2-) These aerosols veil the sun absorband backscatter solar radiation and thereby cool the troposphere andlower surface temperature Yet the impact of volcanic eruptions on cli-mate is complex Large events including possibly the massive c1258eruption (Timmreck et al 2009) do not necessarily lower global temper-ature They also affect both temperature and precipitation and they doso variability over space Tropical eruptions can lead to winter warmingin Europe (Robock 2000 pp 205-209 Fischer et al 2007) or cold wetyears (Wegmann et al 2014 Luterbacher Pfister 2015) though largeevents generally decrease rainfall (Iles 2013 Iles Hegerl 2014) and cancause drought (Joseph Zeng 2011 Haywood et al 2013 Zhou et al2014) Concentrations of volcanic SO4

2- from major eruptions are de-tected in polar and glacier ice (Hammer et al 1980 Gao et al 2008)and sudden short-term temperature drops associated with thick vol-canic clouding register as narrow rings or frost rings in mature trees(LeMarche Hirschboeck 1984 Scuderi 1990 Salzer Hughes 2007DrsquoArrigo et al 2013)

As with most undocumented or palaeo eruptions the dates of theseEldgjaacute and Tianchi events have shifted over the years according to thesources and methods scholars have employed to study them The Eldgjaacuteevent was originally dated via tephrochronology to the early 10th century(Larsen 1979) Acid horizons in Greenlandic and Arctic Canadian icecores have subsequently fixed it to the 930s (Hammer et al 1980 pp231-233 Johnsen et al 1992 p 312 Zielinski et al 1995 pp 129132 Vinther et al 2006 Thordarson Larsen 2007) Two dates arefavoured c934 and c938 Glass shards ejected in the eruption and un-covered in the GISP2 archive were shown to match chemically glassfrom the event site ensuring Eldgjaacute erupted in the 930s (Zielinski et al


113


1995 pp 134-135) Many dates of varying precision have been affixedto Tianchirsquos so-called millennium eruption for example 860plusmn100 938-939 946plusmn10 1039plusmn18 and 051199-06120013 Even high-precisionwiggle-match radiocarbon dating of extant tree trunks carbonised in theevent has produced incongruent dates perhaps owing to the pre-erup-tion emission of tree-killing gases (Yatsuzuka et al 2010 pp 933 939)The current consensus is that the explosive plinian event credited withthe formation of Heaven Lake occurred c940 Recently volcanic glassdeposited in the GRIP and NEEM S1 Greenlandic ice cores dated to940-941plusmn1 was associated chemically with the Millennium eruption site(Sun et al 2014) It was then proposed however that the pre-Eldgjaacutechronologies of these ice cores were roughly six years late (BaillieMcAneney 2015 p 112) meaning should the newly proposed chronol-ogy be correct that Tianchi erupted c945

That the epizootic famine and eruptions more-or-less overlap sug-gests that they interacted or were somehow related Causal relation-ships are difficult to establish however as the datasets used to fleshout these events are not easily married and much about the plagueshortage and eruptions remains unclear The gaps in knowledge are strik-ing Neither the Eldgjaacute nor the Tianchi eruption has a firmly fixed dateThe duration of these events is also not known as is the duration dis-tribution and density of their dust clouds The sighting in Asia and Europeof a comet in 941 (see above) suggests that volcanoes did not thendensely fog the atmosphere Widukind refers to a prolonged reduction insunlight before the 936 death of Henry I (Res gestae saxonicae XXXII93-94) which Stothers (1998 pp 718-720 2002) dated to 934 andinterpreted as an Eldgjaacute dust veil The exceptional cold infrequent rainand food shortage conditions reported in 940 and 941 from Ireland toIraq to China suggest Eldgjaacute andor Tianchi erupted in 939 Subsequentenvironmental shocks notably a locust infestation reported in WesternAsia Eastern Asia and Central Europe (al-Jawzi al-Muntaẓam XIV 27Fei Zhou 2015 Roumlchell Zusaumltze Roumlchellrsquos zu fruumlhern chronisten 187-188) and food entitlement decline may account for the persistence ofsubsistence crisis conditions in some regions beyond 941

The available dendroclimatological data does not evidence vast strat-osphere-clouding eruptions in 939 however Trees are unable of assign-ing either the Eldgjaacute or the Tianchi eruption to a particular year Extreme

Timothy P Newfield

13 A sample of the literature on the date of this eruption DuNLAP 1996 LIu et al 1998 HAYAKAWAKOYAMA 1998 CuI et al 2000 HORN SCHMINCKE 2000 ZHENGFu et al 2002 JWA et al 2003 WEI etal 2003 TANIGuCHI 2004 WEI et al 2007 YATSuZuKA et al 2010 OKuNO et al 2010 WEI et al 2013

114


poor growth years are visible though in many Northern Hemisphericdendrochronologies c940 Tree-ring series as far apart as SolongotynDavaa Mongolia (DrsquoArrigo et al 2001 p 243) the French Alps (Coronaet al 2010 p 361) Taymir Siberia (Naurzbaev et al 2002 p 734DrsquoArrigo et al 2003 p 258) Sierra Nevada uSA (Scuderi 1993 pp1434-1435) and Scandinavia (Helama Lindholm 2003 pp 171 177Helama et al 2013 Kirchhefer 2004) appear to show one or multipledifficult years in the late 930s and early 940s as does a compositeBritish-Irish-German dendrochronology (Zielinski et al 1995 p 137)The dendro data revel that exceptionable cold was not limited to the re-gions in which it was reported c940 but a consistent signal is not seenacross the chronologies (as Zielinski et al 1995 pp 136-137 empha-sised for instance a Solongotyn Davaa series has frost rings at 938 aTaymir chronology identifies 940 as a poor growth year and a Finlish se-ries detects severe drought in 939 943 and 944) contrary to othermajor volcanic events of the pre-instrumental period the 536-545 cli-matic downturn for example (Baillie 1994 Larsen et al 2008) This in-consistency complicates any attempt to employ tree data to support theidea that one or more large explosive events were to blame for foodshortages c940 The ldquomissing ringrdquo hypothesis ndash that some trees maynot produce an annual growth ring under skies loaded heavily withaerosols from large volcanic events ndash may be of significance here Dis-cussion of medieval eruptions in connection to this contested idea hasbeen limited hitherto to the c1258 event (Mann et al 2012 An-chukaitis et al 2012 Rutherford Mann 2014 DrsquoArrigo et al 2013)one of the largest eruptions of the last several millennia (Oppenheimer2003 Lavigne et al 2013) This 13th-century event which left a sul-phate horizon in polar ice (Greenlandic and Antarctic) far greater thanthe c940 eruptions failed to register a consistent signature in trees(cf DrsquoArrigo et al 2001 pp 243-244)

The Eldgjaacute event is thought to have been long-lasting Three years ofsignificant Eldgjaacute-related stratospheric clouding is considered ldquorealisticrdquoon the basis of the acid signals in Greenlandic ice cores (Hammer 1984Zielinski et al 1995 p 137) but the GISP2 data indicates that the dustveil persisted possibly for six years (Zielinski et al 1995) and NASA sci-entist Stothers marrying ice cores and texts (written evidence for un-usual atmospheric phenomena exceptionally cold winters food short-ages) argued the eruption which he dated to the summer of 934 pro-duced a stratospheric cloud that lingered for upwards of seven years(Stothers 1998 Fei Zhou 2006 2015) Detailed study of Eldgjaacutersquostephra stratigraphy as well suggests the eruption spanned six to eight


115


years and was marked by ldquoexplosive episodesrdquo c934 and c939 (Thor-darson et al 2001 p 51) That Eldgjaacutersquos eruption persisted for multipleyears and was marked by explosive episodes may explain the unevennessof the climate signal registered in trees that and the mixing in possiblyof Tianchirsquos atmospheric loading Naturally the veils generated by explo-sive Eldgjaacute episodes and the Millennium eruption would have differedBoth eruptions are typically assigned high ratings on the eight-point Vol-canic Explosivity Index (see Gudmundsson et al 2008 for a VEI 5 Eldgjaacuteevent and Yin et al 2012 for a VEI 7 Tianchi event) and are thought tohave produced dense long-lasting stratospheric veils But the VEI is animprecise tool for understanding eruptions for which no definitive meas-urements of the mass volume height and distribution of the materialejected in the eruption exist (Newhall Self 1982 Houghton et al 2013)Two recent studies have downplayed Tianchirsquos affect on global climateXu et al (2013) fix the Millennium eruption to 946plusmn3 via wiggle-matchdating of the trunk of a tree carbonised in the eruption but find no sul-phate spike in the GISP2 ice core to associate it with and Sun et al(2014) assign the event to 940-941plusmn1 via a SO4

2- signal considered tooinsignificant to have caused anomalous climate in Europe c940 The ab-sence of a consistent dendro signal for the Tianchi or the Eldgjaacute eruptionmay support this conclusion

That only partial contours of the famine and epizootic are knownposes another significant challenge for untangling the relationship be-tween them the eruptions and the dendroclimatological data How ex-actly subsistence crises generated conditions conducive to the introduc-tion and dissemination of ecdemic epizootic disease in Europe c940 alsoremains to be established Presumably exceptional regional and interre-gional movements of people and their animals in response to food avail-ability and food entitlement decline facilitated pathogen dissemination Al-though early postclassical reports of migration in the wake of dearth arefew (for example Annales fuldenses 40-41 Smaragdus Vita benedicti204 Skylitzes Synopsis 105) and there is no evidence for the floodingof markets with domesticates during crises 400-1000 both migrationand the sale of movable property are common strategies of ldquodisaster re-liefrdquo during famines (oacute Graacuteda 2009 pp 78-89) and both were likely em-ployed postclassically to counter the effects of food shortage

It remains possible that an explosive Eldgjaacute event or the Millenniumeruption triggered the European and West Asian shortages of c940 fa-cilitating the introduction and diffusion of the epizootic disease in Europeand possibly Western Asia Many questions however remain Did thecattle plaguersquos arrival in Western Asia predate the onset in the region of

Timothy P Newfield

116


the major subsistence crisis of c940 Was its coming to Western Asiarelated to the seemingly smaller shortage of AH 324 (93536 CE) in thearea of modern-day Iran (al-Jawzi al-Muntaẓam XIII 357) or the yearsof exceptional cold registered in East Asian texts in the mid 930s (FeiZhou 2006) Did food shortage conditions help diffuse the pestilencesolely in Byzantium and Europe Should warfare be considered as a fac-tor in the pathogenrsquos dissemination Did movements of people and ani-mals in association with Sayf al-Dawlarsquos early campaigns into Byzantium(in 936 and 938) or Magyar activities in Central and Western Europec940 spread the disease

5 Conclusion

Historians are now regularly working across disciplinary boundariesuniting fragmented scholarship in an effort to produce more integratedand dynamic reconstructions of the past It is via interdisciplinarity thatour understanding of past non-human animal health and disease both un-exceptional and exceptional and associations between animal die-offsand environmental and human factors will improve Certainly the welfareof the animals on which human societies depended cannot continue to beoverlooked Domesticates and their pathogens are integral componentsof the environmental and cultural history of past populations The 87plague passages and the bovine burials assessed herein may representa foundation for investigations into domesticate health and disease in theearly postclassical period that will hopefully include contributions fromhistorians zooarchaeologists palaeoclimatologists and palaeomicrobiolo-gists There is much work to do For text-oriented scholars surveys ofArabic Armenian Greek and Syriac sources for animal disease 400-1000 would identify new events and improve the chronologies and tra-jectories of large plagues already identified

This paper has drawn attention to several large disease outbreaksamong cattle It has proposed that climatic anomalies through the medi-um of food shortage triggered and contributed to the diffusion of a fewof these plagues The ability of climate to trigger bovine epizootics in thisway was explored in a case study of the mortality famine and volcanicclimate forcing c940 Firm causal relationships between these eventsremain elusive but the probability that they were linked is high As majorinterregional disease outbreaks like the c940 cattle plague were in alllikelihood spread directly intraspecies climate-generated food shortagescontributed primarily by facilitating pathogen circulation The effects of


117


harvest failures and subsistence crises on human and animal movementsin the early postclassical period require further attention but it is mostplausibly through the movement of live animals (and on occasion humanswere zoonotic pathogens easily transmitted interspecies) that majorfamine-period animal plagues were diffused This connection though ten-tative is indicative of the linkages that existed between humans domes-ticates and the greater natural world in the past People their livestockand the environment were deeply intertwined and by teasing out connec-tions we begin to understand the rich complexity of the past world weseek to understand

Acknowledgments

The Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada sup-ported the researching and writing of this paper

Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources

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(ed) MGH SRG L Hannover 1890

Anglo-Saxon chronicle GN GARMONSWAY

(trans) London 1975

Annales alamannicorum continuatio sangallensisprima GH PERTZ (ed) MGH SS I Han-nover 1826

Annales bertiniani G WAITZ (ed) MGH SRG VHannover 1883

Annales capituli cracoviensis GH PERTZ (ed)MGH SRG XI Hannover 1866

Annales colonienses GH PERTZ (ed) MGH SSI Hannover 1826

Annales einsidlenses GH PERTZ (ed) MGH SSIII Hannover 1839

Annales fuldenses F KuRZE (ed) MGH SRG VIIHannover 1891

Annales iuvanenses H BRESSLAu (ed) MGH SSXXX2 Leipzig 1934

Annales laubienses GH PERTZ (ed) MGH SSIV Hannover 1841

Annales leodienses GH PERTZ (ed) MGH SSIV Hannover 1841

Annales lobienses G WAITZ (ed) MGH SS XIIIHannover 1881

Annales regni francorum F KuRZE (ed) MGHSRG VI Hannover 1895

Annales sancti germani minores GH PERTZ

(ed) MGH SS IV Hannover 1841

Annales sangallenses GH PERTZ (ed) MGH SSI Hannover 1826

Annales sangallenses maiores GH PERTZ (ed)MGH SS I Hannover 1826

Annales xantenses B VON SIMSON (ed) MGHSRG XII Hannover 1909

Annales weingartenses GH PERTZ (ed) MGHSS I Hannover 1826

Annals of ulster I 431-1056 WM HENNESSY

(trans) Dublin 1887

Anonymous 55 vacas lecheras murieron pro-ducto de la caiacuteda de rayos en Riacuteo BuenoldquoDiario El Rancordquo 7 April 2014 Onlinein httpwwwdiarioelrancoclp= 12191 1 (last accessed 29 December 2014)

Anonymous Lightning strike kills 18 cattle inSaskatchewan ldquoCBC News Saskatche-wanrdquo 10 July 2013 Online in httpwww cbc canewscanadasaskatchewanlightning-strike-kills-18-cattle-in-saskatchewan-11352428 (last accessed 29December 2014)

Ardo Smaragdus Vita benedicti abbatis ania-nensis G WAITZ (ed) MGH SS XV Han-nover 1887

Astronomer Vita hludovici pii E TREMP (ed)MGH SRG LXIV Hannover 1995

P Backus 45 cows killed by a single lightningstrike near Darby ldquoMissoulianrdquo 22 July2014 Online in httpmissoulian com news local cows-killed-by-single-lightning-strike-near- darbyarticle_1ef2f048-113c-11e4- 835c-0019bb2963f4html(last accessed 29 December 2014)

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(trans) Piscataway 2003

Capitulare de villis A BORET (ed) MGH LegumCFR I Hannover 1883

Chronicle of Ireland I TM CHARLES-EDWARD

(trans) Liverpool 2006

Cronica di Cambridge M AMARI (trans) Biblio-teca Arabo-Sicula I Rome 1880

Cronicon suevicum universale H BRESSLAu (ed)MGH SS XIII Hannover 1881

Flodoard Annales GH PERTZ (ed) MGH SS IIIHannover 1839

Florenz von Wevelinkhoven Chronik der bischoumlfevon Muumlnster J FICKER (ed) Die geschi-chtsquellen des bisthums Muumlnster I DieMuumlnsterischen Chroniken des Mittelal-ters Muumlnster 1851

Geoponika Farm work a modern translation ofthe Roman and Byzantine farming han-dbook A DALBY (trans) Totnes 2011

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(ed) MGH I Hannover 1937

Hermann of Reichenau Chronicon GH PERTZ

(ed) MGH SS V Hannover 1844

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John Skylitzes A synopsis of Byzantine history811ndash1057 J WORTLEY (trans) Cam-bridge 2010

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BMS CAMPBELL 2010b Physical shocks biolo-gical hazards and human impacts Thecrisis of the fourteenth century revisitedin CAVACIOCCHI 2010 pp 13-32

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R DrsquoARRIGO G JACOBY D FRANK 2003 Den-droclimatological evidence for major vol-canic events of the past two millennia inA ROBOCK C OPPENHEIMER (eds) Volca-nism and the earthrsquos atmosphere Wa-shington pp 255-261

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J FEI J ZHOu 2006 The possible climatic im-pacts in China of Icelandrsquos Eldgjaacute eruptioninferred from historical sources ldquoClimaticChangerdquo 76 pp 447-457

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WA GEERING J LuBROTH 2002 Preparation ofFoot-and-Mouth Disease ContingencyPlans Rome

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LJ GIDNEY forthcoming Murrain or starvationCatastrophic cattle mortality events inmedieval and post-medieval England andtheir repercussions in R THOMAS TGANTIKAS (eds) Animal disease in pasthuman societies Proceedings of the 4th

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1980 Greenland ice sheet evidence ofpost-glacial volcanism and its climatic im-pact ldquoNaturerdquo 288 pp 230-235

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S HELAMA J HOLOPAINEN M MACIAS-FAuRIAM TIMONEN K MIELIKaumlINEN 2013 Achronology of climatic downturns throughthe mid- and late-Holocene Tracing thedistant effects of explosive eruptionsfrom palaeoclimatic and historical eviden-ce in northern Europe ldquoPolar Researchrdquo32 15866

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2013 The effect of volcanic eruptions onglobal precipitation ldquoJournal of Geophys-ical Research Atmospheresrdquo 118 pp8770-8786

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LB LARSEN BM VINTHER KR BRIFFA TMMELVIN HB CLAuSEN PD JONES M-LSIGGAARD-ANDERSEN Cu HAMMER MERONEN H GRuDD BE GuNNARSONRM HANTEMIROV MM NAuRZBAEV KNICOLuSSI 2008 New ice core evidencefor a volcanic cause of the AD 536 dustveil ldquoGeophysical Research Lettersrdquo 35L04708

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2013 An epizootic of Eastern Equine En-cephalitis Virus Maine uSA in 2009Outbreak description and entomologicalstudies ldquoAmerican Journal of TropicalMedicine and Hygienerdquo 88 pp 95-102

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2013 Medieval Irish chronicles revealpersistent volcanic forcing of severe win-ter cold events 431-1649 CE ldquoEnviron-mental Research Lettersrdquo 8 024035

J LuTERBACHER C PFISTER 2015 The year wi-thout a summer ldquoNature Geosciencerdquo 8pp 246-248

ME MANN JD FuENTES S RuTHERFORD

2012 underestimation of volcanic cool-ing in tree-ring-based reconstructions ofhemispheric temperatures ldquoNature Geo-sciencerdquo 5 pp 202-205

A MANTOVANI 2001 Notes on the developmentof the concept of zoonoses ldquoHistoria Me-dicinae Veterinariaerdquo 26 pp 41-52

M MCCORMICK 2003 Rats communicationsand plague toward an ancient and medie-val ecological history ldquoJournal of Interdi-sciplinary Historyrdquo 34 pp 1-25


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2007 Volcanoes and the climate forcingof Carolingian Europe AD 750-950ldquoSpeculumrdquo 82 pp 865-95

M MCCORMICK u BuumlNTGEN MA CANE ERCOOK K HARPER P HuYBERS T LITT SWMANNING PA MAYEWSKI AFM MORE KNICOLuSSI W TEGEL 2012 Climate changeduring and after the Roman Empire Re-constructing the past from scientific andhistorical evidence ldquoJournal of Interdisci-plinary Historyrdquo 43 pp 169-220

R MEENS 1995 Pollution in the early Middle AgesThe case of food regulations in penitentialsldquoEarly Medieval Europerdquo 4 pp 3-19

MERCK VETERINARY MANuAL 1998 Rinderpest inSE AIELLO A MAYS (eds) The MerckVeterinary Manual 8th Edition Torontopp 542-544

Z MIKLiacuteKOVAacute R THOMAS (eds) 2008 Current Re-search in Animal Palaeopthology Oxford

CF MuLLET 1946 The cattle distemper in mid-eighteenth-century England ldquoAgriculturalHistoryrdquo 20 pp 144-165

MM NAuRZBAEV EA VAGANOV OV SIDOROVAFH SCHWEINGRuBER 2002 Summer tem-peratures in eastern Taimyr inferred froma 2427-year late-Holocene tree-ringchronology and earlier floating seriesldquoThe Holocenerdquo 12 pp 727-736

TP NEWFIELD 2009 A cattle panzootic in earlyfourteenth-century Europe ldquoAgriculturalHistory Reviewrdquo 57 pp 155-190

TP NEWFIELD 2012a A great Carolingian pan-zootic The probable extent diagnosisand impact of an early ninth-century cat-tle pestilence ldquoArgos Bulletin van hetVeterinair Historisch Genootschaprdquo 46pp 200-210

TP NEWFIELD 2012b Epizootics and the con-sumption of diseased meat in the MiddleAges in F AMMANNATI (ed) Religione eistituzioni religiose nellrsquoeconomia Euro-pea 1000-1800 Proceedings of the43rd Study Week of the Fondazione Isti-tuto Internazionale di Storia EconomicaldquoF Datinirdquo Florence pp 619-639

TP NEWFIELD 2013a Early medieval epizooticsand landscapes of disease The origins andtriggers of European livestock pestilences400-1000 CE in S KLEINGaumlRTNER TPNEWFIELD S ROSSIGNOL D WEHNER (eds)Landscapes and Societies in Medieval Euro-pe East of the Elbe Toronto pp 73-113

TP NEWFIELD 2013b The contours frequencyand causation of subsistence crises inCarolingian Europe (750-950) in P BENI-TO I MONCLUacuteS (ed) Crisis alimentarias enla edad media Modelos explicaciones yrepresentaciones Lleida pp 117-172

TP NEWFIELD 2015 Human-bovine plagues inthe early Middle Ages ldquoJournal of Inter-disciplinary Historyrdquo 46 pp 1-38

CG NEWHALL S SELF 1982 The volcanic ex-plosivity index (VEI) An estimate of explo-sive magnitude for historical volcanismldquoJournal of Geophysical Researchrdquo 87pp 1231-1238

C oacute GRAacuteDA 2009 Famine A Short HistoryPrinceton

Tu OBI PL ROEDER WAGEERING 1999 Ma-nual on the Preparation of RinderpestContingency Plans Rome

M OKuNO S YATSuZuKA T NAKAMuRA K KIMu-RA K YAMADA M SAITO-KATO H TANIGu-CHI 2010 A review of recent chronologi-cal studies on the 10th century eruptionof Baitoushan Volcano ChinaNorthKorea Sendai

C OPPENHEIMER 2003 Ice core and palaeoclima-tic evidence for the timing and nature ofthe great mid-13th century volcanic erup-tion ldquoInternational Journal of Climatolo-gyrdquo 23 pp 417-426

M PIOZ H GuIS L CRESPIN E GAY D CALA-VAS B DuRAND D ABRIAL C DuCROT

2012 Why did Bluetongue spread theway it did Environmental factors influen-cing the velocity of bluetongue virus sero-type 8 epizootic wave in France ldquoPLoSOnerdquo 7 e43360

CT PLuMMER MAJ CuRRAN TD VAN OMMENSO RASMuSSEN AD MOY TR VANCEHB CLAuSEN BM VINTHER PA MA-YEWSKI 2012 An independently dated2000-yr volcanic record from Law Domeeast Antarctica Including a new perspec-tive on the dating of the 1450s CE erup-tion of Kuwae Vanuatu ldquoClimate of thePastrdquo 8 pp 1929-1940

O PuTELAT 2013 Archeacuteologie des depots ani-maux et mortaliteacute extradinaire du cheptelbovin au premier Moyen Acircge Plaidoyerpour une redynamisation et une mise enperspective de la recherche in AuXIETTEMENIEL 2013 pp 249-274



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J REN C LI S HOu C XIAO D QIN Y LI MDING 2010 A 2680 year volcanic recordfrom the DT-410 east Antarctic ice coreldquoJournal of Geophysical Researchrdquo 115D11301

S RENOu C BEAuVAL M MAuRY 2013 un bilandes connaissances sur les epizooties auMoyen Acircge et un episode de mort extra-ordinaire de bovines agrave Luxeacute (Charente)durant lrsquoeacutepoque meacuterovingienne in AuXIET-TE MENIEL 2013 pp 133-143

A ROBOCK 2000 Volcanic eruptions and clima-te ldquoReviews of Geophysicsrdquo 38 pp191-219

PL ROEDER WP TAYLOR 2002 RinderpestldquoVeterinary Clinics of North AmericaFood Animal Practicerdquo 18 pp 515-547

P ROEDER J MARINER R KOCK 2013 Rinder-pest The veterinary perspective on era-dication ldquoPhilosophical Transactions ofthe Royal Societyrdquo 368 20120139

S RuTHERFORD ME MANN 2014 Missing treerings and the AD 774-775 radiocarbonevent ldquoNature Climate Changerdquo 4 pp648-649

MW SALZER MK HuGHES 2007 Bristleconepine tree rings and volcanic eruptionsover the last 5000 yr ldquoQuaternary Rese-archrdquo 67 pp 57-68

H-u SCHMINCKE 2004 Volcanoes and climatein H-u SCHMINCKE Volcanism Berlin pp259-272

LA SCuDERI 1900 Tree-ring evidence for clima-tically effective volcanic eruptions ldquoQua-ternary Researchrdquo 34 pp 67-85

LA SCuDERI 1993 A 2000-year tree ring re-cord of annual temperatures in the SierraNevada Mountains ldquoSciencerdquo 259 pp1434-1436

R SELLERS 1980 Weather host and vectorTheir interplay in the spread of insect-borne animal virus diseases ldquoJournal ofHygienerdquo 85 pp 65-102

A SEN 1981 Poverty and Famines An Essayon Entitlements and Deprivation Oxford

P SLAVIN 2010 The fifth rider of the apocalyp-se The great cattle plague in England andWales and its economic consequences1319-1350 in CAVACIOCCHI 2010 pp165-179

P SLAVIN 2012 The great bovine pestilence andits economic and environmental conse-quences in England and Wales 1318-50ldquoEconomic History Reviewrdquo 65 pp1239-1266

CS SPINAGE 2003 Cattle Plague A HistoryNew York

D STATHAKOPOuLOS 2003 Reconstructing theclimate of the Byzantine Empire State ofthe problem and case studies in J LA-SZLOVSZKY P SZABoacute (eds) People andNature in Historical Perspective Buda-pest pp 247-261

RB STOTHERS 1998 Far reach of the tenthcentury Eldgjaacute Eruption Iceland ldquoClima-tic Changerdquo 39 pp 715-726

RB STOTHERS 2002 Cloudy and clear strato-spheres before AD 1000 inferred fromwritten sources ldquoJournal of GeophysicalResearchrdquo 107 4718

C STuumlHRING 2010 Managing epizootic diseasein eighteenth-century Bavaria in CAVA-CIOCCHI 2010 pp 473-480

C STuumlHRING 2011 Der seuche begegnen Deu-tung und Bewaumlltigung von rinderseuchenim kurfuumlrstentum Bayern des 18 Ja-hrhunderts Frankfurt

C SuN G PLuNKETT J LIu H ZHAO M SIGLJR MCCONNELL JR PILCHER B VIN-THER JP STEFFENSEN V HALL 2014Ash from Changbaishan millennium erup-tion record in Greenland ice Implicationsfor determining the eruptionrsquos timing andimpact ldquoGeophysical Research Lettersrdquo41 pp 694-701

H TANIGuCHI 2004 10th Century Great Erup-tion of Baitoushan Volcano NortheastChina and its Historic Effect Sendai

R THOMAS 2012 Nonhuman palaeopathology inJ BuIKSTRA C ROBERTS (eds) The GlobalHistory of Paleopathology Pioneers andProspects Oxford pp 652-666

MC THOMSON 2014 Emerging infectious disea-se vector-borne diseases and climatechange in B FREEDMAN (ed) Global Envi-ronmental Change Berlin pp 623-628

T THORDARSON DJ MILLERB G LARSENC SSELFD H SIGuRDSSONE 2001 New esti-mates of sulfur degassing and atmosphericmass-loading by the 934 AD Eldgjaacute erup-tion Iceland ldquoJournal of Volcanology andGeothermal Researchrdquo 108 pp 33-54


Timothy P Newfield

126

T THORDARSON G LARSEN 2007 Volcanism inIceland in historical time Volcano typeseruption styles and eruptive history ldquoJour-nal of Geodynamicsrdquo 43 pp 118-152

C TIMMERCK SJ LORENZ TJ CROWLEY SKINNE TJ RADDATZ MA THOMAS JHJuNGCLAuS 2009 Limited temperatureresponse to the very large AD 1258 vol-canic eruption ldquoGeophysical ResearchLettersrdquo 36 L21708

F VALLAT 2009 Les boeufs malades de lapeste La peste bovine en France et enEurope XVIIIe-XIXe siegravecle Rennes

S VANN R THOMAS 2006 Humans other ani-mals and disease A comparative appro-ach towards the development of a stan-dardised recording protocol for animal pa-laeopathology ldquoInternet Archaeologyrdquo20 Online in httpintarchacukjournalissue20vannthomas_tochtml (last ac-cessed 20 March 2010)

BM VINTHER HB CLAuSEN SJ JOHNSENSO RASMuSSEN KK ANDERSEN SLBuCHARDT D DAHL-JENSEN IK SEIER-STAD M-L SIGGAARD-ANDERSEN J PSTEFFENSEN A SVENSSON J OLSEN JHEINEMEIER 2006 A synchronized datingof three Greenland ice cores throughoutthe Holocene ldquoJournal of GeophysicalResearchrdquo 111 D13102

M WEGMANN S BRoumlNNIMANN J BHEND JFRANKE D FOLINI M WILD J LuTERBA-CHER 2014 Volcanic influence on Europe-an summer precipitation through Monso-ons Possible cause for lsquoyears withoutsummerrsquo ldquoJournal of Climaterdquo 27 pp3683-3691

H WEI RSJ SPARKSB R LIuA Q FANA YWANGA H HONGA H ZHANGC H CHENDC JIANGE J DONGC Y ZHENGC Y PANA

2003 Three active volcanoes in Chinaand their hazards ldquoJournal of AsianEarth Sciencesrdquo 21 pp 515-526

H WEI Y WANG J JIN L GAO SH YuN BJIN 2007 Timescale and evolution of theintracontinental Tianchi Volcanic shieldand ignimbrite-forming eruption Chan-gbaishan Northeast China ldquoLithosrdquo 96pp 315-324

H WEI G LIu J GILL 2013 Review of eruptiveactivity at Tianchi Volcano Changbai-shan Northeast China Implications forpossible future eruptions ldquoBulletin of Vol-canologyrdquo 75 pp 1-14

JO WERTHEIM SL KOSAKOVSKY POND 2011Purifying selection can obscure the an-cient age of viral lineages ldquoMolecular Bio-logy and Evolutionrdquo 28 pp 3355-3365

P WOHLSEIN J SALIK 2006 Rinderpest andPeste des Petits RuminantsmdashThe disea-ses clinical signs and pathology in BAR-RETT PASTORET TAYLOR 2006 pp 68-85

J Xu B PAN T LIu I HAJDAS B ZHAO H YuR LIu P ZHAO 2013 Climatic impact ofmillennium eruption of Changbaishan vol-cano in China New insights from high-precision radiocarbon wiggle-match da-ting ldquoGeophysical Research Lettersrdquo40 GL054246

S YATSuZuKA M OKuNO T NAKAMuRA K KIMu-RA Y SETOMA T MIYAMOTO KH KIM HMORIWAKI T NAGASE X JIN BL JIN TTAKAHASHI H TANIGuCHI 2010 14C wig-gle-matching of the B-TM Tephra Baitou-shan Volcano ChinaNorth Korea ldquoRa-diocarbonrdquo 52 pp 933-940

J YIN AJT JuLL GS BuRR Y ZHENG 2012A wiggle-match Age for the millenniumeruption of Tianchi Volcano at Changbai-shan Northeastern China ldquoQuaternaryScience Reviewsrdquo 47 pp 150-159

G ZHENGFu J LIu S SuI Q LIu H HE Y NI

2002 The mass estimation of volatileemission during 1199-1200 AD eruptionof Baitoushan Volcano and its significan-ce ldquoScience in China Series D EarthSciencesrdquo 45 pp 530-539

GA ZIELINSKI MS GERMANI G LARSENMGL BAILLIE S WHITLOW MS TWIC-KLER K TAYLOR 1995 Evidence of the El-dgjaacute (Iceland) eruption in the GISP2 Gre-enland ice core Relationship to eruptionprocesses and climatic conditions in thetenth century ldquoThe Holocenerdquo 5 pp129-140

Z ZHOu C GAO Y PAN 2014 Proxy evidencefor Chinarsquos monsoon precipitation respon-se to volcanic aerosols over the pastseven centuries ldquoJournal of GeophysicalResearch Atmospheresrdquo 119 pp6638-6652

H ZOu Q FAN H ZHANG 2010 Rapid develop-ment of the great millennium eruption ofChangbaishan (Tianchi) volcano ChinaNorth Korea Evidence from u-Th Zircondating ldquoLithosrdquo 119 pp 289-296


pca

volume 52015

SAP Societagrave Archeologica srl

Mantova 2015

postclassicalarchaeologieseuropean journal of


EDITORS



ADVISORY bOARD





ASSISTANT EDITOR

Francesca Benetti

LANGUAGE EDITOR


pcaEDITORIAL bOARD
























DESIGN

Paolo Vedovetto

PUbLISHER





ISSN 2039-7895


PAGES

EDITORIAL








BEYOND THE THEME







5

7

31

47

69

95

127

149

175

201

245

261

volume 52015

CONTENTS

european journal of





RETROSPECT


PROJECT


REVIEWS








285

298

327

347

357




1 Introduction





TIMOTHY P NEWFIELD




research





Timothy P Newfield



96






97





Timothy P Newfield


98







99




Timothy P Newfield


100






101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126






















EDITORS



ADVISORY bOARD





ASSISTANT EDITOR

Francesca Benetti

LANGUAGE EDITOR


pcaEDITORIAL bOARD
























DESIGN

Paolo Vedovetto

PUbLISHER





ISSN 2039-7895


PAGES

EDITORIAL








BEYOND THE THEME







5

7

31

47

69

95

127

149

175

201

245

261

volume 52015

CONTENTS

european journal of





RETROSPECT


PROJECT


REVIEWS








285

298

327

347

357




1 Introduction





TIMOTHY P NEWFIELD




research





Timothy P Newfield



96






97





Timothy P Newfield


98







99




Timothy P Newfield


100






101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126






















PAGES

EDITORIAL








BEYOND THE THEME







5

7

31

47

69

95

127

149

175

201

245

261

volume 52015

CONTENTS

european journal of





RETROSPECT


PROJECT


REVIEWS








285

298

327

347

357




1 Introduction





TIMOTHY P NEWFIELD




research





Timothy P Newfield



96






97





Timothy P Newfield


98







99




Timothy P Newfield


100






101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























RETROSPECT


PROJECT


REVIEWS








285

298

327

347

357




1 Introduction





TIMOTHY P NEWFIELD




research





Timothy P Newfield



96






97





Timothy P Newfield


98







99




Timothy P Newfield


100






101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126























1 Introduction





TIMOTHY P NEWFIELD




research





Timothy P Newfield



96






97





Timothy P Newfield


98







99




Timothy P Newfield


100






101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126
























Timothy P Newfield



96






97





Timothy P Newfield


98







99




Timothy P Newfield


100






101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126


























97





Timothy P Newfield


98







99




Timothy P Newfield


100






101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























Timothy P Newfield


98







99




Timothy P Newfield


100






101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126



























99




Timothy P Newfield


100






101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126
























Timothy P Newfield


100






101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























101





Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126
























Timothy P Newfield


2005)

102





103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























103





Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























Timothy P Newfield


104





105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























105






Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























Timothy P Newfield

106







107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126


























107






Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126


























Timothy P Newfield

108







109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126



























109





Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























Timothy P Newfield


110






111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126


























111





Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























Timothy P Newfield

112








113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126




























113





Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























Timothy P Newfield


114





115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126

























115






Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126


























Timothy P Newfield

116



5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126























5 Conclusion




117



Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126























Acknowledgments


Timothy P Newfield

118



119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126























119

Historical sources




(trans) London 1975



















(trans) Dublin 1887






















References


Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126






















Timothy P Newfield

120









Studies


























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126























121




























Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126






















Timothy P Newfield

122
































123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126























123


























Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126






















Timothy P Newfield

124


























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126























125



























Timothy P Newfield

126






















Timothy P Newfield

126






















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