European Union

“EU” redirects here. For other uses, see EU (disam-biguation).

The European Union (EU) is a politico-economicunion of 28 member states that are located primar-ily in Europe.[12][13] The EU operates through a sys-tem of supranational institutions and intergovernmental-negotiated decisions by the member states.[14][15] The in-stitutions are: the European Commission, the Council ofthe European Union, the European Council, the Courtof Justice of the European Union, the European CentralBank, the European Court of Auditors, and the EuropeanParliament. The European Parliament is elected everyfive years by EU citizens.The EU traces its origins from the European Coal andSteel Community (ECSC) and the European EconomicCommunity (EEC), formed by the Inner Six countries in1951 and 1958, respectively. In the intervening years, thecommunity and its successors have grown in size by theaccession of new member states and in power by the ad-dition of policy areas to its remit. The Maastricht Treatyestablished the European Union under its current name in1993 and introduced European citizenship.[16] The latestmajor amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU,the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.The EU has developed a single market through a stan-dardised system of laws that apply in all member states.Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have beenabolished.[17] EU policies aim to ensure the free move-ment of people, goods, services, and capital,[18] enact leg-islation in justice and home affairs, and maintain com-mon policies on trade,[19] agriculture,[20] fisheries, andregional development.[21]

The monetary union was established in 1999 and cameinto full force in 2002. It is currently composed of19 member states that use the euro as their legal ten-der. Through the Common Foreign and Security Pol-icy, the EU has developed a role in external relationsand defence. The union maintains permanent diplomaticmissions throughout the world and represents itself at theUnited Nations, the WTO, the G8, and the G-20.With a combined population of over 500 millioninhabitants,[22] or 7.3% of the world population,[23] theEU in 2014 generated a nominal gross domestic prod-uct (GDP) of 18.495 trillion US dollars, constituting ap-proximately 24% of global nominal GDP and 17% whenmeasured in terms of purchasing power parity. As of2014 the EU has the largest economy in the world, gen-

erating a GDP bigger than any other economic union orcountry.[24] Additionally, 26 out of 28 EU countries havea very high Human Development Index, according to theUNDP. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel PeacePrize.[25]

1 History

Main articles: History of the European Union andHistory of Europe

1.1 Preliminary

Robert Schuman proposing the Coal and Steel Community on 9May 1950.

After World War II, European integration was eyed asan escape from the extreme nationalism that had devas-tated the continent.[26] The 1948 Hague Congress was apivotal moment in European federal history, as it led tothe creation of the EuropeanMovement International andof the College of Europe, where Europe’s future leaderswould live and study together.[27] 1952 saw the creation ofthe European Coal and Steel Community, which was de-clared to be “a first step in the federation of Europe.”.[28]The supporters of the Community included Alcide DeGasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-HenriSpaak.[29]

1

2 1 HISTORY

The continental territories of the member states of the EuropeanUnion (European Communities pre-1993), coloured in order ofaccession.

1.2 Treaty of Rome and growth

In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, theNetherlands, and West Germany signed the Treaty ofRome, which created the European Economic Commu-nity (EEC) and established a customs union. They alsosigned another pact creating the European Atomic En-ergy Community (Euratom) for co-operation in devel-oping nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in1958.[29]

The EEC and Euratom were created separately fromECSC, although they shared the same courts and theCommon Assembly. The EEC was headed by WalterHallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom washeaded by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) andthen Étienne Hirsch. Euratom was to integrate sectors innuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customsunion among members.[30][31]

Through the 1960s, tensions began to show, with Franceseeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in1965 an agreement was reached and on 1 July 1967 theMerger Treaty created a single set of institutions for thethree communities, which were collectively referred to asthe European Communities.[32][33] Jean Rey presided overthe first merged Commission (Rey Commission).[34]

In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark(including Greenland, which later left the Community in1985, following a dispute over fishing rights), Ireland, andthe United Kingdom.[35] Norway had negotiated to join atthe same time, but Norwegian voters rejected member-ship in a referendum. In 1979, the first direct, democraticelections to the European Parliament were held.[36]

Greece joined in 1981; Portugal and Spain in 1986.[37]In 1985, the Schengen Agreement led the way towardthe creation of open borders without passport controlsbetween most member states and some non-memberstates.[38] In 1986, the European flag began to be usedby the Community[39] and the Single European Act was

In 1989, the Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to expand fur-ther (Berlin Wall pictured).

signed.In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the formerEast Germany became part of the Community as part of areunited Germany.[40] With further enlargement plannedfor former communist states, Cyprus, and Malta, theCopenhagen criteria for candidate members to join theEU were agreed upon in June 1993.

1.3 Maastricht Treaty and after

The euro was introduced in 2002, replacing 12 national curren-cies. Seven countries have since joined.

The European Union was formally established when theMaastricht Treaty—whose main architects were HelmutKohl and François Mitterrand—came into force on 1November 1993.[16] The treaty also gave the nameEuropean community to the EEC, even if it was referredas such before the treaty. In 1995, Austria, Finland, andSweden joined the EU. In 2002, euro banknotes and coinsreplaced national currencies in 12 of the member states.Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass19 countries. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlarge-ment to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia,Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and

3

Slovenia joined the Union.[41]

2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force.

On 1 January 2007, Romania and Bulgaria becameEU members. In the same year, Slovenia adopted theeuro,[41] followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta, bySlovakia in 2009, by Estonia in 2011, by Latvia in 2014and by Lithuania in 2015. In June 2009, the EuropeanParliament elections were held, leading to the second Bar-roso Commission, and by July, Iceland formally appliedfor EU membership, but has since suspended negotia-tions.On 1 December 2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered intoforce and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particu-lar, it changed the legal structure of the European Union,merging the EU three pillars system into a single legalentity provisioned with a legal personality, created a per-manent President of the European Council, the first ofwhich was Herman Van Rompuy, and strengthened theHigh Representative, Catherine Ashton.[42]

In 2012 the Union received the Nobel Peace Prizefor having “contributed to the advancement of peaceand reconciliation, democracy, and human rights inEurope.”[43][44] On 1 July 2013, Croatia became the 28thEU member.[45][46][47]

1.4 Structural evolution

Main article: Treaties of the European Union

The following timeline illustrates the integration that hasled to the formation of the present union, in terms ofstructural development driven by international treaties:

2 Geography

Main article: Geography of the European Union

The 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline dominates theEuropean climate (Cyprus).

Mont Blanc in the Alps is the highest peak in the union.

The EU’s member states cover an area of 4,423,147square kilometres (1,707,787 sq mi).[lower-alpha 3] TheEU’s highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps,4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft) above sea level.[48] The low-est point(s) in the EU is Lammefjorden, Denmark andZuidplaspolder, Netherlands, at 7 m (23 ft) below sealevel.[49] The landscape, climate, and economy of the EUare influenced by its coastline, which is 65,993 kilometres(41,006 mi) long.Including the overseas territories of France which arelocated outside the continent of Europe, but which aremembers of the union, the EU experiences most typesof climate from Arctic (North-East Europe) to tropi-cal (French Guyana), rendering meteorological averagesfor the EU as a whole meaningless. The majority ofthe population lives in areas with a temperate maritimeclimate (North-Western Europe and Central Europe), aMediterranean climate (Southern Europe), or a warmsummer continental or hemiboreal climate (NorthernBalkans and Central Europe).[50]

The EU’s population is highly urbanised, with some 75%of inhabitants (and growing, projected to be 90% in sevenmember states by 2020) living in urban areas. Cities arelargely spread out across the EU, although with a largegrouping in and around the Benelux. An increasing per-centage of this is due to low density urban sprawl whichis extending into natural areas. In some cases, this ur-ban growth has been due to the influx of EU funds into aregion.[51]

4 2 GEOGRAPHY

2.1 Member states

Main article: Member state of the European Union

The following 28 sovereign states (of which the map onlyshows territories situated in and around Europe) consti-tute the union:[52]

Through successive enlargements, the Union has grownfrom the six founding states—Belgium, France, WestGermany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands—tothe current 28. Countries accede to the union by be-coming party to the founding treaties, thereby subjectingthemselves to the privileges and obligations of EU mem-bership. This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty tothe institutions in return for representation within thoseinstitutions, a practice often referred to as “pooling ofsovereignty”.[54][55]

Map of the European Union in the world with overseas countriesand territories and outermost regions.

To become a member, a country must meet theCopenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of theEuropean Council in Copenhagen. These require a stabledemocracy that respects human rights and the rule of law;a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of theobligations of membership, including EU law. Evalua-tion of a country’s fulfilment of the criteria is the respon-sibility of the European Council.[56] Nomember state hasever left the Union, although Greenland (an autonomousprovince of Denmark) withdrew in 1985.[57] The LisbonTreaty now contains a clause providing for a member toleave the EU.[58]

There are six countries which are recognized ascandidates for membership: Albania, Iceland,Macedonia,[lower-alpha 5] Montenegro, Serbia, andTurkey.[59] However, on 13 June 2013, Iceland’s ForeignMinister, Gunnar Bragi Sveinsson, informed the Euro-pean Commission that the newly elected governmentintended to “put negotiations on hold”.[60] Bosnia andHerzegovina and Kosovo are officially recognised aspotential candidates,[59] but have not submitted member-ship applications. Due to the lack of recognition by fiveof the 28 EU member states, the European Commissionrefers only to “Kosovo*", with an asterisked footnotecontaining the text agreed to by the Belgrade–Pristina

negotiations: “This designation is without prejudice topositions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo Declaration ofIndependence.”Four countries forming the European Free Trade Asso-ciation (EFTA) (that are not EU members) have partlycommitted to the EU’s economy and regulations: Ice-land, Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part ofthe single market through the European Economic Area,and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateraltreaties.[61][62] The relationships of the European mi-crostates, Andorra, Monaco, SanMarino, and the Vaticaninclude the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation.[63]

2.2 Environment

Further information: European Commissioner for theEnvironment and European Climate Change ProgrammeIn 1957, when the EU was founded, it had no envi-

Viru Bog in Lahemaa National Park in Estonia, a protected habi-tat under the Habitats Directive

ronmental policy, no environmental bureaucracy, and noenvironmental laws.[64] Today, the EU has some of themost progressive environmental policies of any state inthe world. The environmental policy of the EU has there-fore developed in remarkable fashion in the past fourdecades. An increasingly dense network of legislationhas emerged, which now extends to all areas of environ-mental protection, including: air pollution control, wa-ter protection, waste management, nature conservation,and the control of chemicals, biotechnology and otherindustrial risks.[65] The Institute for European Environ-mental Policy estimates the body of EU environmentallaw amounts to well over 500 Directives, Regulations andDecisions.[66] Environmental policy has thus become acore area of European politics.Such dynamic developments are surprising in light of thelegal and institutional conditions which existed in the late1950s and 60s.[67] Acting without any legislative author-ity, European policy-makers initially increased the EU’s

5

capacity to act by defining environmental policy as a tradeproblem. The most important reason for the introduc-tion of a common environmental policy was the fear thattrade barriers and competitive distortions in the CommonMarket could emerge due to the different environmentalstandards.[68] However, in the course of time, EU envi-ronmental policy emerged as a formal policy area, withits own policy actors, policy principles and procedures.The legal basis of EU environmental policy was not moreexplicitly established until the introduction of the SingleEuropean Act in 1987.[66]

A black stork, an Annex A protected species under Regulation(EC) No. 338/97

Initially, EU environmental policy was rather introspec-tive. More recently, however, the Union has demon-strated a growing leadership in global environmental gov-ernance. The role of the EU in securing the ratificationand entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol in the face ofUS opposition is an example in this regard. This inter-national dimension is reflected in the EU’s Sixth Envi-ronmental Action Programme, which recognises that itsstrategic objectives can only be achieved if a series ofkey international environmental agreements are activelysupported and properly implemented both at an EU leveland worldwide. The entry into force of the Lisbon Treatyfurther strengthens the EU’s global environmental lead-ership ambitions.[69] The vast body of EU environmentallaw which now exists has played a vital role in improv-ing habitat and species protection in Europe as well ascontributed to improvements in air and water quality andwaste management.[66] However, significant challengesremain, both to meet existing EU targets and aspirationsand to agree new targets and actions that will further im-prove the environment and the quality of life in Europeand beyond.One of the top priorities of EU environmental policyis combatting climate change. In 2007, member statesagreed that the EU is to use 20% renewable energy in thefuture and that it has to reduce carbon dioxide emissionsin 2020 by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels.[70] Thisincludes measures that in 2020, 10% of the overall fuelquantity used by cars and trucks in EU 27 should be run-

ning on renewable energy such as biofuels. This is consid-ered to be one of the most ambitious moves of an impor-tant industrialised region to fight climate change.[71] TheEU adopted an emissions trading system to incorporatecarbon emissions into the economy.[72]

The European Green Capital is an annual award that isgiven to cities that focuses on the environment, energyefficiency and quality of life in urban areas to create smartcity.

3 Politics

Main article: Politics of the European UnionThe EU operates within those competencies conferred

1: Elections are every 5 years. The right to vote may be different depending on the country2: State chamber. Convenes in varying composition depending on the policy area.

3: Each country is represented by one member4: The European Central Bank is composed of representatives of the national central banks.

Legislative branch elects / appoints / decides on

Executive branch

Judicial branch

membership Each country is represented by one member per department

proposes

Legislation

European Court

Its Board is elected by the European Council on the proposal of the Council of Ministers

President

President

of Justice

Enfranchised people (according to the electoral laws of each country)

National Parliaments

EuropeanParliament

President

EuropeanCouncil

Heads ofstate / government

EuropeanCommission

EuropeanCentral Bank

European Courtof Auditors

National Governments

Council

1

23 3

3

4 3

of Ministers

Political system of the European Union

on it by the treaties and according to the principle ofsubsidiarity (which dictates that action by the EU shouldonly be taken where an objective cannot be sufficientlyachieved by the member states alone). Laws made by theEU institutions are passed in a variety of forms. Gen-erally speaking, they can be classified into two groups:those which come into force without the necessity for na-tional implementation measures and those which specifi-cally require national implementation measures.[73]

3.1 Constitutional nature

Further information: Treaties of the European Union

The classification of the European Union in terms of in-ternational or constitutional law has been much debated,often in the light of the degree of integration that is per-ceived, desired, or expected. Historically, at least, theEU is an international organisation, and by some criteria,it could be classified as a confederation; but it also hasmany attributes of a federation, so some would classifyit as a (de facto) federation of states.[74][75][76] For thisreason, the organisation has, in the past, been termed suigeneris (incomparable, one of a kind), though it is alsoargued that this designation is no longer true.[77][78]

6 3 POLITICS

The organisation itself has traditionally used the terms“community”, and later “union”. The difficulties of clas-sification involve the difference between national law(where the subjects of the law include natural personsand corporations) and international law (where the sub-jects include sovereign states and international organisa-tions); they can also be seen in the light of differing Eu-ropean and American constitutional traditions.[77] Espe-cially in terms of the European constitutional tradition,the term federation is equated with a sovereign federalstate in international law; so the EU cannot be called afederal state or federation—at least, not without qualifi-cation. Though not, strictly, a federation, it is more thana free-trade association.[79] It is, however, described asbeing based on a federal model or federal in nature. Wal-ter Hallstein, in the original German edition of Europein the Making called it “an unfinished federal state”.[80]The German Constitutional Court refers to the EuropeanUnion as an association of sovereign states and affirms thatmaking the EU a federation would require replacement ofthe German constitution.[81] Others claim that it will notdevelop into a federal state but has reached maturity asan international organisation.[82]

3.2 Governance

Main articles: Institutions of the European Union andLegislature of the European Union

The European Union has seven institutions: the EuropeanParliament, the Council of the European Union, theEuropean Commission, the European Council, theEuropean Central Bank, the Court of Justice of the Euro-pean Union and the European Court of Auditors. Com-petencies in scrutinising and amending legislation are di-vided between the European Parliament and the Coun-cil of the European Union while executive tasks are car-ried out by the European Commission and in a lim-ited capacity by the European Council (not to be con-fused with the aforementioned Council of the EuropeanUnion). The monetary policy of the eurozone is governedby the European Central Bank. The interpretation and theapplication of EU law and the treaties are ensured by theCourt of Justice of the European Union. The EU budgetis scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. Thereare also a number of ancillary bodies which advise theEU or operate in a specific area.

3.2.1 European Council

The European Council gives direction to the EU, and con-venes at least four times a year. It comprises the Presidentof the European Council, the President of the EuropeanCommission and one representative per member state; ei-ther its head of state or head of government. The Euro-pean Council has been described by some as the Union’s

The President of the European Council, Donald Tusk

“supreme political authority”.[83] It is actively involved inthe negotiation of the treaty changes and defines the EU’spolicy agenda and strategies.The European Council uses its leadership role to sort outdisputes between member states and the institutions, andto resolve political crises and disagreements over contro-versial issues and policies. It acts externally as a “collec-tive head of state" and ratifies important documents (forexample, international agreements and treaties).[84]

On 19 November 2009, Herman Van Rompuy was cho-sen as the first permanent President of the EuropeanCouncil. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbonentered into force and he assumed office. Ensuring theexternal representation of the EU,[85] driving consensusand settling divergences among members are tasks for thePresident both during the convocations of the EuropeanCouncil and in the time periods between them. The Euro-pean Council should not be mistaken for the Council ofEurope, an international organisation independent fromthe EU.

3.2.2 European Commission

The European Commission acts as the EU’s executivearm and is responsible for initiating legislation and theday-to-day running of the EU. The Commission is alsoseen as the motor of European integration. It operates asa cabinet government, with 28 Commissioners for differ-ent areas of policy, one from each member state, thoughCommissioners are bound to represent the interests of the

3.3 Budget 7

The Commission President, Jean-Claude Juncker

EU as a whole rather than their home state.One of the 28 is the Commission President (currentlyJean-Claude Juncker) appointed by the European Coun-cil. After the President, the most prominent Commis-sioner is the High Representative of the Union for For-eign Affairs and Security Policy who is ex-officio Vice-President of the Commission and is chosen by the Eu-ropean Council too.[86] The other 26 Commissioners aresubsequently appointed by the Council of the EuropeanUnion (also known as the Council of Ministers) in agree-ment with the nominated President. The 28 Commission-ers as a single body are subject to a vote of approval bythe European Parliament.

3.2.3 European Parliament

The hemicycle of the European Parliament in Strasbourg

The European Parliament forms one half of the EU’s leg-islature (the other half is the Council of the EuropeanUnion). The 751 Members of the European Parliament(MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every fiveyears on the basis of proportional representation. Al-though MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit ac-cording to political groups rather than their nationality.Each country has a set number of seats and is divided intosub-national constituencies where this does not affect theproportional nature of the voting system.[87]

The Parliament and the Council of the European Unionpass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under theordinary legislative procedure. This also applies to theEU budget. Finally, the Commission is accountable toParliament, requiring its approval to take office, having toreport back to it and subject to motions of censure fromit. The President of the European Parliament carries outthe role of speaker in parliament and represents it exter-nally. The EP President and Vice-Presidents are electedby MEPs every two and a half years.[88]

3.2.4 Council of the European Union

The Council of the European Union (also called the“Council”[89] and sometimes referred to as the “Coun-cil of Ministers”)[90] forms the other half of the EU’slegislature. It consists of a government minister fromeach member state and meets in different compositionsdepending on the policy area being addressed. Notwith-standing its different configurations, it is considered to beone single body.[91] In addition to its legislative functions,the Council also exercises executive functions in relationsto the Common Foreign and Security Policy.

3.3 Budget

Main article: Budget of the European Union

The 2011 EU budget (€141.9 bn. in total; commitmentappropriations):[92]

Cohesion and competitiveness for growth and employ-ment (45%)Citizenship, freedom, security and justice (1%)

8 4 LEGAL SYSTEM

The EU as a global partner (6%)Rural development (11%)Direct aids and market related expenditures (31%)Administration (6%)

The EU had an agreed budget of €120.7 billion forthe year 2007 and €864.3 billion for the period 2007–2013,[93] representing 1.10% and 1.05% of the EU-27’sGNI forecast for the respective periods. By compari-son, the United Kingdom’s expenditure for 2004 was es-timated to be €759 billion, and France was estimated tohave spent €801 billion. In 1960, the budget of the thenEuropean Economic Community was 0.03% of GDP.[94]

In the 2010 budget of €141.5 billion, the largest sin-gle expenditure item is "cohesion & competitiveness"with around 45% of the total budget.[95] Next comes"agriculture" with approximately 31% of the total.[95]"Rural development, environment and fisheries" takes uparound 11%.[95] "Administration" accounts for around6%.[95] The "EU as a global partner" and "citizenship,freedom, security and justice" bring up the rear with ap-proximately 6% and 1% respectively.[95]

The Court of Auditors aims to ensure that the budgetof the European Union has been properly accounted for.The court provides an audit report for each financial yearto the Council and the European Parliament. The Par-liament uses this to decide whether to approve the Com-mission’s handling of the budget. The Court also givesopinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions.[96]

The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide theParliament and the Council with “a statement of assur-ance as to the reliability of the accounts and the legal-ity and regularity of the underlying transactions”.[97] TheCourt has refused to do so every year since 1993, qual-ifying their report of the Union’s accounts every yearsince then.[98] In their report on 2009 the auditors foundthat five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and thecohesion fund, were materially affected by error.[99] TheEuropean Commission estimated that the financial im-pact of irregularities was €1,863 million.[100]

3.4 Competences

EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handedto the European Union. In some areas the EU enjoysexclusive competence. These are areas in which mem-ber states have renounced any capacity to enact legisla-tion. In other areas the EU and its member states sharethe competence to legislate. While both can legislate,member states can only legislate to the extent to whichthe EU has not. In other policy areas the EU can onlyco-ordinate, support and supplement member state actionbut cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonisingnational laws.[101]

That a particular policy area falls into a certain cat-egory of competence is not necessarily indicative ofwhat legislative procedure is used for enacting legislationwithin that policy area. Different legislative proceduresare used within the same category of competence, andeven with the same policy area.The distribution of competences in various policy areasbetween Member States and the Union is divided in thefollowing three categories:

4 Legal system

Further information: EuropeanUnion law, Treaties of theEuropean Union and Charter of Fundamental Rights ofthe European UnionThe EU is based on a series of treaties. These first es-

The Court of Justice, seated in Luxembourg.

tablished the European Community and the EU, and thenmade amendments to those founding treaties.[102] Theseare power-giving treaties which set broad policy goals andestablish institutions with the necessary legal powers toimplement those goals. These legal powers include theability to enact legislation[lower-alpha 6] which can directlyaffect all member states and their inhabitants.[lower-alpha 7]The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agree-ments and international treaties.[103]

Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are re-quired to enforce the treaties that their member stateshave ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them,even if doing so requires them to ignore conflictingnational law, and (within limits) even constitutionalprovisions.[lower-alpha 8]

4.1 Courts of Justice

The judicial branch of the EU—formally called the Courtof Justice of the European Union—consists of threecourts: the Court of Justice, the General Court, and theEuropean Union Civil Service Tribunal. Together theyinterpret and apply the treaties and the law of the EU.[104]

The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken bymember states, the institutions, and cases referred to it

4.3 Acts 9

by the courts of member states.[105] The General Courtmainly deals with cases taken by individuals and compa-nies directly before the EU’s courts,[106] and the EuropeanUnion Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes be-tween the European Union and its civil service.[107] De-cisions from the General Court can be appealed to theCourt of Justice but only on a point of law.[108]

4.2 Fundamental rights

The awarding ceremony of the 1990 Sakharov Prize awarded toAung San Suu Kyi (here byMartin Schulz) inside the Parliament’sStrasbourg hemicycle, in 2013.

The treaties declare that the EU itself is “founded on thevalues of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy,equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, in-cluding the rights of persons belonging to minorities ...in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tol-erance, justice, solidarity and equality between womenand men prevail.”[109]

In 2009 the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charterof Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The char-ter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights againstwhich the EU’s legal acts can be judged. It consoli-dates many rights which were previously recognised bythe Court of Justice and derived from the “constitu-tional traditions common to the member states.”[110] TheCourt of Justice has long recognised fundamental rightsand has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation basedon its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.[111]The Charter of Fundamental Rights was drawn up in2000. Although originally not legally binding the Char-ter was frequently cited by the EU’s courts as encap-sulating rights which the courts had long recognised asthe fundamental principles of EU law. Although sign-ing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)is a condition for EU membership,[lower-alpha 9] previously,the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as itis neither a state[lower-alpha 10] nor had the competence toaccede.[lower-alpha 11] The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EUto accede to the Convention while the latter formally per-mits it.

Although, the EU is independent from Council of Eu-rope, they share purpose and ideas especially on rule oflaw, human rights and democracy. Further EuropeanConvention on Human Rights and European Social Char-ter, the source of law of Charter of Fundamental Rightsare created by Council of Europe. The EU also promotedhuman rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposesthe death penalty and has proposed its worldwide aboli-tion. Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EUmembership.[112]

4.3 Acts

The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms:regulations, directives, and decisions. Regulations be-come law in all member states the moment they comeinto force, without the requirement for any implementingmeasures,[lower-alpha 12] and automatically override con-flicting domestic provisions.[lower-alpha 6] Directives requiremember states to achieve a certain result while leavingthem discretion as to how to achieve the result. The de-tails of how they are to be implemented are left to mem-ber states.[lower-alpha 13] When the time limit for imple-menting directives passes, they may, under certain con-ditions, have direct effect in national law against memberstates.Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes oflegislation. They are legal acts which only apply to speci-fied individuals, companies or a particular member state.They aremost often used in competition law, or on rulingson State Aid, but are also frequently used for proceduralor administrative matters within the institutions. Regu-lations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal valueand apply without any formal hierarchy.[113]

5 Area of freedom, security andjustice

Further information: Area of freedom, security and jus-ticeSince the creation of the EU in 1993, it has developedits competencies in the area of freedom, security andjustice, initially at an intergovernmental level and laterby supranationalism. To this end, agencies have beenestablished that co-ordinate associated actions: Europolfor co-operation of police forces,[114] Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors,[115] and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities.[116] The EUalso operates the Schengen Information System[17] whichprovides a common database for police and immigra-tion authorities. This co-operation had to particularlybe developed with the advent of open borders throughthe Schengen Agreement and the associated cross bordercrime.Furthermore, the Union has legislated in areas such

10 6 FOREIGN RELATIONS

The borders inside the Schengen Area between Germany andAustria

as extradition,[117] family law,[118] asylum law,[119] andcriminal justice.[120] Prohibitions against sexual and na-tionality discrimination have a long standing in thetreaties.[lower-alpha 14] Inmore recent years, these have beensupplemented by powers to legislate against discrimina-tion based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexualorientation.[lower-alpha 15] By virtue of these powers, theEU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination inthe work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimi-nation.[lower-alpha 16]

6 Foreign relations

Main articles: Foreign relations of the European Union,Common Foreign and Security Policy and European Ex-ternal Action ServiceForeign policy co-operation between member statesdates from the establishment of the Community in 1957,when member states negotiated as a bloc in internationaltrade negotiations under the Common Commercial pol-icy.[121] Steps for a more wide ranging co-ordination inforeign relations began in 1970 with the establishmentof European Political Cooperation which created an in-formal consultation process between member states withthe aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not,however, until 1987 when European Political Coopera-tion was introduced on a formal basis by the Single Eu-ropean Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreignand Security Policy (CFSP) by theMaastricht Treaty.[122]

The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU’sown interests and those of the international communityas a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and therule of law.[123] The CFSP requires unanimity amongthe member states on the appropriate policy to follow onany particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issuestreated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements,such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq.[124]

The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs andSecurity Policy, Federica Mogherini.

The EU participates in all G8 and G20 summits. (G20 summit inSeoul)

The coordinator and representative of the CFSP withinthe EU is the High Representative of the Union forForeign Affairs and Security Policy (currently FedericaMogherini) who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreignpolicy and defence matters, and has the task of articulat-ing the positions expressed by the member states on thesefields of policy into a common alignment. The High Rep-resentative heads up the European External Action Ser-vice (EEAS), a unique EU department[125] that has beenofficially implemented and operational since 1 December2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entryinto force of the Treaty of Lisbon.[126] The EEAS willserve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for theEuropean Union.[127]

Besides the emerging international policy of the Euro-pean Union, the international influence of the EU is alsofelt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of be-

6.2 Humanitarian aid 11

coming a member of the EU act as an incentive for bothpolitical and economic reform in states wishing to fulfilthe EU’s accession criteria, and are considered an impor-tant factor contributing to the reform of European for-merly Communist countries.[128] This influence on the in-ternal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as"soft power", as opposed to military “hard power”.[129]

6.1 Military

Main article: Military of the European UnionThe European Union does not have one unified mil-

NATO Summit 2006 in Riga, Latvia.

itary. The predecessors of the European Union werenot devised as a strong military alliance because NATOwas largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for de-fence purposes.[130] 22 EU members are members ofNATO[131] while the remaining member states followpolicies of neutrality.[132] The Western European Union,a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, was dis-banded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to theEU.[133]

According to the Stockholm International Peace Re-search Institute (SIPRI), France spent more than €44 bil-lion ($59bn) on defence in 2010, placing it third in theworld after the US and China, while the United Kingdomspent almost £38 billion ($58bn), the fourth largest.[134]Together, France and the United Kingdom account for45 per cent of Europe’s defence budget, 50 per cent of itsmilitary capacity and 70 per cent of all spending in mil-itary research and development.[135] Britain and Franceare also officially recognised nuclear weapon states andare the only two European nations to hold permanent seatson the United Nations Security Council. In 2000, theUnited Kingdom, France, Spain, andGermany accountedfor 97% of the total military research budget of the then15 EU member states.[136]

Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Coun-cil agreed that “the Union must have the capacity for au-tonomous action, backed by credible military forces, themeans to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, inorder to respond to international crises without prejudiceto actions by NATO”. To that end, a number of efforts

An A400M military transport aircraft built by Airbus Group SE(societas Europaea; Latin: European company)

were made to increase the EU’s military capability, no-tably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After muchdiscussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battle-groups initiative, each of which is planned to be able todeploy quickly about 1500 personnel.[137]

EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missionsfrom middle and northern Africa to the western Balkansand western Asia.[138] EU military operations are sup-ported by a number of bodies, including the EuropeanDefence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre andthe European Union Military Staff.[139] In an EU consist-ing of 28 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on co-operation of thegreat powers.[140]

6.2 Humanitarian aid

Further information: ECHO (European Commission)The European Commission’s Humanitarian Aid and

Collectively, the EU is the largest contributor of foreign aid in theworld. [141] [142]

Civil Protection department, or “ECHO”, provideshumanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries.In 2012, its budget amounted to €874 million, 51% of

12 7 ECONOMY

the budget went to Africa and 20% to Asia, Latin Amer-ica, the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20% to the MiddleEast and Mediterranean.[143]

Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70%)as part of the financial instruments for external actionand also by the European Development Fund (30%).[144]The EU’s external action financing is divided into 'ge-ographic' instruments and 'thematic' instruments.[144]The 'geographic' instruments provide aid through theDevelopment Cooperation Instrument (DCI, €16.9 bil-lion, 2007–2013), which must spend 95% of its bud-get on overseas development assistance (ODA), and fromthe EuropeanNeighbourhood and Partnership Instrument(ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes.[144]The European Development Fund (EDF, €22.7 bn,2008–2013) is made up of voluntary contributions bymember states, but there is pressure to merge the EDFinto the budget-financed instruments to encourage in-creased contributions to match the 0.7% target and allowthe European Parliament greater oversight.[144]

However, five countries have reached the 0.7% target:Sweden, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Denmark andthe United Kingdom.[145][146] In 2011, EU aid was 0.42%of the EU’s GNI making it the world’s most generous aiddonor.[147] The previous Commissioner for Aid, LouisMichel, has called for aid to be delivered more rapidly,to greater effect, and on humanitarian principles.[148]

7 Economy

Main articles: Economy of the European Union andRegional policy of the European UnionThe five largest economies in the world according to theIMF by GDP in 2011.[149]

The EU has established a single market across the ter-ritory of all its members. 19 member states have alsojoined a monetary union known as the eurozone, whichuses the Euro as a single currency.[150] In 2012, the EUhad a combined GDP of 16.073 trillions internationaldollars, a 20% share of the global gross domestic product(in terms of purchasing power parity).[151] According toCredit Suisse Global Wealth Report 2012, the EU ownsthe largest net wealth in the world; it is estimated to equal30% of the $223 trillion global wealth.Of the top 500 largest corporations measured by rev-enue (Fortune Global 500 in 2010), 161 have their head-quarters in the EU.[152] In 2007, unemployment in theEU stood at 7%[153] while investment was at 21.4% ofGDP, inflation at 2.2%, and current account balance at−0.9% ofGDP (i.e., slightly more import than export). In2012, unemployment in the EU stood, per August 2012,at 11.4%[153]

There is a significant variance for GDP (PPP) per capitawithin individual EU states, these range from €11,300

GDP (in PPS) per inhabitant by NUTS 2 regions in 2009.

to €69,800 (about US$15,700 to US$97,000).[154] Thedifference between the richest and poorest regions (271NUTS-2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Unitsfor Statistics) ranged, in 2009, from 27% of the EU27average in the region of Severozapaden in Bulgaria, to332% of the average in Inner London in the United King-dom. On the high end, Inner London has €78,000 PPPper capita, Luxembourg €62,500, and Bruxelles-Cap€52,500, while the poorest regions, are Severozapadenwith €6,400 PPP per capita, Nord-Est with €6,900 PPPper capita, Severen tsentralen with €6,900 and Yuzhentsentralen with €7,200.[154]

Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting thedevelopment of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Suchregions are primarily located in the states of central andsouthern Europe.[155][156] Several funds provide emer-gency aid, support for candidate members to transformtheir country to conform to the EU’s standard (Phare,ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the former USSRCommonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIShas now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid pro-gramme. EU research and technological framework pro-grammes sponsor research conducted by consortia fromall EU members to work towards a single European Re-search Area.[157]

7.1 Internal market

Main article: Internal marketTwo of the original core objectives of the European Eco-

7.2 Competition 13

A standardised passport design, displaying the name of the mem-ber state, the national arms and the words “European Union”given in their official language(s). (Irish model)

nomic Community were the development of a commonmarket, subsequently renamed the single market, and acustoms union between its member states. The singlemarket involves the free circulation of goods, capital,people, and services within the EU,[150] and the customsunion involves the application of a common external tar-iff on all goods entering the market. Once goods havebeen admitted into the market they cannot be subjectedto customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas,as they travel internally. The non-EU member states ofIceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland partici-pate in the single market but not in the customs union.[61]Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation har-monised by the EU.[158]

Free movement of capital is intended to permit move-ment of investments such as property purchases and buy-ing of shares between countries.[159] Until the drive to-wards economic and monetary union the development ofthe capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastrichtthere has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judge-ments regarding this initially neglected freedom. The freemovement of capital is unique insofar as it is grantedequally to non-member states.The freemovement of personsmeans that EU citizens canmove freely between member states to live, work, studyor retire in another country. This required the lowering ofadministrative formalities and recognition of professional

qualifications of other states.[160]

The free movement of services and of establishment al-lows self-employed persons to move between memberstates to provide services on a temporary or permanentbasis. While services account for 60–70% of GDP, leg-islation in the area is not as developed as in other areas.This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passedDirective on services in the internal market which aims toliberalise the cross border provision of services.[161] Ac-cording to the Treaty the provision of services is a resid-ual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is beingexercised.

7.2 Competition

Further information: European Union competition lawand European Commissioner for Competition

The EU operates a competition policy intended toensure undistorted competition within the singlemarket.[lower-alpha 17] The Commission as the competitionregulator for the single market is responsible for antitrustissues, approving mergers, breaking up cartels, workingfor economic liberalisation and preventing state aid.[162]

The Competition Commissioner, currently Joaquín Al-munia, is one of the most powerful positions in the Com-mission, notable for the ability to affect the commer-cial interests of trans-national corporations.[163] For ex-ample, in 2001 the Commission for the first time pre-vented a merger between two companies based in theUnited States (GE and Honeywell) which had alreadybeen approved by their national authority.[164] Anotherhigh-profile case against Microsoft, resulted in the Com-mission fining Microsoft over €777 million followingnine years of legal action.[165]

7.3 Monetary union

Main articles: Eurozone and Economic and MonetaryUnion of the European UnionThe creation of a European single currency became anofficial objective of the European Economic Communityin 1969. In 1992, after having negotiated the structureand procedures of a currency union, the member statessigned the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound tofulfill the agreed-on rules including the convergence cri-teria if they wanted to join themonetary union. The stateswanting to participate had first to join the European Ex-change Rate Mechanism.In 1999 the currency union started, first as an accountingcurrency with eleven member states joining. In 2002, thecurrency was fully put into place, when euro notes andcoins were issued and national currencies began to phaseout in the eurozone, which by then consisted of 12 mem-ber states. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member

14 7 ECONOMY

The seat of the Central Bank in Frankfurt. 19 of the 28 memberstates of the union have adopted the euro as their legal tender.

states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 19countries, the most recent being Lithuania which joinedon 1 January 2015. Denmark, the United Kingdom, andSweden decided not to join the euro.[166][lower-alpha 18]

Since its launch the euro has become the second reservecurrency in the world with a quarter of foreign exchangesreserves being in euro.[167] The euro, and the monetarypolicies of those who have adopted it in agreement withthe EU, are under the control of the European CentralBank (ECB).[168]

The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thuscontrols monetary policy in that area with an agenda tomaintain price stability. It is at the centre of the EuropeanSystem of Central Banks, which comprehends all EU na-tional central banks and is controlled by its General Coun-cil, consisting of the President of the ECB, who is ap-pointed by the European Council, the Vice-President ofthe ECB, and the governors of the national central banksof all 28 EU member states.[169]

The European System of Financial Supervision is aninstitutional architecture of the EU’s framework of fi-nancial supervision composed by three authorities: theEuropean Banking Authority, the European Insurance

and Occupational Pensions Authority and the EuropeanSecurities and Markets Authority. To complement thisframework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Boardunder the responsibility of the ECB. The aim of this fi-nancial control system is to ensure the economic stabilityof the EU.[170]

To prevent the joining states from getting into financialtrouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, theywere obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfill importantfinancial obligations and procedures, especially to showbudgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable eco-nomic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive govern-ment deficits and limit the government debt to a sustain-able level.Some states joined the euro but violated these rules andcontracts to an extent that they slid into a debt crisisand had to be financially supported with emergency res-cue funds. These states were Greece, Ireland, Portugal,Cyprus and Spain.Even though the Maastricht treaty forbids eurozone statesto assume the debts of other states (“bailout”), variousemergency rescue funds had been created by the mem-bers to support the debt crisis states to meet their finan-cial obligations and buy time for reforms that those statescan gain back their competitiveness.

7.4 Energy

Main article: Energy policy of the European Union

Consumed energy (2012)[171]

Renewable (dom. prod.) (7%)Nuclear[lower-alpha 19] (dom. prod.) (13%)Coal and lignite (dom. prod.) (10%)Gas (dom. prod.) (9%)Gas (import) (14%)Oil (dom. prod.) (6%)Oil (import) (33%)Other (dom. prod.) (1%)Other (import) (7%)

In 2006, the EU-27 had a gross inland energy consump-

7.6 Agriculture 15

tion of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe).[172]Around 46% of the energy consumed was producedwithin the member states while 54% was imported.[172]In these statistics, nuclear energy is treated as primaryenergy produced in the EU, regardless of the source ofthe uranium, of which less than 3% is produced in theEU.[173]

The EU has had legislative power in the area of energypolicy for most of its existence; this has its roots in theoriginal European Coal and Steel Community. The in-troduction of a mandatory and comprehensive Europeanenergy policy was approved at the meeting of the Euro-pean Council in October 2005, and the first draft policywas published in January 2007.[174]

The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increasecompetition in the internal market, encourage investmentand boost interconnections between electricity grids; di-versify energy resources with better systems to respondto a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energyco-operation with Russia while improving relations withenergy-rich states in Central Asia[175] and North Africa;use existing energy supplies more efficiently while in-creasing renewable energy commercialisation; and finallyincrease funding for new energy technologies.[174]

The EU currently imports 82% of its oil, 57% of its nat-ural gas[176] and 97.48% of its uranium[173] demands.There are concerns that Europe’s dependence on Russianenergy is endangering the Union and its member coun-tries. The EU is attempting to diversify its energy sup-ply.[177]

7.5 Infrastructure

Further information: European Commissioner for Trans-port, European Commissioner for Industry and En-trepreneurship and European Investment BankThe EU is working to improve cross-border infras-

The Öresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden is part of theTrans-European Networks.

tructure within the EU, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN includethe Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel,

the Öresund Bridge, the Brenner Base Tunnel and theStrait of Messina Bridge. In 2001 it was estimated thatby 2010 the network would cover: 75,200 kilometres(46,700 mi) of roads; 78,000 kilometres (48,000 mi) ofrailways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210internal harbours.[178][179]

The developing European transport policies will increasethe pressure on the environment in many regions by theincreased transport network. In the pre-2004 EU mem-bers, the major problem in transport deals with conges-tion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the newstates that joined since 2004 added the problem of solvingaccessibility to the transport agenda.[180] The Polish roadnetwork in particular was in poor condition: at Poland’saccession to the EU, a number of roads needed to be up-graded, particularly the A4 autostrada, requiring approx-imately €13 billion.[181][182]

The Galileo positioning system is another EU infras-tructure project. Galileo is a proposed Satellite naviga-tion system, to be built by the EU and launched by theEuropean Space Agency (ESA), and is to be operationalby 2012. The Galileo project was launched partly to re-duce the EU’s dependency on theUS-operatedGlobal Po-sitioning System, but also to give more complete globalcoverage and allow for far greater accuracy, given theaged nature of the GPS system.[183] It has been criticisedby some due to costs, delays, and their perception of re-dundancy given the existence of the GPS system.[184]

7.6 Agriculture

Main article: Common Agricultural PolicyThe Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the

Vineyards in Romania; EU farms are supported by the CAP, thelargest budgetary expenditure.

oldest policies of the European Community, and was oneof its core aims.[185] The policy has the objectives of in-creasing agricultural production, providing certainty infood supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farm-ers, stabilising markets, and ensuring reasonable pricesfor consumers.[lower-alpha 20] It was, until recently, operatedby a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until

16 8 DEMOGRAPHICS

the 1990s, the policy accounted for over 60% of the thenEuropean Community's annual budget, and still accountsfor around 34%.[186]

The policy’s price controls and market interventions ledto considerable overproduction, resulting in so-called but-ter mountains and wine lakes. These were interventionstores of products bought up by the Community to main-tain minimum price levels. To dispose of surplus stores,they were often sold on the world market at prices consid-erably below Community guaranteed prices, or farmerswere offered subsidies (amounting to the difference be-tween the Community and world prices) to export theirproducts outside the Community. This system has beencriticised for under-cutting farmers outside Europe, es-pecially those in the developing world.[187]

The overproduction has also been criticised for en-couraging environmentally unfriendly intensive farmingmethods.[187] Supporters of CAP say that the economicsupport which it gives to farmers provides them with areasonable standard of living, in what would otherwisebe an economically unviable way of life. However, theEU’s small farmers receive only 8% of CAP’s availablesubsidies.[187]

Since the beginning of the 1990s, the CAP has been sub-ject to a series of reforms. Initially, these reforms in-cluded the introduction of set-aside in 1988, where a pro-portion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn fromproduction, milk quotas (by the McSharry reforms in1992) and, more recently, the 'de-coupling' (or disassoci-ation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and theamount they produce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004).Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidypayments linked to specific produce, toward direct pay-ments based on farm size. This is intended to allow themarket to dictate production levels, while maintainingagricultural income levels.[185] One of these reforms en-tailed the abolition of the EU’s sugar regime, which pre-viously divided the sugar market between member statesand certain African-Caribbean nations with a privilegedrelationship with the EU.[154]

8 Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of the European Union andLargest population centres in the European Union

As of 1 January 2015, the population of the EU is about508.2 million people.[188]

The EU contains 16 cities with populations of over onemillion, the largest being London.Besides many large cities, the EU also includes severaldensely populated regions that have no single core buthave emerged from the connection of several cites andnow encompass large metropolitan areas. The largest are

Rhine-Ruhr having approximately 11.5 million inhabi-tants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstadapprox. 7 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague,Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Re-gion approx. 5.8 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden etal.), the Flemish Diamond approx. 5.5 million (ur-ban area in between Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven andGhent), Katowice and its Upper Silesian metropolitanarea approx. 5.3 million and the Øresund Region ap-prox. 3.7 million (Copenhagen, Denmark and Malmö,Sweden).[191]

In 2010, 47.3 million people lived in the EU, who wereborn outside their resident country. This corresponds to9.4% of the total EU population. Of these, 31.4 million(6.3%) were born outside the EU and 16.0 million (3.2%)were born in another EU member state. The largest ab-solute numbers of people born outside the EU were inGermany (6.4 million), France (5.1 million), the UnitedKingdom (4.7million), Spain (4.1million), Italy (3.2mil-lion), and the Netherlands (1.4 million).[192]

Vital statistics in recent years[193][194] (in thousands)

8.1 Languages

Main article: Languages of the European Union

Among the many languages and dialects used inthe EU, it has 24 official and working languages:Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English,Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian,Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish,Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, andSwedish.[198][199] Important documents, such as legisla-tion, are translated into every official language.The European Parliament provides translation into alllanguages for documents and its plenary sessions.[200]Some institutions use only a handful of languages as in-ternal working languages.[201] Catalan, Galician, Basque,Scottish Gaelic and Welsh are not official languages ofthe EU but have semi-official status in that official trans-lations of the treaties are made into them and citizens ofthe EU have the right to correspond with the institutionsusing them.Language policy is the responsibility of member states,but EU institutions promote the learning of otherlanguages.[lower-alpha 21][202] English is the most spokenlanguage in the EU, being spoken by 51% of the EUpopulation when counting both native and non-nativespeakers.[203] German is the most widely spoken mothertongue (about 88.7 million people in 2006). 56% of EUcitizens are able to engage in a conversation in a languageother than their mother tongue.[204] Most official lan-guages of the EU belong to the Indo-European languagefamily, except Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, which

8.3 Education and science 17

belong to the Uralic language family, and Maltese, whichis a Semitic language. Most EU official languages arewritten in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian, written inCyrillic, and Greek, written in the Greek alphabet.[205]With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the third official scriptof the European Union, following the Latin and Greekscripts.[206]

Besides the 24 official languages, there are about 150regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 mil-lion people.[205] Of these, only the Spanish regional lan-guages (Catalan, Galician, and Basque), Scottish Gaelic,and Welsh[207] can be used by citizens in communica-tion with the main European institutions.[208] AlthoughEU programmes can support regional and minority lan-guages, the protection of linguistic rights is a matter forthe individual member states. The European Charterfor Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EUstates provides general guidelines that states can follow toprotect their linguistic heritage.The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26September and is aimed at encouraging language learningacross Europe.

8.2 Religion

Self described religion in the European Union (2012)[209]

Catholic (48%)Protestant (12%)Orthodox (8%)Other Christian (4%)Non believer/Agnostic (16%)Atheist (7%)Muslim (2%)Other religion/None stated (3%)

The EU is a secular body with no formal connection toany religion. The Article 17 of the Treaty on the Func-tioning of the European Union recognises the “status un-der national law of churches and religious associations”as well as that of “philosophical and non-confessional

organisations”.[210]

The preamble to the Treaty on European Union men-tions the “cultural, religious and humanist inheritance ofEurope”.[210] Discussion over the draft texts of the Euro-pean Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon includedproposals to mention Christianity or God, or both, in thepreamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition andwas dropped.[211]

Christians in the EU are divided among members ofCatholicism (both Roman and Eastern Rite), numer-ous Protestant denominations, and the Eastern OrthodoxChurch. In 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim pop-ulation of 13 million,[212] and an estimated Jewish popu-lation of over a million.[213] The other world religions ofBuddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism are also represented inthe EU population.According to new polls about Religiosity in the Euro-pean Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer, Christianity is thelargest religion in the European Union accounting 72%for EU population.[209] Catholics are the largest Christiangroup in EU, accounting for 48% EU citizens, whileProtestants make up 12%, and Eastern Orthodox makeup 8%, and other Christians account for 4% of the EUpopulation.[214]

Eurostat's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005that 52% of EU citizens believed in a God, 27% in“some sort of spirit or life force”, and 18% had no formof belief.[215] Many countries have experienced fallingchurch attendance and membership in recent years.[216]The countries where the fewest people reported a reli-gious belief were Estonia (16%) and the Czech Republic(19%).[215] The most religious countries are Malta (95%,predominantly Roman Catholic) as well as Cyprus andRomania (both predominantly Orthodox) eachwith about90% of the citizens professing a belief in God. Across theEU, belief was higher among women, increased with age,those with religious upbringing, those who left school at15 or 16, and those “positioning themselves on the rightof the political scale (57%).”[215]

8.3 Education and science

Main articles: Educational policies and initiatives of theEuropean Union and Framework Programmes for Re-search and Technological DevelopmentBasic education is an area where the EU’s role is lim-ited to supporting national governments. In higher ed-ucation, the policy was developed in the 1980s in pro-grammes supporting exchanges and mobility. The mostvisible of these has been the Erasmus Programme, a uni-versity exchange programme which began in 1987. In itsfirst 20 years, it has supported international exchange op-portunities for well over 1.5 million university and collegestudents and has become a symbol of European studentlife.[217]

18 9 CULTURE

Erasmus Programme logo, representing the humanist DesideriusErasmus of Rotterdam.

There are now similar programmes for school pupils andteachers, for trainees in vocational education and train-ing, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Pro-gramme 2007–2013. These programmes are designedto encourage a wider knowledge of other countries andto spread good practices in the education and trainingfields across the EU.[218][219] Through its support of theBologna Process, the EU is supporting comparable stan-dards and compatible degrees across Europe.Scientific development is facilitated through the EU’sFramework Programmes, the first of which started in1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are toco-ordinate and stimulate research. The independentEuropean Research Council allocates EU funds to Euro-pean or national research projects.[220] EU research andtechnological framework programmes deal in a numberof areas, for example energy where it aims to develop adiverse mix of renewable energy for the environment andto reduce dependence on imported fuels.[221]

8.4 Health care

Further information: Healthcare in EuropeAlthough the EU has no major competences in the fieldof health care, Article 35 of the Charter of FundamentalRights of the European Union affirms that “A high levelof human health protection shall be ensured in the defini-tion and implementation of all Union policies and activ-ities”. All the member states have either publicly spon-sored and regulated universal health care or publicly pro-vided universal health care. The European Commission's

European Health Insurance Card.(French version pictured)

Directorate-General for Health and Consumers seeks toalign national laws on the protection of people’s health,on the consumers’ rights, on the safety of food and otherproducts.[222][223][224]

Health care in the EU is provided through a wide rangeof different systems run at the national level. The systemsare primarily publicly funded through taxation (universalhealth care). Private funding for health care may rep-resent personal contributions towards meeting the non-taxpayer refunded portion of health care or may reflecttotally private (non-subsidised) health care either paid outof pocket or met by some form of personal or employerfunded insurance.All EU andmany other European countries offer their cit-izens a free European Health Insurance Card which, on areciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency med-ical treatment insurance when visiting other participat-ing European countries.[225] A directive on cross-borderhealthcare aims at promoting co-operation on health carebetween member states and facilitating access to safeand high-quality cross-border healthcare for Europeanpatients.[226][227][228]

9 Culture

Main articles: Culture of Europe, Western culture andCultural policies of the European Union

9.2 Symbols 19

Acropolis and Colosseum, symbols of the Graeco-Roman world

Cultural co-operation between member states has beena concern of the EU since its inclusion as a communitycompetency in the Maastricht Treaty.[229] Actions takenin the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 20007-year programme,[229] the European Cultural Monthevent,[230] the MEDIA Programme,[231] orchestras suchas the European Union Youth Orchestra[232] and theEuropean Capital of Culture programme – where one ormore cities in the EU are selected for one year to assistthe cultural development of that city.[233]

9.1 Sport

Main articles: Sport policies of the European Union andSport in Europe

Sport is mainly the responsibility of an individual mem-ber states or other international organisations rather thanthat of the EU. However, there are some EU policies thathave had an impact on sport, such as the free movementof workers which was at the core of the Bosman ruling,which prohibited national football leagues from imposingquotas on foreign players with European citizenship.[234]The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of eco-nomic rules to take into account the specific nature ofsport and its structures based on voluntary activity.[235]This followed lobbying by governing organisations suchas the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, dueto objections over the applications of free market princi-ples to sport which led to an increasing gap between richand poor clubs.[236] The EU does fund a programme forIsraeli, Jordanian, Irish, and British football coaches, aspart of the Football 4 Peace project.[237]

9.2 Symbols

Main article: Symbols of Europe

Clockwise from top left: The European flag seen atthe occasion of the 2004 enlargement; the reliquarybust of Charlemagne (c. 1350); Europa and the bull,depicted as the personification of Europe in a 1700 mapby Fredericus de Wit.

The flag of the union consists of a circle of 12 goldenstars on a blue field. The blue represents the west, whilethe number and position of the stars represent complete-ness and unity, respectively.[238] Originally designed in1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adoptedby the European Communities, the predecessors of thepresent union, in 1986. United in Diversity was adoptedas the motto of the union in the year 2000, having beenselected from proposals submitted by school pupils.[239]Since 1985, the flag day of the union has been EuropeDay, on 9 May, i.e. the date of the 1950 Schuman dec-laration. The anthem of the union is an instrumental ver-

20 11 NOTES

sion of the prelude to the Ode to Joy, the 4th movementof Ludwig van Beethoven's ninth symphony. The anthemwas adopted by European Community leaders in 1985and has since been played on official occasions.[240]

Besides naming the continent, the Greek mythologicalfigure of Europa has frequently been employed as apersonification of Europe. Known from the myth inwhich Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Eu-ropa has also been referred to in relation to the presentunion. Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several ofthe Union’s institutions, and a portrait of her is seen onthe 2013 series of Euro banknotes. The bull is for its partdepicted on all residence permit cards.[241]

Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne (Latin:Carolus Magnus), established an empire that representedthe most expansive European unification since the Ro-man era, and thereby founded what became the Frenchand German monarchies.[242][242][243][244][245] Known asPater Europae («Father of Europe»),[242][246] he enjoyedan important afterlife in European culture. The presentsymbolic relevance of Charlemagne pertains to his em-bodiment of Franco-German relations, on which Euro-pean integration relies. The Commission has namedone of its central buildings in Brussels after Charle-magne, and the German city of Aachen has since 1949awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of Euro-pean unification.[247] Since 2008, the organisers of thisprize, in conjunction with the European Parliament, haveawarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition ofsimilar efforts by young people.[248]

Religious symbols of Europe and its integration includeSaint Benedict, who in 1964 was named patron saint ofEurope by Pope Paul VI, and Saint Hedwig, who in 1997was canonised as patron saint of European unification byPope John Paul II.[249][250]

10 See also

• Outline of the European Union

•

•

• European Union – Wikipedia book

11 Notes[1] Not including overseas territories

[2] .eu is representative of the whole of the EU;member statesalso have their own TLDs.

[3] This figure includes the extra-European territories ofmember states which are part of the European Union andexcludes the European territories of member states which

are not part of the Union. For more information seeSpecial member state territories and the European Union.

[4] On October 3, 1990, the constituent states of the formerGerman Democratic Republic acceded to the Federal Re-public of Germany, automatically becoming part of theEU.

[5] Referred to by the EU as the “former Yugoslav Republicof Macedonia”.

[6] See Article 288 (ex Article 249 TEC) of the Treaty on theFunctioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu

[7] According to the principle of Direct Effect first invokedin the Court of Justice’s decision in Van Gend en Loos vNederlandse Administratie der Belastingen, Eur-Lex (Eu-ropean Court of Justice 1963). See: Craig and de Búrca,ch. 5.

[8] According to the principle of Supremacy as establishedby the ECJ in Case 6/64, Falminio Costa v. ENEL [1964]ECR 585. See Craig and de Búrca, ch. 7. See also:Factortame litigation: Factortame Ltd. v. Secretary ofState for Transport (No. 2) [1991] 1 AC 603, SolangeII (Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft, BVerfG decision of22 October 1986 [1987] 3 CMLR 225,265) and Frontiniv. Ministero delle Finanze [1974] 2 CMLR 372; RaoulGeorge Nicolo [1990] 1 CMLR 173.

[9] It is effectively treated as one of the Copenhagen criteria,Assembly.coe.int. It should be noted that this is a politicaland not a legal requirement for membership.

[10] The European Convention on Human Rights was previ-ously only open to members of the Council of Europe(Article 59.1 of the Convention), and even now only statesmay become member of the Council of Europe (Article 4of the Statute of the Council of Europe).

[11] Opinion (2/92) of the European Court of Justice on “Ac-cession by the Community to the European Conventionfor the Protection of Human Rights and FundamentalFreedoms” 1996 E.C.R. I-1759 (in French), ruled that theEuropean Community did not have the competence to ac-cede to the ECHR.

[12] See: Case 34/73, Variola v. Amministrazione delle Fi-nanze [1973] ECR 981.

[13] To do otherwise would require the drafting of legislationwhich would have to cope with the frequently divergentlegal systems and administrative systems of all of the now28 member states. See Craig and de Búrca, p. 115

[14] See Articles 157 (ex Article 141) of the Treaty on theFunctioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu

[15] See Article 2(7) of the Amsterdam Treaty on eur-lex.europa.eu

[16] Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 imple-menting the principle of equal treatment between per-sons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19July 2000, p. 22–26); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of27 November 2000 establishing a general framework forequal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ L 303,2 Dec 2000, p. 16–22).

21

[17] Article 3(1)(g) of the Treaty of Rome

[18] In order to meet the euro convergence criteria it is neces-sary first to join the European Exchange RateMechanism,something Sweden has declined to do: “ERM II”. DanishFinance Ministry. 20 March 2009. Retrieved 26 Decem-ber 2009.

[19] Note that although almost all Uranium is imported,Nuclear Power is considered primary energy produced inthe EU

[20] Article 39 (ex Article 33) of the Treaty on the Functioningof the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu

[21] See Articles 165 and 166 (ex Articles 149 and 150) ofthe Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, oneur-lex.europa.eu

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[171] “Discrimination in the EU in 2012” (PDF), Special Eu-robarometer, 383 (European Union: European Commis-sion), 2012: 233, retrieved 14 August 2013

[172] “Energy consumption and production: EU27 energy de-pendence rate at 54% in 2006: Energy consumption sta-ble” (PDF) (Press release). Eurostat. 10 July 2008. Re-trieved 12 September 2008.In the EU27, gross inland energy consumption was 1 825million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) in 2006, stable com-pared with 2005, while energy production decreased by2.3% to 871 mn toe ...Gross inland consumption is defined as primary produc-tion plus imports, recovered products and stock change,less exports and fuel supply to maritime bunkers (forseagoing ships of all flags) ...A tonne of oil equivalent (toe) is a standardised unit de-fined on the basis of one tonne of oil having a net calorificvalue of 41.868 Gigajoules.

[173] “EU supply and demand for nuclear fuels”. Euratom Sup-ply Agency—Annual Report 2007 (PDF). Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Commu-nities. 2008. p. 22. ISBN 978-92-79-09437-8. Re-trieved 1 March 2009. European uranium mining sup-plied just below 3% of the total EU needs, coming fromthe Czech Republic and Romania (a total of 526 tU).Nuclear energy and renewable energy are treated differ-ently from oil, gas , and coal in this respect.

[174] “Q&A: EU energy plans”. BBC. 9 March 2007. Re-trieved 13 July 2007.

[175] Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff (November 2008).“Kazakhstan’s Gas: Export Markets and Export Routes”(PDF). Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. Retrieved 17November 2011.

[176] "'Low-carbon economy' proposed for Europe”. MSNBC.Retrieved 24 January 2007.

[177] European Parliament. “Ukraine-Russia gas dispute—callfor stronger EU energy policy”. Europa web portal. Re-trieved 27 February 2008.

[178] “The trans-European transport network: new guidelinesand financial rules” (PDF). Europa web portal. EuropeanCommission. 1October 2003. Retrieved 15August 2007.

[179] Mirea, Silvia. “The trans-European transport network:new guidelines and financial rules”. The Railway Journal.Retrieved 15 August 2007.

[180] “White Paper on Transport”. Euractiv. 22 September2004. Retrieved 15 August 2007.

[181] “EUR 650 million for the Polish Road Network”. Re-trieved Nov 2010.

[182] “EU regional policy: Poland en route for growth”. Re-trieved July 2012.

[183] Barrot, Jacques. “Jacques Barrot Home Page, Commis-sion vice president for transport”. Europa web portal. Re-trieved 21 July 2007.

[184] McKie, Robin (15 July 2007). “Sat-nav rival could crashand burn”. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 11 August2007.

[185] Stead, David; Robert Whaples (eds) (22 June 2007).“Common Agricultural Policy”. EH.Net Encyclopedia.Retrieved 30 August 2007.

[186] “Agriculture: Meeting the needs of farmers and con-sumers”. Europa: Gateway to the European Union. Euro-pean Commission. 26 August 2011. Retrieved 4 Novem-ber 2011. ... the common agricultural policy is the mostintegrated of all EU policies and consequently takes alarge share of the EU budget. Nevertheless, its portionof the EU budget has dropped from a peak of nearly 70%in the 1970s to 34% over the 2007–2013 period.

[187] Jeffery, Simon (26 June 2007). “The EU common agri-cultural policy”. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 30August 2007.

[188] “Population on 1 January 2015”. Retrieved 20 August2015.

[189] Total population in Urban Audit cities, Larger UrbanZones - Eurostat

[190] CityProfiles - Eurostat

[191] Eurostat. “Indicators for larger urban zones 1999–2003”.Europa web portal. Retrieved 25 January 2007.

[192] 6.5% of the EU population are foreigners and 9.4% areborn abroad, Eurostat, Katya VASILEVA, 34/2011.

[193] EU28 population 505.7 million at 1 January 2013 - Euro-stat

[194] EU28 population 507.4 million at 1 January 2014 - Euro-stat

[195] “Europeans and Their Languages, 2012 Report” (PDF).Retrieved 3 June 2013.

[196] EuropeanCommission (2012). “Europeans and their Lan-guages” (PDF). Special Eurobarometer 386. europa.eu.pp. 54–59. Retrieved 16 December 2012.

[197] EuropeanCommission (2012). “Europeans and their Lan-guages” (PDF). Special Eurobarometer 386. europa.eu.pp. 78–83. Retrieved 16 December 2012.

[198] EUR-Lex (12 December 2006). “Council Regulation(EC) No 1791/2006 of 20 November 2006”. OfficialJournal of the European Union. Europa web portal. Re-trieved 2 February 2007.

[199] “Languages in Europe – Official EU Languages”. EU-ROPA web portal. Retrieved 12 October 2009.

27

[200] europarltv, official webtv of the European Parliament, isalso available in all EU languages

[201] “Languages and Europe. FAQ: Is every document gener-ated by the EU translated into all the official languages?".Europa web portal. 2004. Retrieved 3 February 2007.

[202] European Parliament (2004). “European Parliament FactSheets: 4.16.3. Language policy”. Europa web portal.Retrieved 3 February 2007.

[203] European Commission (2006). “Special Eurobarometer243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Sum-mary)" (PDF). Europa web portal. p. 4. Retrieved 11March 2011. English is the most commonly known lan-guage in the EU with over a half of the respondents (51%)speaking it either as their mother tongue or as a foreignlanguage.

[204] European Commission (2006). “Special Eurobarometer243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Sum-mary)" (PDF). Europa web portal. p. 3. Retrieved 11March 2011. 56% of citizens in the EU Member Statesare able to hold a conversation in one language apart fromtheir mother tongue.

[205] European Commission (2004). “Many tongues, one fam-ily. Languages in the European Union” (PDF). Europaweb portal. Retrieved 3 February 2007.

[206] Leonard Orban (24May 2007). “Cyrillic, the third officialalphabet of the EU, was created by a truly multilingualEuropean” (PDF). europe.eu. Retrieved 3 August 2014.

[207] RoryWatson (5 July 2008). “Welsh and Gaelic are officialEU tongues”. The Times (London). Retrieved 13 March2009.

[208] “Mercator Newsletter – n. 29”. Mercator Central. 2006.Retrieved 1 February 2007.

[209] “Discrimination in the EU in 2012” (PDF), Special Eu-robarometer, 393 (European Union: European Commis-sion), 2012: 233, retrieved 14 August 2013 The ques-tion asked was “Do you consider yourself to be...?" Witha card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, OtherChristian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Athe-ist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given forOther (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Bud-dhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold.

[210] Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union.

[211] Castle, Stephen (21 March 2007). “EU celebrates 50thbirthday-with a row about religion”. The Independent(London). Retrieved 4 March 2008.

[212] “Muslim Population” (PDF). europa web portal. Re-trieved November 2010.

[213] Jewish population figures may be unreliable. Sergio Del-laPergola. “World Jewish Population (2002)". AmericanJewish Year Book. The Jewish Agency for Israel. Re-trieved 3 May 2007.

[214] “Discrimination in the EU in 2012” (PDF). Special Eu-robarometer. 383 (European Union: European Commis-sion): 233. 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2013.

[215] Eurostat (2005). “Social values, Science and Technology”(PDF). Special Eurobarometer 225 (Europa, web portal):9. Retrieved 11 June 2009.

[216] Ford, Peter (22 February 2005). “What place for God inEurope”. USA Today. Retrieved 24 July 2009.

[217] European Commission. “The Erasmus programme cel-ebrates its 20th anniversary”. Europa web portal. Re-trieved 21 July 2007.; Jean-Sébastien, Lefebvre (22 Jan-uary 2007). “Erasmus turns 20 – time to grow up?". CaféBabel. Retrieved 10 August 2007.

[218] EACEA. “About the Education, Audiovisual and CultureExecutive Agency”. Europa web portal. Retrieved 21 July2007.

[219] European Commission. “Lifelong Learning Programme”.Europa web portal. Retrieved 21 July 2007.

[220] European Research Council. “What is the ERC?". Eu-ropa web portal. Retrieved 21 July 2007.

[221] European Commission. “Energy”. Europa web portal.Retrieved 12 November 2007.

[222] “Europa web portal”. Europa (web portal). Retrieved 26November 2010.

[223] “Europa web portal”. Europa (web portal). Retrieved 26November 2010.

[224] “Europa web portal”. Europa (web portal). 18 November2010. Retrieved 26 November 2010.

[225] “info about health care and EHIC”. Nhs.uk. 29 April2010. Retrieved 26 November 2010.

[226] “Consilium.europa.eu” (PDF). Retrieved 3 June 2013.

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[228] “NHSconfed.org”. NHSconfed.org. 17 May 2011. Re-trieved 3 June 2013.

[229] Bozoki, Andras. “Cultural Policy and Politics in the Eu-ropean Union” (PDF). Cultural Policy and Politics in theEuropean Union.pdf. Retrieved 4 June 2013.

[230] European Commission. “European Culture Month”. Eu-ropa web portal. Archived from the original on 2 February2008. Retrieved 27 February 2008.

[231] “Media Programme”. Europa. European Commission.Retrieved 13 June 2013.

[232] “An Overture to the European Union Youth Orchestra”.The European Youth Orchestra. Archived from the orig-inal on 11 June 2007. Retrieved 12 August 2007.

[233] European Commission. “European Capitals of Culture”.Europa web portal. Retrieved Nov 2010.

[234] Fordyce, Tom (11 July 2007). “10 years since Bosman”.BBC News. Retrieved 13 July 2007.

[235] Cases C-403/08 and C-429/08, Opinon of Advocate Gen-eral Kokott, para 207

28 14 EXTERNAL LINKS

[236] “IOC, FIFA presidents welcomes new EU treaty, call itbreakthrough to give sports more power”. InternationalHerald Tribune. 19 October 2007. Retrieved 21 October2007.

[237] “Sports coaches from Israel travel to UK for training”.Eeas.europa.eu. 29 March 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2013.

[238] Thirty-sixth meeting of the ministers’ deputies: resolution(55) 32 (PDF), Council of Europe, 9 December 1955, re-trieved 2 February 2008

[239] In varietate concordia is the Latin motto chosen by Eu-ropean citizens in 2000. Its official English translation is“Unity in Diversity” in ''Eurodiversity: a business guide tomanaging difference'', page 110, by George F. Simons &Arjen Bos, 2002. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-01-01.

[240] Emblemes

[241] Demey, Thierry (2007). Brussels, capital of Europe. S.Strange (trans.). Brussels: Badeaux. p. 387. ISBN 2-9600414-2-9.

[242] Riché, Preface xviii, Pierre Riché reflects: "[H]e enjoyedan exceptional destiny, and by the length of his reign, byhis conquests, legislation and legendary stature, he alsoprofoundly marked the history of Western Europe.”

[243] humnet.ucla.edu

[244] “karlspreis.de”. karlspreis.de. Retrieved 2012-01-01.

[245] Chamberlin, Russell, The Emperor Charlemagne, p. ???

[246] “Der Karlspreisträger Seine Heiligkeit Papst JohannesPaul II. außerordentlicher Karlspreis 2004”. Karl-spreis.de. Retrieved 2012-01-01.

[247] http://www.karlspreis.de/en/laureates

[248] http://www.charlemagneyouthprize.eu/

[249] http://www.catholicculture.org/news/features/index.cfm?recnum=57724

[250] “talismancoins.com”. talismancoins.com. 1 September1939. Retrieved 2012-01-01.

[251] “Population on 1 January”. Eurostat. Retrieved 23 Octo-ber 2010.

13 Further reading• Bindi, Federiga, ed. The Foreign Policy of the Euro-

pean Union: Assessing Europe’s Role in the World(Brookings Institution Press; 2010). The E.U.'sforeign-policy mechanisms and foreign relations, in-cluding with its neighbours.

• Bomberg, Elizabeth, Peterson, John, and RichardCorbett, eds. The European Union: How Does itWork? (3rd ed) (2012, Oxford University Press).ISBN 978-0-19-957080-5 and ISBN 0-19-957080-9.

• Corbett, Richard; Jacobs, Francis; Shackleton,Michael (2011). The European Parliament (8thed.). London: John Harper Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9564508-5-2.

• Craig, Paul; de Búrca, Gráinne (2007). EU Law,Text, Cases and Materials (4th ed.). Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927389-8.

• Jordan, A.J. and Adelle, C. (eds) EnvironmentalPolicy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors andPolicy Dynamics (3e). Earthscan: London and Ster-ling, VA.

• Kaiser, Wolfram. Christian Democracy and the Ori-gins of European Union (2007)

• McCormick, John (2007). The European Union:Politics and Policies. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4202-3.

• Pinder, John, and Simon Usherwood. The EuropeanUnion: AVery Short Introduction (2008) excerpt andtext search

• Rifkin, Jeremy (2004). The European Dream: HowEurope’s Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing theAmerican Dream. Jeremy P. Tarcher. ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3.

• Smith, Charles (2007). International Trade andGlobalisation (3rd ed.). Stocksfield: Anforme.ISBN 1-905504-10-1.

• Staab, Andreas. The EuropeanUnion Explained: In-stitutions, Actors, Global Impact (2008) excerpt andtext search

• Steiner, Josephine; Woods, Lorna; Twigg-Flesner,Christian (2006). EU Law (9th ed.). Oxford: Ox-ford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927959-3.

• Yesilada, Birol A. and David M.Wood. The Emerg-ing European Union (5th ed. 2009)

• Piris, Jean-Claude (2010). Lisbon Treaty. Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 448. ISBN978-0-521-19792-2.

14 External linksOfficial

• EUROPA—official web portal

• Institutions

• European Council

• European Commission

• Council

29

• European Parliament

• European Central Bank

• Court of Justice of the European Union

• Court of Auditors

• Agencies

• EUR-Lex—EU Laws

• http://www.eui.eu/Research/HistoricalArchivesOfEU/Index.aspx HistoricalArchives of the European Union

Overviews and data

• Eurostat—European Union Statistics Explained

• Datasets related to the EU on CKAN

• CIAWorld Factbook: European Union entry at TheWorld Factbook

• British Pathé—Online newsreel archive of the 20thcentury

• Search EU Financial Sanctions List

• The European Union: Questions and AnswersCongressional Research Service

• Works by European Union at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about European Union at InternetArchive

News and interviews

• Der Spiegel interview with Helmut Schmidt andValery Giscard d'Estaing

Educational resources

• European Studies Hub—interactive learning toolsand resources to help students and researchers bet-ter understand and engage with the European Unionand its politics.

• Tupy, Marian L. (2008). “European Union”. InDavid R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopediaof Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library ofEconomics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0-86597-665-8.OCLC 237794267.

30 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text• European Union Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union?oldid=677153049 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Kpjas, Derek

Ross, WojPob, Brion VIBBER, Eloquence, Mav, Zundark, Szopen, The Anome, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Koyaanis Qatsi, Taw, Eclecti-cology, LA2, Eob, Scipius, JeLuF,Walter, Christian List, MarekF~enwiki, Nate Silva, SJK,Miguel~enwiki, WilliamAvery, SimonP, Axon,G_from_B, Imran, Heron, Camembert, Fonzy, Sue, Tzartzam, Hephaestos, Olivier, Renata, Vkem~enwiki, Stevertigo, Edward, Patrick,Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, GABaker, Palnatoke, Zocky, Modster, Dhum Dhum, Dominus, Liftarn, Gabbe, Hoshie, Taras, Wapcaplet,Mic, Sannse, Scaredda, Dori, CG, (, Paul A, Minesweeper, Pcb21, CesarB, Card~enwiki, Looxix~enwiki, ArnoLagrange, Fantasy, Ahoer-stemeier, NoLordButJesus, Haakon, Moriarty, Mac, Docu, Jpatokal, Samuelsen, Theresa knott, G-Man, Snoyes, CatherineMunro, Erich,Msablic, Jdforrester, Randywombat, Yvesb, LittleDan, Mk270, Julesd, Djmutex, Habj, Bogdangiusca, Kimiko, Susurrus, Kwekubo, Dpol,SeeSchloss, Jiang, Kaihsu, Cratbro, Evercat, Cherkash, Atob, Rl, John K, Ruhrjung, Samuel~enwiki, Tobias Conradi, Mxn, Johan Magnus,BRG, Denny, Schneelocke, Dwo, Nitish~enwiki, Emperorbma, The Tom, Crusadeonilliteracy, Ec5618, Universimmedia, Alex S, Guaka,Timwi, Nedward, Rob.derosa, Boson, RickK, Kroum, Fuzheado, Gutza, Marco Neves, Wik, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, Tpbradbury, Kaare,Mrand, Morwen, Rronline, Populus, Garry Saint, Esquire, Tuomas, Ann O'nyme, Topbanana, Joy, Ccady, Bjarki S, Jecar, Cabalamat,Raul654, Power~enwiki, Olathe, Wetman, MadEwokHerd, Chrisjj, Penfold, Jason M, Qertis, Wolfram~enwiki, David.Monniaux, Lumos3,Phil Boswell, Sjorford, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, MrJones, The Phoenix, Earl Andrew, Nico~enwiki, ChrisO~enwiki, Chrism, Fredrik,Cosmin smeu, Korath, Chris 73, RedWolf, Twid, ZimZalaBim, Altenmann, Kowey, Nurg, Romanm, Naddy, Lowellian, Postdlf, Danutz,Pingveno, Sverdrup, Henrygb, Puckly, Nach0king, Jxg, Voodoo~enwiki, Der Eberswalder, Flauto Dolce, Rholton, ZekeMacNeil, Rollo,Gidonb, Timrollpickering, Smb1001, Davodd, Sunray, Bkell, Bernhard.kaindl, Moink, Jeroen, Hadal, UtherSRG, Jacques2, Mushroom,Ambarish, Cautious, SoLando, HaeB, Cyrius, Dmn, Mattflaschen, Cutler, Filemon, Adam78, David Gerard, Ancheta Wis, Fabiform,DocWatson42, Jacoplane, MPF, Jhf, James Trainor, Jao, Barbara Shack, Sinuhe, Laurens~enwiki, KevinCoates, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarma-son, Meursault2004, Lupin, Hagedis, Malcontent, Ertz, Dissident, Marcika, Everyking, Curps, Michael Devore, Henry Flower, Paploo,Varlaam, Jgritz, Cantus, Cpk, Ravn, Alensha, Per Honor et Gloria, Luis rib, Aytharn, Kpalion, Zoney, Djegan, Gzornenplatz, Matt Crypto,Avala, Chameleon, Alvestrand, Bobblewik, Deus Ex, Edcolins, Golbez, Btphelps, Gugganij, Merritcat, Thewikipedian, Leonard Vertighel,Fergananim, Auximines, Utcursch, 159753, Kyolma, Keith Edkins, Bact, Gdr, Sysin, Aurevilly, Yardcock, Aledeniz, Ran, Antandrus,Beland, Iceager, Elizabeth A, Piotrus, Msahutty, Domino theory, Boone, Marcschulz, Rdsmith4, Mzajac, Kesac, OwenBlacker, Secfan,Maximaximax, Vbs, EBB, Bumm13, Kevin B12, Satori, Icairns, EuroTom, Jessesamuel, Sam Hocevar, Eddpayne, Pgreenfinch, Cynical,Blackdeath450, Jackiespeel, Grunners, Edsanville, Jcw69, Kareeser, Dcandeto, Hardouin, Sarcelles, Karstimmer, Robin klein, KlemenKocjancic, Trilobite, Karl Dickman, Picapica, Shandro, OwlofDoom, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Grunt, Canterbury Tail, Lacrimosus,Clubjuggle, Gazpacho, Mike Rosoft, D6, Dbaron, Freakofnurture, Indosauros, Pasquale, Edolen1, RossPatterson, Discospinster, Twinxor,Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Rydel, Rama, Tomtom~enwiki, Smyth, Barista, Aris Katsaris, Moochocoogle, LindsayH, Kass-abov, Darren Olivier, Michael Zimmermann, Martpol, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Jeff schiller, Bender235, Sc147, Jnestorius, Klenje,Fenice, Evice, Brian0918, MisterSheik, CanisRufus, Livajo, El C, Miraceti, Mulder1982, Bletch, Kwamikagami, JoeHenzi, CJWilly, Aude,PhilHibbs, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Tjic, PatrikR, Bobo192, Surcouf, Touriste, NetBot, 23skidoo, Rhysn, Smalljim, Func, Hooverbag, Bro-kenSegue, Shenme, Dapete, Dpaajones, Vortexrealm, Polocrunch, JW1805, Pokrajac, Slicky, SpeedyGonsales, Jerryseinfeld, Anr~enwiki,Man vyi, Thewayforward, RDL, RaffiKojian~enwiki, Rje, Numerousfalx, NathanHawking, PWilkinson, Jdabney, John Fader, MPerel,Sam Korn, Silverback, Supersexyspacemonkey, Jez, Nickfraser, Espoo, Jumbuck, Spitzl, Mrzaius, Alansohn, LtNOWIS, Buaidh, De-noir, JNM~enwiki, Arthena, Joolz, Hydriotaphia, Rd232, Jeltz, Corporal, Ronline, BobWasHere, TintininLisbon, Logologist, Anittas,Riana, Wikidea, Manos, AzaToth, Bz2, Lectonar, SlimVirgin, PoptartKing, Fritzpoll, Luka Jačov, Jack Holbrook, Mailer diablo, Dav-eGarber1975, Dark Shikari, Laug, Cjnm, Katefan0, Alinor, Bart133, DreamGuy, Blobglob, Ravenhull, Ksnow, Wtmitchell, Danaman5,Jrleighton, Stephan Leeds, Suruena, TomStuart, Trampled, Max Naylor, Oghmoir, Sciurinæ, Vuo, H2g2bob, Woodstone, Kusma, Hoserjoe,Sleigh, Lecar, Redvers, Kirev, Maestral, Nightstallion, LukeSurl, Kazvorpal, Kitch, Yurivict, Dan100, Saxifrage, Hepburn20, RyanGer-bil10, Oleg Alexandrov, TShilo12, Brookie, Ott, Wikigiles, Hijiri88, Bastin, Akidd dublin, Feezo, Weyes, Thryduulf, Angr, Richard ArthurNorton (1958- ), TimComm, Simetrical, Firsfron, Woohookitty, Jannex, Henrik, Mindmatrix, TigerShark, Camw, Benhocking, Eyesbomb,Armando, Holdspa, Ikescs, Pol098, Before My Ken, ^demon, JeremyA, Chochopk, MONGO, Jok2000, Tabletop, Kelisi, Uris, Tomlillis,Schzmo, Bbatsell, Heimdal, Wtfunkymonkey, GregorB, Maartenvdbent, Snagari, Gerbon689, SDC, Vanished895703, Jonnabuz, DanCB-JMS, Romihaitza, , Jon Harald Søby, Wiki-vr, Joeybg, Prashanthns, Tokek, LinkTiger, Brownsteve, Driftwoodzebulin, Pere-grineAY, Marudubshinki, Dysepsion, Rtcpenguin, Wiggy!, Kesla, Graham87, Hinton, Magister Mathematicae, Parmaestro, David Levy,FreplySpang, Nlsanand, RxS, DePiep, Mancunius, Phoenix-forgotten, Electionworld, Ryan Norton, Mana Excalibur, Jorunn, Sjakkalle,Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Tim!, Coemgenus, P3Pp3r, Nightscream, Koavf, Jake Wartenberg, Jivecat, Moosh88, Vary, MarSch, Red King,Alfdom, Eyu100, Hiberniantears, Zinoviev, Sdornan, Tawker, Darguz Parsilvan, SpNeo, SMC, Salleman, Parash2, Ligulem, Muj0, Olessi,MapsMan, JohnnoShadbolt, Ucucha, AySz88, Yamamoto Ichiro, SNIyer12, Leithp, Caligvla, Ian Pitchford, RobertG, Ground Zero,Amhaun01, Musical Linguist, Vladko, A.Garnet, Nivix, Fragglet, Themanwithoutapast, Mark83, RexNL, Gurch, AlexCovarrubias, TimSE,Alexjohnc3, TheDJ, Str1977, Brendan Moody, RLent, Parutakupiu, Kimmetje, McDogm, Thecurran, Pricey3000, Lemuel Gulliver, Erp,Valentinian, Lamrock, MoRsE, MichaelJBuck, King of Hearts, CiaPan, Chobot, SirGrant, Damac, Bgwhite, Scoo, ShadowHntr, E PluribusAnthony, Samwaltz, Kakurady, EamonnPKeane, UkPaolo, Roboto de Ajvol, Daduzi, Mercury McKinnon, YurikBot, Wavelength, AngusLepper, Sceptre, Wester, Osomec, Jimp, Chavash, Snappy, StuffOfInterest, Trainthh, RussBot, Arado, UNFanatic, Sam Tarran, Jtkiefer,John Quincy Adding Machine, Conscious, Briaboru, Theathenae, Rubinstein, SpuriousQ, DE, 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Lt-wiki-bot, Alkley, Fulup, Imaninjapirate, Joshmaul, Barryob,Closedmouth, Errabee, Arthur Rubin, Assyria 90, E Wing, KGasso, SlOrbA, Doppelganger36a2, Dspradau, Ekstazo~enwiki, GraemeL,Npeters22, Nothlit, Red Jay, Beneaththelandslide, Ion seal, Chrishmt0423, Fram, Peter, Scoutersig, Hayden120, SigmaEpsilon, Tyrenius,Mais oui!, Lordrosemount, Fourohfour, Curpsbot-unicodify, Garion96, Nixer, David Biddulph, Che829, Aryah, DisambigBot, Katieh5584,Kungfuadam, Djr xi, Thomas Blomberg, Otto ter Haar, GrinBot~enwiki, Airconswitch, Asterion, Dan Atkinson, Samuel Blanning, El-liskev, DVD R W, Tom Morris, WesleyDodds, Makedonas, The Minister of War, Dupz, Sardanaphalus, Amalthea, A bit iffy, SmackBot,

15.1 Text 31

YellowMonkey, Wangyunfeng, Aim Here, Nickhk, Mira, Moeron, David Kernow, Hux, Estoy Aquí, Zazaban, Reedy, Slashme, Knowl-edgeOfSelf, Olorin28, Rokbas~enwiki, McGeddon, Pmaas, Unyoyega, Pgk, Lawrencekhoo, Y control, Blue520, Bomac, Jacek Kendysz,KocjoBot~enwiki, Davewild, Patrickneil, Setanta747 (locked), Nickst, WookieInHeat, Jrockley, Michaelll, Eskimbot, Rojomoke, AArz,Gaffers, Kintetsubuffalo, TharkunColl, Edgar181, MelancholieBot, CuriousOliver, Giandrea, The Rhymesmith, Sebesta, Markeer, Mjol-nir1984, Pmmollet, Gilliam, Brianski, Portillo, Gipsy~enwiki, Advds, Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik, Mortypsmith, Quadratic, ERcheck, Benyield-ing, Sk8r girl 469, Rst20xx, GerardKeating, Jake Larsen, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Kurykh, Dahn, H2ppyme, Gregology, Quinsareth,Persian Poet Gal, Salvo46, Rex Germanus, Geniu~enwiki, Ksenon, Kaliz, Blakenus, Cbh, Jkmccrann, MalafayaBot, WikiFlier, Silly rabbit,SchfiftyThree, Hibernian, BrendelSignature, RexImperium, Liebeskind, Bonaparte, Akanemoto, Constantzeanu, Willardo, Zogu~enwiki,Ctbolt, MichaelWheeley, Marcworca, Baronnet, Aridd, DHN-bot~enwiki, Xasf, Oatmeal batman, Yanksox, Zachorious, Louis3ham, Fj-mustak, Modest Genius, Nonplus, Countersubject, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, SiriusAlphaCMa, Ajaxkroon, Scott3, Novelty, Mitsuhi-rato, Euim, Alphathon, DeFacto, SuperDeng, Ajdz, OrphanBot, Onorem, Vanished User 0001, KaiserbBot, MeekSaffron, MJCdetroit,Sephirothrr, JonHarder, Scotsboyuk, Michkalas, TheKMan, Rrburke, Lesnail, Britmax, VMSMosaic, Rsm99833, Kittybrewster, Mbertsch,Addshore, Celarnor, SundarBot, Grover cleveland, The tooth, Cameron Nedland, Khoikhoi, Jmlk17, FinScribe, BIL, Krich, Piedineri,William Quill, Flyguy649, DinosaursLoveExistence, Jerrch, BesselDekker, Cybercobra, Savidan, Jiddisch~enwiki, StephenMacmanus,Nihilo 01, RJN, Treima, Nick125, Archos, Cordless Larry, RolandR, Yulia Romero, RandomP, Bmgoau, Salt Yeung, RafaelG, Only, Met-roStar, WoodElf, Wisco, Bombshell, Excaliburo, SpiderJon, JackHearne, Politis, Maelnuneb, Justin212k, Ptolios, Razor83, Aaker, Salamu-rai, Evlekis, Mion, DDima, Jugbo, Atlantas, Kukini, Skinnyweed, Juux, Tesseran, Ceoil, Ohconfucius, JLogan, Mphornet, Chwech, Entersandman, SashatoBot, WikiWitch, Nishkid64, Arnoutf, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Producercunningham, Frade, Harryboyles, An-lace, Skyscrap27, Soap, Kuru, John, Fanx, The idiot, IanPCP, Euchiasmus, LUCPOL, Cezzvil, Marco polo, Ouip, Nvw, Costa1143, AB,Edwy, JorisvS, Pronoun, Hemmingsen, Basser g, Joffeloff, CaptainVindaloo, Green Giant, Stefan2, Jaywubba1887, Silvdraggoj, Ckatz, Za-parojdik, Balfron, 16@r, Azate, Nobbs~enwiki, Hvn0413, Shangrilaista, Noah Salzman, George The Dragon, Jsx, Mr Stephen, Vaniba12,Ytgfcgh, Darz Mol~enwiki, Imperator2, Europimp, Samwingkit, Globo, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, Jborocz, Frigo, Drieakko, AdultSwim,KirrVlad, Sijo Ripa, Dr.K., Andrwsc, Palazov, Jose77, RMHED, MarkThomas, NeroN BG, Kvng, Regulus marzo4103, Hectorian, Sprint-prince, Zepheus, Doug Johnson, Gonzolively, N0osphR~enwiki, Fasach Nua, Burto88, Levineps, BranStark, Typelighter, Bluefret, Oden-gatan, Iridescent, Lcg, Stpaul, Lathrop1885, Fjbex, Judgesurreal777, Madmath789, Joseph Solis in Australia, Lottamiata, Jwalte04, MWM,Igoldste, Dionysos1~enwiki, Baloglu, Shoshonna, Shadowrun, CapitalR, Lucy-marie, Blehfu, Esurnir, Foundert~enwiki, EurowikiJ, Mary-sunshine, AGK, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, Anger22, Bottesini, Eluchil404, Pathosbot, Charleenmerced, Tawkerbot2, Daniel5127,Ouishoebean, Pudeo, Vanisaac, Hammer Raccoon, Galati, MightyWarrior, Kamikazi2, The Haunted Angel, SkyWalker, Blueiris, J Mil-burn, Slaciner, JForget, RCS, Thatperson, CmdrObot, Crêmdandouille, LSLM, 1.618033989, Van helsing, AlbertSM, Blue-Haired Lawyer,Geo-Loge~enwiki, BeenAroundAWhile, Anakata, Prosallus, Page Up, JohnCD, F5ZV, Nunquam Dormio, Otsego, R9tgokunks, Kylu,Pie.er, Green caterpillar, FlyingToaster, Ghfj007, WeggeBot, Shizane, Moreschi, Bakanov, Casper2k3, ONUnicorn, Porfyrios, Karenjc,Oruj, RagingR2, Hemlock Martinis, Lear 21, Nilfanion, Dan1113, Equendil, Rudjek, Ifeldman84, Sopoforic, Fnlayson, Wikien2009,CJH06, Ntsimp, Wiki01916, Valodzka, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Teak, Thebasshacker, Vanished user 45po45lr87gj, Jack-McLangley,Reywas92, O mores, Vanished user vjhsduheuiui4t5hjri, Aceofhearts, Michaelas10, Dabbi25, Gogo Dodo, GANDALF1992, Scales67,Travelbird, IntoCom, TicketMan, Brandon Connors, Khatru2, Colin Keigher, CiaranG, Hacker22475, Icemanofbarcelona101, Scroggie,Agne27, Rracecarr, Anton85~enwiki, Soetermans, Eu.stefan, Tkynerd, Kən'trɪbjʊtə, Odie5533, Nike8, B, Krator, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT,Ameliorate!, Telex, Pi3832, Eurocrat, Energyfreezer, Kozuch, Ward3001, Kushtrimxh, Abtract, Jamrifis, Omicronpersei8, Timata1705,JodyB, Lo2u, Arb, JohnInDC, Joowwww, FrancoGG, CieloEstrellado, 0lorenzo0, Thijs!bot, ChKa, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Qwyrxian, Olahus,Kmcoop01, Rileydutton, Southerngs, Brainboy109, S Marshall, SeNeKa, Joshuarooney, Jiminicriquet, Mojo Hand, LietKynes, Head-bomb, Ruber chiken, Canada Jack, Marek69, Qwarto, Peter gk, Bobblehead, A3RO, Dyslexik, Malarious, Ufwuct, James086, Doyley,Dark Enigma, Kornoslimnos~enwiki, Evanescenceboy~enwiki, Inner Earth, Mnemeson, The Proffesor, Gaimhreadhan, MichaelT1979,Grayshi, CharlotteWebb, Therequiembellishere, Dezidor, FreeKresge, Wikidenizen, GDP, Mrsanitazier, Thomas Paine1776, E!, SomeHu-man, Escarbot, The Person Who Is Strange, Oreo Priest, Mentifisto, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Yuanchosaan, Lucas Richards, Hgav, Robbochappers, BokicaK, Luna Santin, Gusme, Zoken4, Digital ice, Giancarlodoria, Mk*, TimVickers, Mdotley, Tjmayerinsf, Joe Schmedley,Yerkschmerk, Tadas12, NSH001, Mr giant sloth, Glentamara, Chronisgr, Farosdaughter, Laikalynx, MECU, Gdo01, Spencer, Yellowdesk,Alphachimpbot, Spartaz, Ltimur, Blog Mav Rick, Camptown, Jirka6, Ithinkhelikesit, Elaragirl, Crissim99, Uuu87, Ghmyrtle, Locospot-ter, RDCOOPER101, Smalltime0, TuvicBot, Caper13, DOSGuy, Radzinski, JAnDbot, Leuko, Husond, MER-C, LeedsKing, Sonicsuns,Benjamin22b, Luis wiki, NE2, Mrmango786, Daniel Supreme, Arch dude, Redking7, Awien, Gazilion, Andonic, Hut 8.5, 100110100,Yill577, PhilKnight, Jamesedwardsmith, Jbom1, Drdak, LittleOldMe, Acroterion, Yahel Guhan, Ngfrazier, Ya2sin, Magioladitis, Fitnr,Canjth, Pedro, El Greco, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Carlwev, Askari Mark, RBBrittain, JNW, JamesBWatson, CattleGirl, GearedBull,Jéské Couriano, Ojcookies, Janadore, TARBOT, Cantiana, Mangalaiii, Rivertorch, Buckshot06, Adrianski, Dima1, Paul111, Pixel ;-), Iainsona, Lacort, Aka042, Froid, Jvhertum, Jjasi, Jeroenl, Snowded, Catgut, Seleucus, Umeboshi, Scottish4ever, Animum, VegKilla,Winterus, Taamu, Adrian J. Hunter, Allstarecho, Nat, Beagel, Chunt@euromoney.com, Roberth Edberg, WhiteMagick, PoliticalJunkie,Chris G, DerHexer, BATE Borisov, Dkriegls, Caranorn, Ekotkie, Balazs.varadi, Bastiaquinas, Kitale, Fluteflute, Mschiffler, Oneiropagides,JRWalko, NatureA16, Pvosta, Stephenchou0722, Misarxist, Somethingoranother, MartinBot, Phantomsnake, Jwbaumann, Aristovoul0s,ARC Gritt, Ulkomaalainen, Rettetast, Svyatoslav, Ignis Fatuus, Mschel, Pilim, CommonsDelinker, ASDFGH, AlexiusHoratius, Vkire,Etidepeti, Ruud64, Andrewdpcotton, Lilac Soul, Wiki Raja, Lolnads, Tgeairn, Ssolbergj, Gligan, Abilityfun, J.delanoy, XVA, Child ofAlbion, DrKiernan, Jnpet, Altes, Treiskaitetarto, Ordew, Ed hover~enwiki, Surpieur, Inaugural, Phible, Tikiwont, Uncle Dick, Friedbrice,Maus-78, Jreferee, Guilherme Paula, LedRush, Jerry, Dedee73, Semiloose, Gzkn, Xbspiro, Elchimba, Dispenser, DarkFalls, DSuser,LordAnubisBOT, JavaJawaUK, McSly, Carreira, Eur21, JavMilos, Eurosceptic soldier, Novis-M, TheTrojanHought, Zeisseng, MikaelHäggström, Billybobbilly, 12345e, Spaner, Curnock06, Gurchzilla, Sukee3, AntiSpamBot, Snake bgd, Rossenglish, Plasticup, Drahgo,Stambouliote, SJP, Bobianite, Euthymios, Kansas Bear, Greeves, Doomsday28, Nay Min Thu, JohnnyRush10, 2812, Erdeniss, Keizuko,FenderTele, Cometstyles, Bogdan~enwiki, Remember the dot, Ayatollah’s hashish, Kolja21, Metro Mover, Mads Mariegaard, Tiwonk,Erzan, Ddelpercio, Bonadea, WinterSpw, Strajkoski, Pdcook, Ja 62, IceDragon64, Andy Marchbanks, Madhyako Pradeshlo, HighKing,The Fat Guy, Azugaldia, Alain10, Permafrost, Sphayros, Regenspaziergang, Cartiod, Sand Squid, Wombat66, Xiahou, Squids and Chips,Conte di Cavour, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, Pietru, Rrrttt~enwiki, Spellcast, Highfields, NJguy281, Ottershrew, Ckoicedelire, Glossologist,Thomasthestudent, Zakuragi, Sam Blacketer, RaulCovita, Cal Evans, Deor, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, That-Vela-Fella, CWii, One NightIn Hackney, Johnfos, ABF, Reconfirm your strategy, Macedonian, Gottago, Trilinguist, The Duke of Waltham, Nburden, Asa Zernik,Lord Collettus, Lbunker, Raggz, AlnoktaBOT, HeckXX, Lear’s Fool, Montessquieu, Soliloquial, Katydidit, Gpeilon, Miguelzinho, Rick-yTheBest, Godefroy, Ryan032, HIZKIAH, Aesopos, Philip Trueman, Marekzp, Blibbka, Director, Pipnosis, SamMichaels, TXiKiBoT,Burkycan, Fatlittlenick, Zidonuke, Marskuzz, Dawidbernard, Ken Worthy, Minger125, Pascar, Malinaccier, OverSS, Vipinhari, Free-dom4korea, Technopat, Norad79, Cro-Cop2~enwiki, Uzo20, Black Foil, FrstFrs, Ajrabagl, Dictouray, Id4abel, Zserango, Togedude, Qxz,Dersb, Oxfordwang, Littlealien182, Anna Lincoln, Buffadren, Cflipcg, Mattomatteo27, Dendodge, EdJ343, Melsaran, MackSalmon, Max-

32 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Vieira, Califate123!, Kingpin13, Lucideer, ΘΕΟΔΩΡΟΣ, Flewis, Bosonic dressing, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Jcs45,Kapitop, Thadeous Oakley G., A.Molnar, Billy Bollox, Citation bot, Dootson, Racconish, Jamiemaloneyscoreg, Bci2, Half past, Franken-puppy, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, Tag101, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Ybnormal2day13, Enok, Schopy1988, Xqbot, Palmer1989, Timir2, Sionus,Monkeybuttsex, Jwurtz92993, Capricorn42, Brendan550, Editor news, Thor262, Khajidha, Davydoug, Renaissancee, George369, ,4twenty42o, Nasnema, Arsenal2247, Sergihan, Crazygiant, Lusci, Tomdo08, Bzms, Under91dog, BritishWatcher, Sinotna, Srich32977,Lytir, 5062mullac, Ruy Pugliesi, Rangond, GrouchoBot, Armbrust, Frosted14, Mehmettrie, Hamish.leckie, Rstun, OnlyUrbanArena,93tl11, ProtectionTaggingBot, TheHonMP, Damian Radu, Megustalastrufas, Dzsi, Fijnlijn, UrGay2, Brandon5485, Mark Schierbecker,SassoBot, Cerniagigante, Manos76, Cider86, Katkat22, Cyfraw, GhalyBot, MerlLinkBot, Smallman12q,Waitingforbrain, Opteubok, Shad-owjams, Lyonspotter, Florida15, Volgar, Franman3024, Bearnfæder, GVilKa, Zwanen001, Hmk20009, Lawdroid, MarcoHecimovic, Ho-moLiteratus, Dougofborg, Griffinofwales, Green Cardamom, James1902004, FrescoBot, Gomezko, KremilekzParezu, Kanabiz, Bgillesp,Ron 1987, Paine Ellsworth, Chronus, Tobby72, MusicInTheHouse, Ace of Spades, Mark Renier, Thayts, Eun16, C Berger11, Boos34,Eve Wiki, Recognizance, Sjoerdboersma, AKM73, Theblueenigma, Sir allen, Luke.Handle, Connolly15, Jaganjac, Bambuway, Cayen-neGaramonde, Purpleturple, Rgvis, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, Galmicmi, Marcuspk, Stevenjp, 12345zxcvb67890zxcvb, Redrose64,Joeycz, Mca0004, Qthorp, Pinethicket, Sonibee, Nagyat2009, HRoestBot, Gobookhotels, Wdcf, Jonesey95, Chatfecter, Rameshngbot,Japanlover97, Martinvl, Skinnyank, Tutxus78, Bejinhan, Rdonohoe, JPChatfield124, Curlyrunai, A8UDI, Radualexandru99, Nicksss93,MastiBot, SpaceFlight89, Île flottante, Dcasanovax, Jamesinderbyshire, Meaghan, Biala Gwiazda, Jackieeaton, Reconsider the static, Luc19,Zesel, Jirka.h23, Pourquoi Cherie, MadPoet13, Trance55, FoxBot, Altorrijos, TobeBot, Keys767, DriveMySol, Zanhe, Lotje, Maisunibn monowar, Fox Wilson, Phukoph, Teddycom, Georgewright chelt, RoadTrain, Vrenator, LilyKitty, Natashalight, Bigup88, Neme-sis of Reason, Antipastor, Gazpr, Nikosgr123, Ballsnweener, EUvin, Tomi566, The Spoorne, Diannaa, Samah10, Skakkle, Underlyinglk, Angloengland, OrangeCorner, Tbhotch, Spursnik, Minimac, Thegreengrym, Sideways713, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Holdnview, Hugh-MAC.7891, Mean as custard, Delevero, Mr.Adion, RjwilmsiBot, Chipmunkdavis, TjBot, Generalboss3, IANVS, Ripchip Bot, Likemon-keys, Helmoony, Givenchy de Paris, Feliz.rhf, Seniorfox, Jfp2006, Hajatvrc, MAXXX-309, Sk8terzeck, NerdyScienceDude, Jimtaip,DefinatelyNotTrolling55, Elium2, Spacejam2, Rctycoplay, Pconleynms, Slon02, Polylepsis, Marigaux, Chaziken5, Kaiserble, EmausBot,John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, JCRules, Filipdr, Snow storm in Eastern Asia, Dewritech, Muslim mujahid, Racerx11,Blizzardstep0, YELKENN, NotAnonymous0, KHamsun, Tokyo68, Tokyo70, Tommy2010, MrGRA, Two Of Three, Yattum, Janvon-Bismarck, Number10a, Hoygan!!, Mr julian~enwiki, Theurgist, Thecheesykid, T0812, HiW-Bot, ZéroBot, Epizentrum, Liquidmetalrob,Yosidunkki, Dolovis, Traxs7, Chrishopgood, Aronlee90, ObscureReality, The Nut, Thecontinentalwisdom, Subtropical-man, Nunya34,Stocklinger123, H3llBot, EPICWHALE, Glimmer721, Pl2241, VLADIMIR Skokan, Immunmotbluescreen, Spartapolo, Snoopy18, Bro-cach, Begemotsshots, Wayne Slam, Rcsprinter123, Andattaca2010, Zuydbieb, Tiiliskivi, WikiEditor8481, Brandmeister, Foreverman123,

15.2 Images 33

L Kensington, 111Alpha, Vater-96, Superluminary, Gsarwa, Quite vivid blur, Dnflls, Tarian.liber, Marthainky, Wasatexan, Parrisian, Jere-myMcClean, BernardaAlba, ChuispastonBot, Italiano111, HandsomeFella, Horways, Counny, Peter Karlsen, Mocctur, Hdeplaen, Мурад97, Jasonli42, 28bot, Babciakorekta, Mjbmrbot, DDragonNk-Visual, ResearchRave, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Andrewing123, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Akuindo, Catmandestroyer, BaboneCar, CocuBot, Ypnypn, Ecad93, Koolx, Gilderien, Jenova20, Kspenc24, Stephan.brubaker,BrekekekexKoaxKoax, Slayer4x4, Millermk, ANGELUS, Bright Darkness, Omnisome, SilentResident, The Master of Mayhem, Geomant,Frietjes, Magicoast, Kage1234, 08OceanBeach SD, Hazhk, Aight 2009, O.Koslowski, Pensionero, MannyXX, Turu96, PRUNIT, Widr,CostaDax, WikiPuppies, Savantas83, PaoloNapolitano, Ρουθραμιώτης, Pofka, NuclearEnergy, Mightymights, Onen hag oll, Helpful PixieBot, Kr1st1deejay97, Eleventh1, Mghoffmann, Toth2000, Emir abrashi, Plarem, REJS H, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Murry1975,WryNomad, Krenair, W2kurs-test, M0rphzone, Edoardo Cavaleri, Luis Molnar, Brian mcauslan, Steveyt0, Tolea93, HIDECCHI001, Av-ocatoBot, Metricopolus, Middgeaugh-Botteaugh, Monica Santa, Marcofran, Himan1238569, Trueeuropeanist, Mark Arsten, Cheveri, Fu-tureTrillionaire, Mrlachlan2001, Arzino, Albatalab, Altaïr, Cobulator, LoopersdeBruges, Ksspencer, IleMaurice, Alvin Lee, Atoine85,Blackfish, Qataq, Snow Blizzard, Moliere2001, Surtalnar, Argonauth, Calculon79, Mayast, JZCL, Germanpost, Skycloud86, Bharvey87,ElleAlawi, Improver99, Achowat, HTML2011, PyrrhusEP, Dmbackviper, Staglit, Wer900, Lord Bumble, Europeanisbetter, ACELE-GEND, BattyBot, Justincheng12345-bot, Intelligible, Ehr1Ros2, Surfer.taylor, Ushau97, ChrisGualtieri, Nick.mon, SD5bot, MSUGRA,Euenvpolicy, JYBot, Lefteris20, Dylanvt, Youaretheoneinmymind, Ibicdlcod, E4024, Dexbot, Longmaster, Aerosmithfan507, Travelpleb,SZERVÁC Attila, Robert Laymont, Dolphinsrockmiami, Andreas Parker, Hmainsbot1, LikeTheLadies, Bilingual2000, , 11rac-coon1, Áfonyakutya, Maca152, Datu Dong, SiBr4, Cerabot~enwiki, Pingu4593, PercPlus5, FonsScientiae, Michael Anon, TwoTwoHello,Darkesthours, Purplematty, Thechewymajor, ਰਾਜੇਨ੍ਦ੍ਰ ਸਿੰਘ, Lugia2453, Wgmlwgml98, Franek K., BeautyPageant, Envpol2, Sowlos, Com-fyKem, IanPerry, Iskender Iskender, Turkeyboy3000, Pietro500, TsaristRussia, DavidPKendal, Rgtesler, Matafione, Copulative, 900mill,Podeepodee, Klak of Klak, Zachary1031, Xwoodsterchinx, Whoops521, Radarm, Tuvixer, Tomfutru, WareMiekal, Chessrat, Capscap,Dux Ducis Hodiernus, Oriol20, Bumbaswag123, Rob984, De wafelenbak, Yakikaki, AmericanLemming, Moneycashmoney, EIB Com-munication, Inglok, Madehub, QuantoAltoPossoVolare, Msundqvist, WyeatesODI, Ryantheravensfan1, Flat Out, LudicrousTripe, Medi-olanum, Qufgpsmsqka123, Faisalranjha, Kuyi123w, Falconet8, EuropeanHistory2011, IM-yb, Sparkesp, Dimsar01, Hwasus, Zenibus,Eagle3399, PrivateMasterHD, Fmb53, Håvard Geithus, Portlannd, Shearflyer, Nitchy, Blueyoshi99, Sarabveer, Aryana2013, Kind Ten-nis Fan, Askave, Whizz40, Aeroid, Coreyemotela, Chipperdude15, The Northaptonshire pins, N0n3up, GJVerity, Barjimoa, Jay13579,SyaWgnignahCehT, 1990’sguy, Legendiii, Rossoh, Monkbot, Plokmijnuhbygvtfcdxeszwaq, Ivan1410, Ryopus, Narenkmishra, Loving-toyou, Snowycats, Formuse, Praveench1888, RuthArchivio, Brookdub, 8Sirlo6, Warner REBORN, IWJXB, MaronitePride, Peterthlee,WikiImprovment78, Dlíodóir95, Jasongoodui, Noseamuseos, Onestance, Skoritz, Yogurto, JuandisCV, Hijuklet, EconomicsEconomics,Eimukas22, MinemorphsScottie, Anentai, StressOverStrain and Anonymous: 3923

15.2 Images• File:1_May_2004_enlargement_celebration_in_Parc_du_Cinquantenaire.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/0/00/1_May_2004_enlargement_celebration_in_Parc_du_Cinquantenaire.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors:http://www.flickr.com/photos/robdeman/114494254/in/pool-24642083@N00 Original artist: Rockcohen

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34 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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36 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• (Załącznik Nr 2 do Statutu) Uchwała Nr XX/340/2004 Rady Miasta Katowice z dnia 9 lutego 2004 r. ws. uchwalenia Statutu MiastaKatowice (Dz. Urz. Woj. Śląskiego z 2004 r., Nr 14, poz. 539)

• Uchwała Rady Miejskiej w Katowicach z dnia 17 grudnia 1936 r.• Zarządzeniem Ministra Spraw Wewnętrznych z dnia 29 maja 1937 r. ws. zatwierdzenia herbu miasta Katowic (Monitor Polski Nr

128, poz. 204)

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