African Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences ISSN:2657-2664, Vol. 3 No.1 (January 2020)
Evaluating Spatial Data Acquisition and Management Techniques for
Multipurpose Cadastre in Ethiopia and Rwanda
(Preliminary Results)
1Didier Milindi Rugema, 2Tadesse Amsalu Birhanu, 3Gebeyehu Belay Shibeshi 1PhD candidate, Bahir Dar University/Institute of Land Administration, [email protected], Bahir Dar, Ethiopia 2Associate professor/PhD, Bahir Dar University/Institute of Land Administration, [email protected], Bahir Dar,
Ethiopia 3Assistant professor/PhD, Bahir Dar University/Institute of Land Administration, [email protected], Bahir Dar,
Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
Spatial data are a basis in development of multipurpose cadastre. This paper aims
to evaluate spatial data acquisition and management techniques for multipurpose
cadastre in Ethiopia and Rwanda. The research was conducted using a qualitative
research method, a review of existing literature on spatial data acquisition and
management techniques for cadastral purposes. The empirical data have also been
collected. The results reveal that using techniques that are not standard based,
Ethiopia and Rwanda have carried out large-scale mapping under participatory
approach for re-engineering their cadastral systems in short time. However, given
the manner by which the processes have been undertaken, the question comes on
quality of land measurements and the resulting cadastral geodatabases in both
countries, implying reliability of land information. The question also comes on
maintenance of the established infrastructure within available resources in case
of Rwanda, and lack of covering all land types in case of Ethiopia.
Keywords:
Multipurpose cadastre
Spatial data acquisition and
management techniques
Efficient process
Ethiopia and Rwanda
Received in : 18-10-2019
Reviewed in:18-10-2019
Accepted in :30-12-2019
Published in: 30 -01 - 2020
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African Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences ISSN: 2657-2664, Vol. 3 No.1 (January 2020) 196
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and rationale of the study
Land being a natural and scare resource, is affected by competing uses (GIZ, 2012), hence it should
be carefully managed for the benefit of the present and future generations (United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe, 2004). This necessitates collecting detailed information on land not only limited
to determination of boundaries of parcels and associated maps (Williamson, 1985). In this regard,
cadastral systems being an engine of land information to know who owns land on which the activities
occur, while serving for legal protection and investment purposes (Bogaerts & Zevenbergen, 2001), they
have progressively played a multipurpose role including social justice, environmental management and
sustainable development due to evolutionary societal needs (Ting & Williamson, 1999). Modern cadastres
focus on detailed georeferenced information on land at individual parcel level (United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe, 2005), not only for legal and/or fiscal purposes, but also for other purposes
including base mapping, facilities management, value assessment, land use planning and environmental
impact assessment within a framework of multipurpose cadastre (Kaufmann & Steudler, 1998). However,
in many African countries, contrary to traditional land tenure systems, cadastre was introduced following
colonial administration of European law tradition, and this has led to the failures of the systems
(Österberg, 2001). Across Africa, the developments of formal land administration systems encounter
challenges in updating, costs for maintenance and inefficiency due to lack of the financial, human and
technical resources (Burns & Dalrymple, 2006).
Together with non-spatial data associated with a parcel, a map describes a parcel spatially to form
a cadastre (Konecny, 2009). In addressing the challenges encountered in development of modern
cadastres, particularly in land measurements, the fit-for-purpose land administration framework
(Enemark, et al., 2014) was developed. The framework is about cadastral systems in developing countries
developed using affordable spatial data capture methods for establishment and operations, being
inclusive to cover all land types, participatory, achieved in short time within available resources, with
reliable land information and upgradable over time. The spatial data capture methods are mainly the use
of high-resolution satellite and/or aerial imagery, rather than field survey, with the accuracy related to
the issue of using information.
In this framework, using spatial data acquisition techniques that are not standard based, Ethiopia
and Rwanda have carried out large-scale mapping for their land certification programs to enhance land
tenure security and proper land management. In Ethiopia the program was undertaken in two phases,
first level land certification using local land measurement techniques consisting of rope or tape, and
traditional measurement techniques known as timad, an area of land a pair of oxen can plow per day. The
second level is carried out using modern techniques, mainly ortho-images (Deininger, et al., 2008;
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Eversmann, 2019). In Rwanda, the program was undertaken systematically in one phase land tenure
regularisation using ortho-images (Rugema, 2011; Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, 2016).
The benefits have been evidenced in both countries; Ethiopia (Holden & Tefera, 2008; Deininger,
et al., 2011) and Rwanda (Ali, et al., 2014; Mukahigiro, et al., 2015). However, there is a knowledge gap on
how efficiently spatial data acquisition and management techniques are undertaken in the back-end for
the development of cadastral systems serving for multipurpose. Therefore, this research aims to
investigate how efficiently techniques of acquiring and managing spatial data for multipurpose cadastre
are selected, designed and implemented in the back-end to serve the public in the front-end. Given the
similarities in re-engineering their cadastral systems, the empirical assessment is undertaken using the
cases of Ethiopia and Rwanda when implementing land policies. The cadastral systems in both countries
aim to serve for multipurpose use (Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, 2012b; Shibeshi, 2018).
1.2 Overview on land policies
In Ethiopia, rights to property are stipulated in the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic
of Ethiopia Proclamation No. 1/1995. The rights to ownership of rural and urban land, as well as of all
natural resources, are exclusively vested in the State and in the peoples of Ethiopia. Also all land is a
common property of the Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia and shall not be subject to sale or
to other means of exchange (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 1995). Land can be transferred,
through inheritance, by a landholder to members of his family. In addition, peasant farmers, semi
pastoralists and pastoralists with holding certificates can lease land to other farmers or investors from
their holding of a size sufficient for the intended development in such way that shall not displace them.
Also a landholder using his land use right may undertake development activity jointly with an investor
(Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2005). To realize the common interest and development of the
people, no person may acquire urban land other than the lease holding system (Federal Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia, 2011).
In Rwanda, the lack of reliable land registration system was among the factors that was hindering
an efficient land management. In order to bring a rational and planned use of land while ensuring a sound
land management and an efficient land administration, a national land policy was established in 2004 to
guarantee a safe and stable form of land tenure (Republic of Rwanda, 2004). It is an obligation for a person
to register his own land as stipulated in the enacted 2005 organic land law, amended in 2013 (Republic
of Rwanda, 2005; Republic of Rwanda, 2013). This law stipulates that land is public for all Rwandans, and
the State has supreme powers to manage all national land. The right to land is granted by the State in the
form of emphyteutic lease, not less than three years or more than ninety-nine years. Through succession,
gift, inheritance, ascending sharing, rent, sale, sublease, exchange, servitude, mortgage, and any other
transaction within the boundaries of the laws and regulations, rights to land may be transferred between
persons. For the sake of land reserved for agriculture and animal resources, land rights may be
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transferred, without prejudice to the provisions of law governing land in Rwanda relating to the area of
the land that cannot be subdivided.
The two countries systems differ mainly in holding right based system for the case of Ethiopia while
Rwanda’s system is emphyteutic lease based.
2. RESEARCH METHODS
To investigate the processes in acquisition of spatial data and development of land information
system, the research was undertaken using a qualitative research method. A review of existing literature
on spatial data acquisition and management techniques for cadastral purposes was carried out with a
particular focus to Ethiopia and Rwanda. The selection of the two countries in Africa is that they have
carried out large-scale mapping for cadastral purposes using surveying techniques that are not
classic/standard based. In addition, the researcher is familiar to the cadastral procedures in the two
countries, and this has facilitated data collection and analysis.
The comparative study allows to see better the implicit foundation of practices and phenomena
and to improve the efficiency by revealing and challenging the less evident assumptions and conceptions
about the World (Azarian, 2011), and in one way or another, a case study collects and analyses empirical
evidence (Yin, 2002). Using a purposive sampling, primary data were gathered from the key informants.
This approach is suitable for evaluation research and policy analysis by identifying who are involved in
designing, giving, or administering the program or service in question and receivers of the service (Palys,
2008). In qualitative research, the idea is to select purposefully participants or sites that best help the
researcher to realize the research problem and question (Creswell, 2014). The data have been collected
in both countries of the study from the staff working for cadastral offices, specifically the staff responsible
for geographic information system (GIS) for cadastre, surveyors and staff responsible for information and
communication technology (ICT).
Land administration arrangements in the two study countries are different, land administration is
regional state based in case of Ethiopia; while in case of Rwanda, land administration is governed from
central to local offices (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 1995; Rwanda Natural Resources
Authority, 2016). Given these arrangements, the empirical data, in Ethiopian case, were collected from
the cadastral office of one of the regional states of Ethiopia, the Amhara National Regional State (ANRS).
This region is among the regional states that have experienced large-scale mapping for the first level land
certification that is prepared using local traditional measurement techniques. The region is also the first
in adopting the most elaborate process in implementing land administration in Ethiopia. Furthermore it
is undertaking the second level land certification after piloting projects to choose suitable modern
surveying and mapping techniques (Deininger, et al., 2008; Sida-Amhara Rural Development Program &
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Bureau of Environment Protection Land Administration and Use, 2010; Shibeshi, et al., 2014; Shibeshi,
2018). In case of Rwanda, data were collected from the national cadastral office.
The measurement criteria for analysis are based on the fit-for-purpose land administration concept
(Enemark, et al., 2014) and the ongoing debate on Cadastre 2034 (Lemmens, 2010), the two in the same
line. The latter is about making differences between geographical areas and their respective needs, rather
than one size fitting all. This includes cadastral systems for developing countries developed using light
tools to generate exact data rather than accurate data to respond to the primary need of building land
rights infrastructure. The former includes cadastral systems for developing countries developed using
affordable spatial data capture methods for establishment and operations, being inclusive to cover all land
types, participatory, achieved in short time within available resources, with reliable land information and
upgradable over time.
3. FIT-FOR-PURPOSE LAND ADMINISTRATION FRAMEWORK AND VISION FOR FUTURE CADASTRE
This section aims to investigate the fit-for-purpose land administration framework and the vision
for future cadastre given various contexts. Most cadastral systems tend to be computer-based to allow
not only the integration of maps and registers but also integration with other land information databases
(Kaufmann & Steudler, 1998). Considering a wide-range of humankind to land relations, there is a need
of low cost rapid processes for recording land rights to serve in dealing with rapid urbanization,
informality, and climate change and food insecurity. Such processes need secure and updating
mechanisms to safeguard the sustainability (Molen, 2014).
Modernization being a process and response of social change to achieve intended goals (Tipps,
1973) as a result of technological progress (Inglehart & Welzel, 2007), the third world countries in a
situation of lacking productive investments have to reside on aid, including capital, technology and
expertise from the Western Word (Reyes, 2001; Mergel, 2012). The developments in geo-information and
communication technology (Geo-ICT) have an influence on developments of cadastral systems and
surrounding geo-spatial data infrastructure (Lemmen & Oosterom, 2002). However, the re-engineering
of cadastral and land registration systems using Geo-ICT infrastructure to support various demands
encounters challenges including financial, technical, legal and organizational (Tuladhar, 2003). What is
important is the debate on appropriate cadastral system for individual country conforming to
circumstances and needs, rather than debate on whether cadastral systems are important (Williamson,
1997).
While the concept of fit for purpose land administration (Enemark, et al., 2014) is rooted to geo-
referenced land information framework with the idea of responding to local needs in developing
countries, the acquired spatial data need Geo-ICT infrastructure for the management. Being important to
ease the tasks in cadastral services, Geo-ICT developments need appropriate applications depending on
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each country’s context capabilities to assimilate the developed technologies. This calls to rethink on the
fit-for-purpose land administration concept. Should this concept be limited to geo-referenced framework
and with due focus to developing countries or less developed countries? This leads to question where the
first-phase land certification in Ethiopia using traditional land measurements techniques could be
classified; that is fitting-for-purpose at the time it was needed within its geographical context. This signals
the need for comprehensively reframing the concept for different contexts in space and time. What is
important as fit-for-purpose land administration is a cadastral system developed in such way that
responds to the context needs, using available resource capacities, whether being for developing or
developed countries.
In the vision for Cadastre 2034 (Lemmens, 2010), it is discussed that developing countries need
object survey (3 dimensions) in urban areas and general boundaries in rural areas, whereby in both areas
what is most important is societal needs, and the technology to come next. The argument in this research
is that taking into account the comprehensive fit-for-purpose land administration; the vision for Cadastre
2034 needs reconsideration. The object survey would not be the focus for urban areas in developing
countries given that its implementation would need advanced technologies while different contexts may
not be able to assimilate. Being important, the object survey would not necessarily focus on standard
survey technologies to represent different strata of land rights.
4. TECHNIQUES OF SPATIAL DATA ACQUISITION AND MANAGEMENT FOR MULTIPURPOSE
CADASTRE IN ETHIOPIA AND RWANDA
4.1 Techniques of acquiring spatial data and development of land information system
In Ethiopia and Rwanda, land registration was undertaken in a participatory process with
involvement of local people in indentification and demarcation of parcel boundaries in the presence of
owner of a parcel in question, owners of neighbouring parcels and local land committees. Accordingly, the
latter consists of the land use and administration committees (LACs) in Ethiopia and the land adjudication
committees (LACs) in Rwanda (Deininger, et al., 2008; Rugema, 2011).
4.1.1 Techniques of acquiring spatial data and development of land information system in case of
Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, land measurements for land certification was undertaken in two phases with due focus
to rural areas, and not covering all regions (Deininger, et al., 2008; Bezu & Holden, 2014). The first phase
rural land certification was introduced in 1998 in one of the regional states of Ethiopia and it was
introduced in other three regions in subsequent years to enhance land tenure security and land use
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productivity (Muchomba, 2017). With rapid and low costs methods, more than 20 million rural land
parcels were registered over the period of 2 to 3 years. To do so, land measurement techniques consisted
of rope or tape, and traditional measurement techniques known as timad, an area of land a pair of oxen
can plow per day (Deininger, et al., 2008; Sida-Amhara Rural Development Program & Bureau of
Environment Protection Land Administration and Use, 2010).
To address measurement limitations, the second phase land certification was introduced to
complement the first phase. Pilot programs were carried out to add geographical locations and sizes of
individual farm plots using modern technologies including Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS),
satellite imagery or orthophoto (Bezu & Holden, 2014). The second level land certification was introduced
in the ANRS as continuation of the first level land certification, aiming at establishing a well-functioning
multipurpose cadastre, within a framework of progressive land administration system (Shibeshi, 2018).
In 2002, the pilots of developing land administration system were undertaken in two kebeles (sub-
districts) in two different zones of the ANRS of Ethiopia (administratively Ethiopia divided in regions,
zones, woreda/districts, and kebele/sub-districts). Following the paper-based system for administering
land information in the ANRS, a computer-based land information system was developed. The
Information System for Land Administration (ISLA) was developed by a hired expert, starting in 2003,
and it was operational in 2004. The system was decentralized and operating at woreda administration
offices in the region, starting from the two pilot areas, and later expanded in other woredas. In 2010, the
system was running in 40 of the 130 woredas of the region (Sida-Amhara Rural Development Program &
Bureau of Environment Protection Land Administration and Use, 2010); and currently, it is running in
118 woredas. The ISLA was developed to computerise and update the textual data of the first level land
certification (Shibeshi, 2018); it was developed on PostgreSQL (Postgres) to be linked to parcel
geometries in GIS. The local in-house ICT staff administer the system. The geodatabase, in the second
phase, is generated using Quantum GIS (QGIS). In separate platforms, the textual and spatial databases
communicate through holding parcel number. Currently, an upgrade is ongoing to integrate textual and
spatial databases in one platform, the National Rural Land Administration Information System (NRLAIS).
4.1.2 Techniques of acquiring spatial data and development of land information system in case of
Rwanda
In Rwanda, under land tenure regularization (LTR) program, land registration was undertaken
systematically using ortho-images (Rugema, 2011; Nkurunziza, 2015). In the names of their land holders,
all national land parcels have been mapped and formally registered. The Land Tenure Regularization
Support System (LTRSS) was developed to support the LTR program. The LTRSS containing the textual
information while Geographic Information System (GIS) was supporting spatial information of land
parcels; the two systems linked by the unique parcel identifier (UPI). A web based Land Administration
Information System (LAIS) was developed to support mainly in the maintenance of land certification,
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while also supporting land administration and management (Rwanda Natural Resources Authority,
2016); the information contained in LTRSS was migrated to LAIS (Sagashya, 2013b).
Initially, a hired software developer developed the first version of the LAIS as textual database on
PostgreSQL (Postgres). This version had issues of duplication and/or missing of parcel numbers due to
the lack of integration of spatial part, developed in ArcGIS 9.3.1, with textual part, and automatic
generation of UPI. Land transactions in GIS were generated by uploading to LAIS an updated shapefile
(geometries and attributes, UPIs); the parcel numbering generated manually by GIS staff. To upgrade the
system, a hired GIS developer, in collaboration with the previous hired developer on the textual part,
developed a dockable window as an extension to ArcGIS 9.3.1 to connect to textual database (LAIS).
However, the two platforms are not integrated; the spatial component platform developed on SQLServer
with SDE requires pushing, through web services, spatial information to textual component platform
developed on Postgres. In this communication, malfunctions of spatial transaction processes between the
two platforms compromise the system. Different efforts have been made to upgrade the system and solve
technical issues; however, by solving some issues, other issues come up and they keep circling. From the
start, the system developed by outsourced developers was deployed on production without a deep
analysis on its stability, and it was not fully tested to see if it responds to all transactions processed in it.
Other mechanisms are going on to upgrade the system.
4.2 Process of selecting and designing spatial data acquisition techniques
4.2.1 Process of selecting and designing spatial data acquisition techniques in case of Ethiopia
To develop the spatial component in Ethiopia, the pilots for the second level land certification were
introduced to add a geo-referenced information. The computerized system in the second level
certification is expected to make easier the updating and management of land records. Whereas the
USAID-funded Ethiopia Land Tenure and Administration Program (ELTAP)/which became, at a later
stage, Ethiopia Land Administration Program (ELAP), used handheld-GPS, the SIDA-funded program:
Sida-Amhara Rural Development Program (SARDP) used total station and high precision GPS. The
Finland-funded project: Responsible and Innovative Land Administration (REILA) used ortho-
images/aerial photographs and satellite images (Bezu & Holden, 2014; Persha, et al., 2017). These
techniques differ in their positional accuracy, requirements for training, speed and costs (Sida-Amhara
Rural Development Program & Bureau of Environment Protection Land Administration and Use, 2010).
Following the results from trials, the ortho-image method is adopted for the wide-area
implementation at regional scale. The program is supported by different partners, including REILA, the
U.K. funded project: the Land Investment for Transformation (LIFT) Project and World Bank funded-
project: the Sustainable Land Management Project (SLMP). From 2012 to 2014, REILA project undertook
trials in five regions, including Amhara Region, and the LIFT project took over for scaling up the program
(Eversmann, 2019). The project is operating in four regional states, including the Amhara Region (Hailu,
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2016), and designed for 5.5 years, starting in March 2014, under which about 14 million parcels are
expected to be completed for second level certification (Lapper, 2014). In parallel, the REILA project is
also involved as an actor in scaling-up the method in its areas of operations, including the ANRS
(Eversmann, 2019).
4.2.2 Process of selecting and designing spatial data acquisition techniques in case of Rwanda
To undertake the LTR program in Rwanda, the pilots were carried out in 2007 in four areas using
ortho-images, Quickbird satellite images (Rugema, 2011; Nkurunziza, 2015). Following the completion of
the LTR trial phase, a strategic road map (SRM) was prepared. This included the analysis of process and
results, and calculations of the requirements including, but not limited to, work rates and costs (Sagashya
& English, 2009; Nkurunziza, 2015). The analysis from the trial phase showed that countrywide
implementation could run at the highest speed in more than 10 years for the estimated 7.9 million parcels
using ortho-images (Republic of Rwanda, 2007). However, at a later stage the implementation plan was
changed to 5 years (Government of Rwanda, 2008) and on ground more than 10 million parcels were
mapped and registered (Sagashya, 2013a; Sagashya, 2013b).
Using mainly aerial photos and satellite images in the remaining areas, the countrywide
implementation started in June 2009, and a support team joined in July 2010 (Sagashya, 2013a; Sagashya,
2013b). The demarcation and adjudication of parcel boundaries was completed in June 2012, with 10.3
million parcels (Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, 2012a). The LTR pilots and national roll-out were
mainly supported by the U.K. Department for International Development (DFID)-funded project, the
National Land Tenure Reform Programme, NLTRP (Sagashya & English, 2009; Nkurunziza, 2015);
whereas, in addition to Government of Rwanda, other donors contributed also during country-wide
implementation, and some other contribution of land owners (Sagashya, 2013a; Sagashya, 2013b).
To respond to the urgency of land tenure challenges, the government insisted on the necessity of
accelerating the nationwide LTR program by registering 50% of plots by the end of the first year. This
required reviewing the initial draft of the SRM, which was proposed to start with hotspots and to
gradually extending the program nationwide over the period of 15 to 20 years (Nkurunziza, 2015). The
SRM was adjusted for one-off investment with optimum conditions to speed up and complete the LTR in
shortest time as possible to avoid inequalities to citizens in accessing the new system (Sagashya & English,
2009). Having the LTR completed in short time, the number of parcels registered was far greater than
what was expected to be met in longer period using the same methods and techniques. However, this
brings the question on how efficiently the process was undertaken during countrtywide implementation.
4.3 Process of implementing spatial data acquisition
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In case of Ethiopia, the wide-area implementation for second level certification is ongoing; and in
case of Rwanda, the LTR was completed in 2013, currently undertaking maintenance of land records
and the holding infrastructure.
4.3.1 Spatial data acquisition process
To undertake the acquisition of spatial data in Ethiopia and Rwanda, ortho-image maps are
prepared, printed and taken to the field. The boundaries of parcels are delineated over maps in
participatory approach. The tools are easy for use by local people on site. The post-processing is
undertaken in the office by scanning and geo-referencing field maps, and the boundaries of parcels are
then on-screen vectorised. This results in generating geo-referenced cadastral data; however, the way the
processes are undertaken need a particular attention.
4.3.2 Capacity building for cadastral surveying
In both countries, Ethiopia and Rwanda, local people trained as para-surveyors to carry out
demarcation of parcel boundaries are given on job-training, 2 weeks in case of Ethiopia (Eversmann,
2019) and two to four weeks in case of Rwanda depending on adaptability of the trainee to work
independently (Rugema, 2011).
In case of Rwanda, at the start of the LTR national roll-out, this procedure was implemented as
designed. However, at a later stage, the practice changed; in different areas, the training was carried out
only within some hours within one day and let the trainee to start working independently on the same
day.
Ethiopia, building on pilots and Rwandan experiences, is undertaking the second level land
certification program using aerial imagery under participatory approach (Lapper, 2014). Considering the
Rwandan case experiences, an attention needs to be paid on how, in case of Ethiopia, the processes for
spatial data acquisition in field are properly undertaken in practice compared to how they are formally
designed, including the training of para-surveyors for the sake of capacity building in acquiring spatial
data.
4.3.3 Quality assurance and performance evaluation
The LTR in Rwanda was undertaken under tight deadlines and performance targets (Nkurunziza,
2015); however, this has affected quality assurance. The evaluation of work progress was focusing on
numbers for both data collection in the field and post-processing in the office; that is number of parcels
demarcated and vectorised per day; implying the staff to focus on quantity.
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Following the way, in different cases, the para-surveyors were trained, they have undertaken
parcel boundaries demarcation while lacking capacity needed to carry out cadastral survey. This includes
image interpretation and basic map reading skills, namely map orientation, map scale and map legend. In
addition, in most cases, a para-surveyor was targeting to report a large number of parcels demarcated per
day, and delineating boundaries of parcels on map just to fulfil the number of landowners in place. In
principle, as designed, a para-surveyor was supposed to go around each parcel boundary, indentify and
demarcate boundaries on map as shown on ground by landowners in the presence of owners of
neighbouring parcels and LAC.
For some particular areas, such as inside a forest or any other type of flora within which there are
different pieces of land belonging to different subjects/landowners, and in which it is difficult to
distinguish boundaries between each land holding, land was measured and was supposed to be measured
by using a tape measure. In these areas, it becomes difficult to identify and distinguish the boundaries on
image as shown on ground because of the coverage from canopy. Doing so with a tape measure, a map
scale was applied on image map in accordance to the measurements done on ground. However, in line
with maximizing the daily output, and given that it is time consuming to apply a tape measure for each
parcel boundary for such difficult areas, the tape measure was dropped down to speed up the field wok.
In measuring land, the maximum a para-surveyor could do is to try delineating the boundaries over the
canopy appearing on the image but without justified features distinguishing the drawn boundaries
compared to the ground.
The quality assurance measures were in place for the post-processing of the spatial component,
like working map scale for vectorisation process, checking and corrections of topology errors. However,
the realisation of these measures was contrasted by other requirements during LTR national roll-out. The
smallest working map scale for vectorisation was supposed to be 1:500 in order to visualize well in
boundaries of parcels on a scanned-georeferenced map. Though there was no target fixed as daily
minimum production, due to performance evaluation criteria focusing mainly on quantity (number of
parcels vectorised per day by one individual), in different cases the GIS staff opted to vectorise parcel
boundaries at a smaller scale to reduce the time spent in post-processing and achieve as many parcels as
possible.
The speed and accuracy were among guiding principles of the LTR program in Rwanda (Rwanda
Natural Resources Authority, 2012a), and the aim of the nationwide LTR was to maintain the quality of
process used in pilot phase (Nkurunziza, 2015). However, the implementation of these processes during
national roll-out diverted from proper/smooth land demarcation and post-processing while bringing the
question on effects on quality of the acquired spatial data.
In Ethiopian case, similar issues are questionable following the working environment used to
complete the coverage in case of Rwanda. Using a surveyor as standard criteria for Ethiopian case, the
calculations show that, using ortho-image method, one surveyor can measure 40 parcels per day,
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fieldwork and office work inclusive (Shibeshi, 2018). This calls to a critical attention while scaling-up the
second level land certification designed for a number of parcels in the same range and time for completion
as in the case of Rwanda. Following the current design for completion, it may be tricky to undertake the
program by practically focusing on both quantity and quality of products delivered and/or to be delivered,
for both spatial data acquisition and post-processing vectorisation.
4.4 Spatial data capturing of public land
In case of Ethiopia, the focus of land certification in both phases, first and second levels, does focus
on rural farming land to benefit farmers; therefore not focusing on public land. The cadastral geodatabase
contains information on acquired spatial data, mainly rural land beloging to farmers.
In case of Rwanda, by focusing on all land types during initial spatial data acquisition for LTR
program, the wetlands spatial layer that was previously acquired by the public agency responsible for
environmental management in Rwanda was directly applied to cadastral geodatabase for issuance of land
certificates while implementing environmental policy. However, originally, the intention of generating
this wetland layer was for the general protection of environment with the accuracy that was not focusing
on cadastral use. This layer was generated on deskwork using remote sensing techniques with low-
resolution image. In different places, the wetlands layer was inaccurate to cadastral use. To address issues
that were raised by owners of the affected parcels, other versions of wetlands were generated also on
deskwork using remote sensing techniques, and later on, other versions included field checking. Each
version generated, in both initial data acquisition and maintenance of land register, was applied to the
cadastral geodatabase; however, the problem of inaccuracy for cadastral use persisted. The correction of
wetlands’ boundaries were demarcated on field maps (ortho-image maps) according to the observations
of field teams, and they were post-processed in the office for vectorization. Despite this field checking, the
field teams did not go along and around of each wetland boundary.
For land certification, since the LTR period and currently during maintenance of land register, the
wetlands layer was merged to the existing lakes’ layer, each applied with buffer distance as defined in the
environmental law. The spatial layer of lakes as existed in base map could have been well corrected over
the orthophotos used during LTR period given how the borders of lakes are well visible over these high-
resolution images. However, the corrections of this spatial layer of lakes were undertaken using a map
scale that is not sufficient to visualize well in lakes’borders for accurate vectorisation. Like in vectorization
of parcel boundaries, the use of small scale to the large appropriate one was applied to minimize the time
spent in correcting inaccuracies in the existing spatial layer of lakes while intended for cadastral use.
4.5 Maintenance of land measurements
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While the second level land certification is undergoing in Ethiopia, land transactions are also
happening on ground for the already completed areas. This needs to update these changes, including
spatial changes. Acccording to the regulations on land measurements in Ethiopia, and specifically in the
ANRS, all rural land holdings have to be measured and mapped by the competent authority, using
traditional way or modern tools (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2005; Council of the Amhara
National Regional State in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2006; Council of the Amhara
National Regional State in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2007). The combination of
methods is recommended for the maintenance of land measurements to update the cadastral
geodatabase; the methods including RTK GNSS ground survey and remote sensing tools (Shibeshi, 2018).
To ensure that land measurements are well maintained, the measurement requirements need to be
practiced from the beginning of maintenance phase, noting that remote sensing tools need to be updated
according to the pace of land cover changes in a given area for easy use in image interpretation.
In Rwandan case, the maintenance of land measurements is undertaken using RTK GNSS ground
survey under Rwanda Geodetic Network (RGN) working in Continuous Operating Reference Stations
(CORS). This facilitates not only in updating but also in upgrading land measurements, while also
facilitating in coordination of using the same geographic coordinates system for different surveying and
mapping activities on the national territory. However, some issues are present. There is insufficient local
resources capacity to maintain the infrastructure (RGN/CORS), particularly in situation of some stations
failing to operate; hence, requiring to wait for external technical support. Other issues are present in skills
for some RGN users for post-processing when off RTK. Also, for a while, before the establishment of
RGN/CORS, different surveying activities, mostly by private surveying and mapping companies, were
undertaken using handheld GPS despite informational and instructional procedures on accuracy
required, surveying instruments to be used, including GNSS, total stations and photogrametric techniques,
as well as availability of control points (Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, 2012b). There were no
enforcement and inspection mechnisms in place.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Spatial data acquisition for the development or re-engineering of cadastral system is important to
nourish land information that serves for multipurpose use. Using the cases of Ethiopia and Rwanda, this
paper aimed to investigate the knowledge gap on how efficiently spatial data acquisition and management
techniques are undertaken in the back-end for the development of cadastral systems serving for
multipurpose use. To do so, the paper assessed how efficiently techniques of acquiring and managing
spatial data for multipurpose cadastre are selected, designed and implemented.
Ethiopia has elaborated land administration system in two phases, first level land certification
using traditional land measurements techniques, and second level land certification using modern
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African Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences ISSN:2657-2664, Vol.3 No.1 (January 2020) 208
surveying techniques. Rwanda has embarked on land tenure regularisation program using modern
surveying techniques from the beginning. Both countries adopted the ortho-photo based method for
spatial data acquisition for re-engineering their cadastral systems. This method is used in the second level
land certification to complement first level land certification in case of Ethiopia, and land tenure
regularisation in case of Rwanda. The tools used in this method are familiar and easy to use by local people
and this allowed the two countries to undertake participatory large-scale mapping for land certification
programs at high speed. It is however worth not undemining the benefits of local land measurement
techniques for first level land certification in the Ethiopian context.
However, the question comes on the quality of the spatial data initially acquired for land tenure
regularisation program in case of Rwanda to represent boundaries of parcels, given the manner by which
the processes were undertaken during national rollout implementation to meet the program design, in
particular the time set to complete the coverage. The same question comes in the case of Ethiopia while
undertaking the second level land certification, given the number of parcels for coverage and time set for
completion, which is similar to the case of Rwanda.
The question also comes on maintenance of the developed infrastructure for land information
system within available resources in case of Rwanda, and lack of covering all land types in case of Ethiopia.
A major remark in this research is the due consideration needed on the design of the selected techniques
for re-engineering cadastral systems which ensures that the implementation is undertaken smoothly by
maintaining the quality of the initially acquired data. The same remark comes on processes to be
undertaken before and during development of the infrastructure to hold land records (land information
system) in such way that ensures its stability.
Given the points discussed in this study, further research are needed to assess the impacts resulting
from how the processes of acquiring spatial data and development of land information system have been
undertaken in Ethiopia and Rwanda and, development of model for effective processes.
6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the DAAD NELGA for funding this research. The acknowledgment
is also addressed to the staff of cadastral offices in Ethiopia and Rwanda for providing information for the
realization of this study.
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7. KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Cadastre: record of land information at parcel level.
Efficient: (in line with cadastre), developing a cadastral system that provides land information
responding to local context needs, in time and space, and manageable over time using available
resources.
Spatial data: relating to data determining absolute and/or relative position of physical features on the
surface of the spheroid, to represent position of physical features on the Earth surface.
Technique: (in line with cadastre), method and tools in acquiring and managing land information.
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Vectorisation: generating vector data (spatial features with their attributes for
identification/description, like shapefile) to represent physical features on the Earth surface with their
discrete boundaries, like parcel boundaries in cadastre including individual plots, ecosystems and
infrastructure.