Evolution Notes Packet Two

Lessons 5 - 10

Evolution Notes Packet 2 - Table of Contents Evolution Notes 5: The Origins of Life The Beginning Spontaneous Generation The Domains and Kingdoms Evolution Notes 6: Linnean Taxonomy, Viruses, and

Monerans Linnean Taxonomy Viruses Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea Evolution Notes 7: Protists Domain Eukaria Kingdom Protista Evolution Notes 8: Plants Kingdom Plantae Evolution Notes 9: Fungi Kingdom Fungi Evolution Notes 10: Animals Kingdom Animalia

Biology Notes - Evolution 5 The Origins of Life

The Beginning According to the best available evidence, the Earth formed between 4 and 5 billion years ago. Initially, it was much like Venus is today - too hot and inhospitable to support life as we know it. As the Earth cooled off, water vapour was able to condense, forming lakes and oceans. During this cooling period, amino acids and other organic compounds began to form and bond together in chains (polymers). Eventually these came together to form protocells, and finally the first cells - living organisms.

About 3.5 billion years ago, the oldest fossils that we know of were formed, remnants of archaebacteria, the oldest known forms of life. These organisms were single celled, with no nucleus (prokaryotes), were able to live in extremes of temperatures, and probably obtained their energy from chemical reactions (chemosynthesis). Over time, mutations allowed some of these organisms to obtain their energy from sunlight (photosynthesis), and they were able to grow anywhere there was sunlight and carbon dioxide. As these organisms spread, they produced oxygen gas during photosynthesis, and this gas began to gradually accumulate in the atmosphere.

These simple, one-celled organisms grew more complex, adding organelles, often through incorporation of smaller symbiotes (like the zooxanthellae of corals). About 2.2 billion years ago, a nuclear membrane was developed in some organisms (the eukaryotes), and these cells gradually developed into multi-celled organisms about 1.4 billion years ago, and, since then, into the organisms that inhabit the Earth today.

Spontaneous Generation While early scientists knew about mating in larger animals, it was unclear to many of them how smaller animals and organisms such as mold were produced. Many believed in spontaneous generation, in which living organisms could be created out of inanimate materials, like flies from rotting meat, frogs from the bottom of ponds, or mice from wheat kernels wrapped in dirty cloth. Experiments done in 1668 by Francesco Redi helped disprove this theory by showing that parent flies were required for maggots to develop in rotting meat, but many people were unconvinced about microorganisms, which they thought too small to have parents. It wasn’t until 1864 that spontaneous generation was finally disproved by Louis Pasteur, and the theory of biogenesis, the creation of life from life, took hold.

The Kingdoms of Life As life has developed, it has diversified into many different organisms. Historically, the broadest categories for living organisms have been the kingdoms, but more recently systematists have added an even broader category - the domain. The most current classification systems have 3 domains - bacteria, archaea, and eukaria. Bacteria includes most normal, modern bacteria and blue-green algae, while archaea also contains bacteria, but these bacteria have different metabolic pathways, and many are the extremophiles that live extreme conditions. Eukaria contains all of the eukaryotes. Within eukaria there is still much debate about classification, and there are classification systems that recognize as many as 13 kingdoms, but 4 is the accepted number according to your textbook. These current classification is:

1. Domain Bacteria - one-celled organisms without nuclei. a. Bacteria - most bacteria and blue-green algae. 2. Domain Archaea - one-celled organisms without nuclei. b. Archaea - bacteria more closely related to Eukaria. 3. Domain Eukaria - organisms with cellular nuclei. c. Protists - some algae & one-celled eukaryptes. d. Fungi - molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. e. Plants - mosses, ferns, conifers, flowering plants f. Animals - everything else.

Since Viruses are not considered to be truly living organisms, they are not included in any of the kingdoms, but probably could be placed in a domain of their own, along with viroids and prions.

Biology Notes - Evolution 6 Linnean Taxonomy, Viruses, & Prokaryotes

Linnean Taxonomy The classification of all living organisms is done according to a system originally developed in the 1700s by a Swedish botanist named Carolus Linnaeus. Organisms are commonly called by a two word (binomial) name consisting of the generic (genus) name, which is always capitalized and the specific (species) name, which is not; both words are underlined or put in italics. Examples include Homo sapiens, Canis familiaris, and Canis latrans. Organisms that have the same generic name are members of closely related species. When writing about a species, once the whole name has been used, it can be abbreviated using the first letters of the generic name, as in H. sapiens, or C. familiaris.

A single species can be further divided by adding a third name that gives the subspecies, but that is not required unless you are dealing with specific populations, as in Gorilla gorilla gorilla, or Homo sapiens sapiens.

Different types of related organisms can be grouped together into more and more distantly related groups, all the way back to three domains. These classifications are:

Domain Eukaria Eukaria Kingdom Animalia Animalia Phylum (Division) Chordata Chordata Class Mammalia Mammalia Order Primates Carnivora Family Hominidae Canidae Genus Homo Canis Species sapiens familiaris Common Name human dog

All of these classifications except domain can be further split or lumped together using the prefixes super and sub. Using super groups things together, but not as loosely as using the next higher classification, while sub splits a classification, but not as much as going to the next lower classification. The suborder Fissipedia contains all families of terrestrial carnivores (canidae, ursidae, procyonidae, mustelidae, viveridae, hyaenadae, and felidae) while Pinnipedia contains all families of marine carnivores (otaridae, odobenidae, and phocidae). A superfamily would be about the same as a suborder, but having both allows taxonomists to define the relationships between different groups quite closely.

Viruses While viruses are technically living organisms, they are not generally classified among the three domains because they cannot carry out their life cycles without assistance from the cells of other living organisms. A virus is a very simple organism. Viruses are made up of two parts - a protein coat (sometimes called a capsid) and a nucleic acid core that can be made of either DNA or RNA.

To reproduce, a virus must first attach to a host cell, then inject its genetic material into that cell. Once the DNA or RNA has been injected, one of two things happens. With lytic viruses, once the genetic material is injected into the host cell, it destroys the host cell’s DNA, and it takes over the cell’s functions. It causes the infected cell to make hundreds or thousands of copies of the virus, and when the cell is full of new viruses, it bursts open (and dies) releasing those new viruses that can then infect other cells.

Lysogenic viruses (which include retroviruses) insert their genetic material into a host cell, but instead of destroying the host’s genetic material, the nucleic acid becomes part of one of the host’s chromosomes. The virus becomes inactive, but every time that cell (or its daughters) reproduce, another copy of the viral DNA or RNA is made.

The viral genetic material, now called a prophage, may remain inactive for months or even years, until something triggers it, and it takes over the cell, just like a lytic virus. But large organisms, instead of only a couple of cells being taken over, hundreds or even thousands of cells are taken over, and the organism becomes very sick very rapidly. HIV, the virus that causes AIDS is a lysogenic virus.

Viruses DNA Viruses include Adenoviruses Papoviruses, which cause warts, Herpesviruses, which cause cold sores, chickenpox, herpes, and mononucleosis, and Poxviruses, which cause smallpox RNA Viruses Enteroviruses, which cause diarrhea and polio Rhinoviruses, which cause colds, Togaviruses, which cause yellow fever, German measles, and some types of encephalitis, Rhabdoviruses, which cause rabies Retroviruses, which cause leukemia and AIDS

Domain Bacteria Domain Bacteria includes bacteria and blue-green algae. All members of this domain are prokaryotes, which do not have defined nuclei in their cells. They are all one-celled organisms, but may form chains due to cell division. They reproduce asexually, and may have a flagellum for propulsion. Kingdom Cyanobacteria are bluish-green generally

rod-shaped that contain chlorophyll a, which is used to produce energy.

Kingdom Proteobacteria a diverse group of bacteria of assorted shapes, some free-living and some pathogenic.

Division Alphaproteobacteria includes many soil bacteria.

Division Betaproteobacteria contains disease causing Rickettsia, and photosynthetic purple nonsulfur bacteria.

Division Gammaproteobacteria includes purple sulfur bacteria and many bacteria that inhabit animal digestive cavities.

Division Deltaproteobacteria Kingdom Spirochaetes are spiral shaped bacteria

with flexible cell walls. This kingdom includes the bacteria that cause syphilis.

Kingdom Eobacteria includes photosynthetic and radiation resistant species, and is thought by some to be very similar to the first living organisms.

Kingdom Sphingobacteria is a group that has a unique type of lipids (sphingolipids) in cell membranes.

Kingdom Bacteriodetes contains organisms that are found in the soil, in sea water, and in the guts of animals.

Kingdom Deinococci is a small group that contains species resistant to radiation and heat.

Kingdom Firmicutes includes gram positive round and rod-shaped bacteria including those that cause anthrax, tetanus, botulism, and strep throat.

Kingdom Actinobacteria contains gram positive bacteria that provide antibiotics, cause disease (leprosy and tuberculosis), and help make cheese!

Kingdom Aquificae includes a number of thermophilic species, many of which are chemosynthetic.

Kingdom Chloroflexi contains filamentous green bacteria that are photosynthetic, but that do not give off oxygen.

Kingdom Planctomycetes includes Chlamydia and its relatives.

Domain Archaea are thought to be direct descendents of some of the oldest forms of life on Earth. Those organisms first identified as Archaea tended to live in extreme environments where other organisms are unable to survive, but further research has shown

them to be quite common in all environments.

Kingdom Crenarchaeota contains bacteria that live in extremely hot or cold conditions, such as under polar ice, in hydrothermal vents, and geothermal power stations.

Kingdom Euryarchaeota is a diverse group of archaea that live in extremely salty environments. They originally lived salt lakes but can now be found on the surfaces of highly salted foods.

Kingdom Korarchaeota is a recently discovered group of archaea that was found in the Obsidian Pool hot spring of Yellowstone National Park

Kingdom Nanoarchaeota is a recently discovered group of very small (nano-sized) archaea that lives as a symbiotes to other thermophilic archaea!

Kingdom Thaumarchaeota is the newest phylum of Archaea. It has only two orders: the Nitrosopumilales and the Cenarchaeales, both of which may be important in the nitrogen cycle.

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Biology Notes - Evolution 7 Protists

Kingdom Protista Domain Eukaria contains the remaining 4 major kingdoms - Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia. All are eukaryotes, meaning their calls have nuclear membranes and organelles with membranes (chloroplasts, mitochondria, golgi apparatus, etc.).

Kingdom Protista includes a wide variety of different organisms, some single-celled and some multicellular, that all have distinct nuclei (eukaryotes). The organisms within this kingdom are not always closely related, and several classification systems consider Protista to be a super-kingdom, dividing it into as many as six different kingdoms. Flagella, long, hair-like structures, often used for movement, are common to protists, as are shorter cilia. Superphylum Alveolata is a group of protists that all

have sac-like structures, called alveoli, beneath their cell membranes.

Phylum Apicomplexa are the Apicomplexans, a group of over 4000 parasitic species that may be harmless, or cause serious diseases, such as malaria

Phylum Ciliata contains the Ciliates, probably the best known protists. All have small hair-like structures (cilia) covering their surfaces; cilia are used for movement. Paramecium is a well known species.

Phylum Dinoflagellata are the Dinoflagellates, single-celled protists that can be quite large (2 mm), for protists anyway. Many species are bioluminescent, and some coastal species can cause “red tides” which can be harmful to fish, shellfish, and animals that eat them.

Phylum Foraminifera includes protists that create shells. Fossil forams can be used to determine the age of rocks.

Superphylum Choanoflagellata a small group (150 species) of single-celled organisms with one flagellum that are thought to be descendants of the ancestral animals.

Superphylum Chromista (Stramenopiles) includes organisms as small as microscopic diatoms and as large as giant kelp, which can grow as long as 150’. While some Chromists are colourless, most contain chlorophyll c, giving them a brown to yellow colour, and allowing them to gain energy from photosynthesis.

Phylum Bacillariophyta are Diatoms, small, one-celled organisms that have beautiful silica shells

Phylum Chrysophyta contains Golden Algae, single-celled, freshwater organisms that can feed on diatoms or bacteria when unable to use photosynthesis

Phylum Oomycota includes Water Molds, parasitic organisms once thought to be fungi, that are not photosynthetic, but that get their energy from animals or plants. This group includes downy mildew that once almost destroyed the wine industry in France, and the organism that caused the Irish potato blight.

Phylum Phaeophyta are the Kelps and Brown Algae, the most common forms of “seaweed”.

Phylum Prymnesiophyta includes single-celled photosynthetic organisms that are mostly marine, and often cause algal blooms that are toxic to fish.

Phylum Sagenista contains non-photosynthetic, single-celled organisms that may form colonies.

Phylum Silicoflagellata are the Silicoflagellates, which are similar to diatoms, but less common, and have less complex shells. They can be photosynthetic or heterotrophic.

Phylum Xanthophyta, the Yellow-green Algae, live mostly in fresh water, but can also be found in soil, on trees trunks, and in estuaries. They are photosynthetic, and are the dominant producers in some estuaries.

Superphylum Parabasalia, the Basal Eukaryotes are primitive protists with uncertain evolutionary relationships. Some species are dangerous parasites, while others are symbiotes that essential to the survival of their hosts.

Phylum Amoeboflagellata (Schizopyrenida) are colourless protists that can change from an amoeba-like form to one with 2 flagella. Amoebas belong to this group.

Phylum Diplomonadida contains the Diplomonads, heterotrophs that have no mitochondria. Giardia, a waterborne parasite, is in this group.

Phylum Euglenida are the Euglenids, single celled organisms with one or two flagella, that can be photosynthetic or heterotrophic.

Phylum Kinetoplastida are small, flagellated protists that can be free-living or parasitic. The trypanosomes that cause sleeping sickness (in equatorial Africa), Chagas' disease (in South America), and leishmaniasis belong to this group.

Phylum Parabasalia are found only in association with animals. They can be parasitic, but more commonly are commensal or beneficial symbionts, like those that allow termites to digest wood.

Phylum Pelobionta are large (up to 1 mm long), free-living amoeboid protists living in freshwater muds in temperate habitats in the Northern Hemisphere. Only about four species exist.

Superphylum Myxomycota Phylum Myxomycota was once classified as a type

of fungus. These organisms are the Slime Molds, which may have many single-celled individuals fusing together into a single structure. Slime mold cells tend to be very large, and are used to study cellular processes.

Superphylum Radiolaria Phylum Radiolaria contains shell-making animals

that range in size from 30 microns to 2 mm in diameter. The skeletons are generally round, but tend to have spikes, which make them more buoyant and help to capture prey.

Superphylum Testaceafilosea Phylum Testaceafilosea are the shelled amoebas.

They create shells from a variety of materials, and extend their pseudopodia out through holes for movement and to catch food.

Biology Notes - Evolution 8 Plants

Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Plantae includes organisms that should be very familiar to you. All plants share certain characteristics - they are eukaryotic, have cell walls made of cellulose, contain chlorophyll in most cells, and undergo alternation of generations. In alternation of generations, the life cycle of the organism has two distinct parts - an asexual sporophyte generation that produces haploid spores through normal cell division and meiosis, and a sexual gametophyte generation that grows from the haploid spores into male and female forms which produce gametes (eggs and sperm). The gametes join to produce a zygote, which begins the next sporophyte generation. In simple plants, such as mosses, the gametophyte is the dominant generation, but in all other plants, the gametophyte generation in reduced and dependent on sporophyte. Plants produce their own food through photosynthesis. Subkingdom Biliphyta Division Glaucophyta is a group of single celled

organisms found in fresh water. They have two flagella, and cell walls may be composed of

cellulose. Chloroplasts retain some cyanobacterial features.

Division Rhodophyta includes the red algae. They contain the pigment phycoerythrin, which gives them their red colour. Some red algae are soft, while others, the corraline algae, secrete a carbonate skeleton, much like corals, and are important organisms in the building of coral reefs.

Subkingdom Chlorobionta contains the green plants that have chlorophyll a and b.

Division Chlorophyta contains a large number of highly diverse, fresh and salt water algae species, many of which are important to scientific research. They are generally somewhat leafy

Class Pedinophyceae Class Prasinophyceae are the prasinophytes Class Nephroselmidophyceae Class Chlorophyceae Class Ulvophyceae are the ulvophytes Class Bryopsidophyceae Class Trebouxiophyceae are the trebouxiophytes Class Pleurastrophyceae Class Micromonadophyceae are the Micromonads,

single-celled algae with multiple flagella.

Class Pleurastrophyceae is a small group that has not been well studied.

Division Charophyta contains those algae most closely related to plants. They are generally filamentous and have cell division is similar to that of plants.

Class Charophycaea Megadivision Embryophyta are the terrestrial plants Division Anthocerophyta are the hornworts Division Bryophyta contains simple, nonvascular

plants including mosses. Because they have no vascular tissue (vessels to transport water), bryophytes are small plants, growing close to the ground. Some of the most recent classification systems elevate the hornworts and liverworts to division status.

Class Sphagnopsida are peat mosses Class Andreaeopsida are lantern mosses Class Polytrichopsida are haircap mosses Class Bryopsida are “true” mosses Division Marchantiophyta are the liverworts Superdivision Tracheophyta are the vascular plants,

those with vessels to carry water from the roots to the stems and leaves.

Division Lycophyta is the oldest group of vascular plants, and today contains only quillworts, club mosses, and spike mosses. They are terrestrial

plants with true leaves, roots and stems. All lycophytes have leaves (called microphylls) that have a single, unbranched vein, and this is a defining feature of the group. During the Carboniferous period, they were the dominant form of terrestrial vegetation, and included scale trees which could grow to more than 135 meters tall.

Class Asteroxylales, Class Lepidodendrales, the giant scale trees, and Class Protolepidodendrales are all extinct forms. Class Isoetales Quillworts Class Lycopodiales Club "mosses" Class Selaginellales Spike "mosses" Division Sphenophyta is another group that

flourished millions of years ago, but today is greatly reduced. There is only one surviving genus, which contains the horsetails. Stems grow with distinct nodes, with small clusters of leaves around the nodes.

Class Equisitopsida Order Pseudoborniales and Order Sphenophyllales are both extinct. Order Equisetales are the living horsetails. Division Pterophyta are the ferns. They are another

ancient group, but have more living forms than extinct forms. Ferns are classified based on the

form and location of their sporangia, spore producing structures. Most modern ferns have their sporangia on the underside of their leaves, but early ferns (and some living groups) produced them along their stems or on specialized stalks that do not look much like leaves.

Class Filicopsida Order Zygopteridales the earliest ferns,

and Order Stauropteridales are now extinct. Order Marattiales Order Ophioglossales Order Leptosporangiales are the most

diverse group of ferns, with more than 12,000 living species, and several extinct families.

Division Psilotophyta are the whisk ferns, the least complex group of vascular plants. They do not have roots or leaves, but may be due to simplification from more complex forms.

Class Psilopsida Order Psilotales Superdivision Spermatophyta are the seed plants,

which develop true seeds to enclose the growing zygote produced by the gametophyte generation.

Division Cycadophyta includes the Cycads, an ancient group of seed plants with a crown of large compound leaves and a stout trunk. They are a minor component of the flora in tropical and subtropical regions today, but during the Jurassic Period, they were a common sight in many parts of the world. For this reason, the Jurassic is often referred to as the "Age of Cycads". Cycads are dioecious, having separate male and female plants. There are about 185 species of cycads, many threatened ot endangered due to collection.

Class Cycadopsida Order Cycadales Division Ginkgophyta are the Gingkos. Gingkos date

back to the Permian, and were once found on all continents, but today are reduced to a single species native to a small area of China, where it may be extinct in the wild, although it is widely cultivated. It is known for its distinctive leaves, its smelly fruit, and its potential medicinal uses.

Class Ginkgoopsida Order Ginkgoales Division Coniferophyta are the conifers, woody plants

which bear their seeds in protective cones. Leaves are generally needle-like or scale-like and most are evergreen, although a few are deciduous.

Class Pinopsida Order Pinales contains 6 families including

pines, spruce, and fir; cypress; monkey puzzle trees; redwoods and sequoias; plum pines; and plum yews.

Order Taxales are the yews Division Gnetophyta are vessel-bearing gymnosperms,

including Ephedra (Mormon tea). They are generally shrubs, although several species are tree-like, and are closely related to flowering plants. They are usually dioecious, and pollinated by insects.

Class Gnetopsida Order Ephedrales includes such plants as

Mormon tea and Ephedra, which contain chemicals that can be used as stimulants.

Order Gnetales

Division Magnoliophyta contains all flowering plants. This is the largest group of plants, with about 250,000 different species that occur worldwide. They have traditionally been broken down into two classes based on the number of leaves present when the developing shoot first emerges from the seed - one leaf for monocots, two leaves for dicots.

Class Liliopsida are the monocots. Their leaves have parallel veins, their flowers have petals in threes or multiples of three, and the vascular

bundles of their stems are usually scattered or borne in 2 or more rings. Monocots are predominantly herbaceous, with less than 10% of the species having woody stems. Woody monocots, in contrast to woody dicots, usually have an unbranched stem with a terminal crown of large leaves

Subclass Alismatidae Subclass Arecidae Subclass Commelinidae Subclass Liliidae Subclass Zingiberidae Class Magnoliopsida are the dicots. Their leaves

have branching veins, their flowers have petals in fours or fives or multiples 4 and 5, and the vascular bundles of their stems are usually borne in rings that enclose the pith. They can be woody or herbaceous, and are found in a wide variety of forms.

Subclass Asteridae Subclass Caryophyllidae Subclass Dilleniidae Subclass Hamamelidae Subclass Magnoliidae Subclass Rosidae

Biology Notes - Evolution 9 Fungi

Kingdom Fungi (also known as Kingdom Myceteae) Kingdom Fungi includes organisms that are eukaryotic, have cell walls that are generally composed of chitin, and do not have chlorophyll. Since they cannot produce their own food, they must obtain energy from outside sources, which they do as parasites, symbiotes, and decomposers. Most fungi undergo alternation of generations, in which there are both sexual and asexual stages in the life cycle. The divisions of this kingdom are characterized by their sexual spores. Fungi have the following structures: Hyphae - The thread-like filaments, composed of

cells laid end-to-end, that make up the main body of most fungi.

Mycelium (mycelia) - The main body of a fungus, made up of multiple hyphae

Fruiting Bodies - The portions of a fungus that produce spores, and often are the most prominent parts: the “mushrooms.”

Thallus (thalli) - The entire body of a fungus, including the fruiting bodies.

Division Chytridiomycota contains organisms that are one-celled, and others with mycelia. They are predominantly aquatic, and probably got their start

in the water, as did plants and vertebrates. Chytrids have flagellated gametes - their reproductive cells have a flagellum that allows them to swim; a characteristic no other fungi share. The division has a single class

Class Chytridiomycetes includes . Order Chytridiales are commonly referred

to as "chytrids". The thallus is commonly unicellular and may have limited hyphal growth, but is not considered to be mycelial. The cells of the hyphae are not separated, forming one continuous cytoplasm, except where there are reproductive structures. The chytrids are thought to be the most primitive members of the Chytridiomycota

Order Blastocladiales are more complex than the previous order. A true mycelium is produced, also without cellular separation.

Division Zygomycota are thought to be the most primitive of the terrestrial fungi. Their cell walls are composed of chitin-chitosan, and spores and gametes do not have flagella. Sexual reproduction occurs with the fusion of undifferentiated gametes to produce a zygote.

Class Trichomycetes Class Zygomycetes

Division Ascomycota are quite diverse, however, one unifying characteristic is that all members produce their spores inside of a sac-like cell called an ascus during sexual reproduction. There are typically eight spores produces per ascus, but the number can vary from one to over 1000.

Class Hemiascomycetes contains the yeasts and is home to the most famous fungus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, better known as the baker's or brewer’s yeast. Although most members are primarily unicellular, they can make abundant hyphae. The yeasts and yeast-like fungi are structurally simple; many are unicellular and reproduce asexually by budding or fission.

Order Saccharomycetales is best known for Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is probably the most important fungus of all, at least to people. This fungus causes the fermentation that allows bread to rise, and that turns sugars into alcohol.

Class Archaeascomycetes is a class recently discovered from comparison of nucleic acid sequences. Some species, such as the fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, are unicellular, but others grow as mycelia as well as single cells (for example, Taphrina sp.). The

genera are distantly related to each other, possibly remnants of an early radiation of Ascomycota. The asci of these fungi are not contained within another structure.

Class Euascomycetes contain well over 90% of Ascomycota; the species are hyphal, and almost all of the sexually reproducing forms have their asci contained within a fruiting body.

Order Eurotiales have fruiting bodies that is entirely closed with no internal divisions, and the asci are randomly arranged.

Order Sordariales have fruiting bodies with one external opening, and a single layer of asci.

Order Xylariales have fruiting bodies with one external opening, and a single layer of asci, and may also have sterile strands within the fruiting body (layers without asci).

Order Pezizales have fruiting bodies that are generally cup-shaped, and open on one side. They have multiple layers of asci, and generally also have sterile strands. This group includes morels.

Order Dothideales have fruiting bodies with asci that are enclosed by 2 membranes.

Division Basidiomycota contains most of the fungi typically known as mushrooms. The spores are produced on horn-like structures.

Class Basidiomycetes Order Agaricales are the “true” Mushrooms. Order Lycoperdales, Order Phallales, and Order Nidulariales are the Puffballs. Order Aphyllophorales are the Shelf Fungi. Order Auriculariales are the Tree Ears. Order Tremellales and Order Dacrymycetales are the Jelly Fungi. Class Teliomycetes are the Rusts, and the class

is composed of a single order of parasites that are pathogenic to ferns, gymnosperms and flowering plants. The life cycle is quite different than that of the Basidiomycetes with five spore stages that are produced and two hosts are required in the completion of the life cycle.

Class Ustomycetes are the Smuts, and has several orders consisting of fungi that are parasitic on flowering plants. However, unlike the rusts, the smuts are not obligate parasites throughout its entire life cycle.

Division Deuteromycota includes fungi, possibly from all of the other divisions, that have lost the ability to

reproduce sexually, and now reproduce only through spore production. Some species of Deuteromycetes are predatory fungi that live in the soil and ensnare small animals in a loops of hyphae. They then insert hyphae into the skin of their prey and digest them.

Class Sphaeropsida Class Melanconia includes Cryptosporium

lunasporum which can contaminate water supplies and cause illness in people.

Class Monilia contains Penicillium, from which penicillin was originally developed, Candida albicans and some pathogenic yeasts.

Class Mycelia Sterilia Division Glomeromycota contains fungi which live

mainly underground and are root symbionts Class Glomeromycetes Order Archaeosporales symbiotes with

cyanobacteria, Order Diversisporales generally live

underground, and live symbiotically on roots of vascular plants,

Order Glomerales also live symbiotically on roots of vascular plants, and

Order Paraglomerales which are also root symbionts, and reproduce through unpigmented spores.

Lichens are unusual creatures. A lichen is not a single organism the way most other living things are, but rather it is a combination of two organisms which live together intimately. Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments, but living among the filaments are algal cells, usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium. In many cases the alga and the fungus which together make the lichen may each be found living in nature without its partner, but many other lichens include a fungus which cannot survive on its own - it has become dependent on its algal partner for survival. In all cases though, the appearance of the fungus in the lichen is quite different from its shape when it grows independently.

Lichens occur in four basic forms: Crustose - crustlike, growing tight against the

substrate. Squamulose - tightly clustered and slightly

flattened pebble-like units. Foliose - leaflike, with flat sheets of tissue not

tightly bound. Fruticose - free-standing branching tubes.

Biology Notes - Evolution 10 Animals

Kingdom Animalia (Metazoa) Kingdom Animalia includes organisms that are eukaryotic, do not have cell walls and do not have chlorophyll. They range in size from microscopic tardigrades to whales, and in complexity from an association of cells that can be separated and will reform, as in sponges, to the highly specialized tissues and organ systems of the vertebrates. Phylum Porifera are the sponges. They are mostly

marine, although fresh water forms do exist. They are very simple animals, and do not have true tissues or organs. Sponges feed by filtering food out of water that flows through their canals.

Class Calcarea are calcareous or rocky sponges, with spicules made of calcium carbonate

Class Demospongia are fibrous sponges, and the most common living group of sponges. They generally have fibers made of spongin, and may have spicules made of silica. Bath sponges belong to this group, but overharvesting has made them rare.

Class Hexactinellida are the glass sponges. They have siliceous spicules, and often grow in beautiful, yet fragile forms.

Phylum Placozoa is not well understood because they have never been observed in their natural habitat. No one knows what substrate they live on or what they eat in nature. It is even unknown whether or not they reproduce sexually like most animals. They are known from a single species accidentally discovered in 1883 living on the glass walls of an aquarium in a European laboratory. Since then, most of what has been learned about their biology has come from studying cultures of them kept alive in various laboratories around the world. They are very simple animals, with no organs or tissues

Phylum Ctenophora (Greek for "comb-bearers") are the comb jellies, which have eight "comb rows" of fused cilia arranged along the sides of the animal. These cilia beat synchronously and propel ctenophores through the water. Some species move with a flapping motion of their lobes or undulations of the body. Many ctenophores have two long tentacles, but some lack tentacles completely. Ctenophores, variously known as comb jellies, sea gooseberries, sea walnuts, or Venus's girdles, are voracious predators. They have no stinging cells but capture prey using sticky cells called colloblasts. In a few species, special cilia in the mouth are used for biting gelatinous prey.

Class Cydippida Class Platyctenida Class Beroida Class Thalassocalycida Class Cestida Class Lobata Phylum Cnidaria contains animals of widely diverse

forms, from reef building corals to free swimming jellies, but all share one characteristic - they possess barbed nematocysts which they use to capture prey and for defense. The come in two main forms: polyps (like anemones and corals) and medusae (free swimming jellies).

Class Anthozoa includes true corals, sea pens, gorgonians, sea anemones, and sea pansies.

Class Cubozoa are the box jellies (sea wasps and sea nettles) that can have toxins potent enough to kill humans.

Class Hydrazoa includes siphonophores, hydroids, and fire corals. Most of these organisms that can change from polyp form to medusa form.

Class Scyphozoa are the sea jellies. Class Staurozoa are the stalked sea jellies. Subkingdom Bilateria are bilaterally symmetrical (at

some point in their lives) organisms that develop true tissues.

Phylum Platyhelminthes are flatworms, the simplest of all bilaterally symmetrical organisms.

Class Trematoda are flukes, are all parasitic, and have complex life cycles specialized for parasitism in animal tissues.

Class Cestoda are the tapeworms, also parasites. Class Turbellaria are the free-living planarians. Phylum Chaetognatha are the arrowworms Phylum Cycliophora were discovered in 1995, and live

on the lips of some European lobsters Phylum Gastrotrichia are small, ciliated marine

organisms, probably eaten by molluscs Phylum Gnathostomulida the jaw worms, are small,

ciliated marine worms that are found clinging to sand grains.

Phylum Rotifera are the rotifers, which have a crown-like circle of cilia around the mouth that they use to get food.

Class Monogononta

Class Bdelloidea

Class Seisonidea Phylum Acanthocephala are small parasitic worms

with spiny heads that they use to attach to their hosts.

Phylum Micrognathozoa are microscopic organisms found in 2000 in Greenland. They have very complex jaws.

Phylum Orthonectida a group of about 20 very simple and very small parasitic animals. They have no more than 50 cells, no organs or tissues of any sort, and very complex reproduction.

Phylum Rhombozoa (Dicyemida) very simple and very small parasitic animals found in the kidneys of cephalopods. They have no more than 50 cells, no organs or tissues of any sort, and very complex reproduction.

Superphylum Deuterostomia are the deuterostomes, of which the majority of animals are echinoderms or chordates. All deuterostomes have two gut openings, and the name deuterostome means "mouth second", referring to an important developmental feature unique to this group, that the mouth develops after the anus.

Phylum Echinodermata are radially symmetrical marine animals with water vascular systems. The phylum includes sea stars, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers, etc. This phylum was common during the Paleozoic era, and there are many extinct groups within this phylum.

Class Blastoidea,

Class Cystoidea, Class Edrioasteroidea, Class Homalozoa, Class Eocrinoidea (eocrinoids) and Class Helicoplacoidea are all extinct forms. Class Asteroidea are the “true” sea stars. Class Ophiuroidea are brittle stars. Class Echinoidea are sea urchins and sand

dollars. Class Crinoidea are crinoids and sea lilies. Class Holothuroidea are sea cucumbers. Phylum Hemichordata are acorn worms, graptolites,

and pterobranchs Phylum Chordata is the animal phylum with which

everyone is the most familiar, since it includes humans and all other vertebrates, but not all chordates are vertebrates. All chordates have the following features at some point in their life (in the case of humans and many other vertebrates, these features may only be present in the embryo):

Pharyngeal Slits - a series of openings that connect the inside of the throat to the outside of the "neck". These are often, but not always, used as gills.

Dorsal Nerve Cord - a bundle of nerve fibers which runs down the "back". It connects the brain with the lateral muscles and other organs.

Notochord - cartilaginous rod running underneath, and supporting, the nerve cord.

Post-anal Tail - an extension of the body past the anal opening.

Subphylum Cephalochordata are the lancelets Subphylum Myxini are the hagfish Subphylum Urochordata are tunicates and sea

squirts. Subphylum Vertebrata includes all vertebrates Superclass Pisces are the basal vertebrates -

the fish Class Acanthodii Class Actinopterygii, the are ray-finned fish,

which includes most living fish Class Anaspidiformes Class Cephalaspidiformes Class Chondrichthyes, the sharks and rays Class Conodonti Class Galeaspidiformes Class Petromyzontiformes are the lampreys Class Placodermi are extinct armored jawed

fish Class Pteraspidomorphi Class Sarcopterygii are the lobe-finned fish,

including lungfish and coelocanths

Superclass Tetrapoda are the four legged animals, including the following classes

Class Amphibia, the amphibians, Class Reptilia, the reptiles, Class Aves, the birds, and Class Mammalia, the mammals. Megaphylum Protostomia are protostomes, all of which

have two gut openings, and the name protostomes means "mouth first", referring to an important developmental feature unique to this group, that the mouth develops before the anus.

Superphylum Ecdysozoa are the molting animals, which grow by shedding their skins.

Phylum Arthropoda includes crabs, spiders, insects, etc. Arthropods are characterized by jointed legs and external skeletons formed from chitin. Arthropods can be found almost everywhere, and are the most common form of animal life on the Earth. There are over a million known species of arthropods, and probably 10 million or more species that have not yet been identified by scientists.

Subphylum Anomalocarida the earliest known arthropods, were the superpredators of the Cambrian seas. They were over 60 cm long, and hunted trilobites.

Subphylum Chelicerata includes spiders and scorpions, mites and ticks, horseshoe crabs, daddylonglegs, and extinct "sea-scorpions", to name a few. It is the second most prominent group of terrestrial arthropods, after the insects (but not all chelicerates are terrestrial). Most of its marine representatives are extinct, but were prominent in the Paleozoic and included some fearsome predators. Chelicerates have two body sections, generally have simple eyes, no antennae, and fangs or chelicerae (the first pair of appendages) rather than mandibles. They also possess pedipalps, a second pair of appendages near the mouth, which usually are used to manipulate food. Chelicerates have two fused body sections; a front part (the cephalothorax or prosoma), and a rear part (the abdomen or opisthosoma). The prosoma contains many fused segments and at least six appendages (usually one pair of pre-oral chelicera, one pair of post-oral pedipalps, and four pairs of walking legs). The abdomen lacks walking appendages but may have such specialized features as book lungs (pages of gills for respiration), a telson or tail, spinnerets (in spiders, for spinning silk), or a sting (a modified tail, as in scorpions).

Class Pycnogonida are the sea spiders. Their bodies are greatly reduced, and they are mostly legs (another name for them is Pantapoda, meaning “all legs.”)

Class Eurypterida were the sea scorpions Class Xiphosura are the horseshoe crabs.

They have existed since the Silurian Era, but today there are only a handful of species. Unlike other chelicerates, they have compound eyes.

Superclass Arachnida are the arachnids, which generally have eight legs.

Class Acari are mites and ticks. Class Amblypygi are tailless whipscorpions Class Araneae are spiders Class Opiliones are harvestmen or

daddylonglegs. Class Palpigradi are micro-whipscorpions Class Pseudoscorpiones are pseudoscorpions. Class Ricinuclei Class Schizomida Class Scorpionida are scorpions Class Solifugae are sun spiders, camel

spiders, and solifugids. Class Thelyphonida are whiptailed scorpions,

vinegaroons, and uropygids

Class Trigonotarbida were the oldest known group of terrestrial arthropods, but are now extinct

Subphylum Crustaceamorpha are the crustaceans. Crustaceans are highly variable, but all have exoskeletons, generally made from chitin, two pairs of antennae at some point in their life cycles, at most one pair of legs per body segment, and the final segment of their legs is branched.

Superclass Crustacea are the crustaceans, Class Branchiopoda are brine shrimp and

water fleas Class Remipedia Class Cephalocardia Class Copepoda are copepods Class Ostracoda are seed shrimps Class Branchiuria are sea lice, fish lice, and

tongue worms. Class Tatnulocardia Class Theostracoda are barnacles and their

relatives. Class Mystacocardia Class Malacostraca are crabs, shrimp, and

lobsters.

Subphylum Uniramia have exoskeletons and the final segments on their legs are unbranched. They often have compound eyes, and are mostly terrestrial, although some forms are aquatic, or have aquatic life stages.

Superclass Hexapoda are insects and springtails, all of which have 3 body segments and 6 legs.

Class Collembola are the springtails Class Protura Class Diplura Class Insecta are the insects Subphylum Trilobita are the extinct trilobites Subphylum Myriapoda are centipedes and

millipedes. Class Pauropoda Class Diplopoda are the millipedes Class Chilopoda are the centipedes Class Symphyla Phylum Nematoda are roundworms. Phylum Nematomorpha are horsehair worms. Phylum Onychophora are velvet worms. Phylum Tardigrada are water bears. Superphylum Cephaloryncha (Scalidophora) contains

three closely related phyla, all with a chitinous cuticle

and a ring of spines (scalids) around a retractable head.

Phylum Kinoryncha are spinycrown worms Phylum Loricifera are “brushheads” that live in

marine shell-gravel. They have well developed brains and nervous systems.

Phylum Priapulida are cactus worms. They have a simple nervous system and a digestive system, but no respiratory or circulatory systems.

Superphylum Lophotrochozoa includes worms, molluscs, & lophophorates. This grouping is based upon analyses of DNA more than on physical characteristics.

Phylum Annelida are the segmented worms. The phylum includes earthworms, leeches, and a large number of mostly marine worms known as polychaetes. Various species of polychaete are known as lugworms, clam worms, bristleworms, fire worms, and sea mice. Annelids can be told by their segmented bodies. Polychaetes (meaning "many bristles") have, predictably, many bristles on the body, while earthworms and leeches have fewer bristles. There are about 9000 species of annelids known today

Class Hirudinea are leeches. Class Oligochaeta are earthworms. Class Polychaeta are bristleworms.

Class Echiura are spoon worms and innkeeper worms. Phylum Brachiopoda are the lamp shells, marine

animals that, upon first glance, look like clams, but that are not closely related to the molluscs. They seem rare, but are actually fairly common; they often make their homes in very cold water, either in polar regions or at great depths in the ocean, and thus are not often encountered. They were very abundant during the Paleozoic era, but at the end of the Paleozoic era they were decimated in the worst mass extinction of all time. Their numbers have never been as great since that time. There are eight classes of brachiopods, with about 300 living species of brachiopods.

Phylum Bryozoa are "moss animals" that encrust shells, rock, and kelp.

Phylum Entoprocta are the goblet worms. Phylum Mollusca are shelled animals. This group is

very diverse, but all organisms have a calcareous shell during some portion of their lives.

Class Bivalvia are two-shelled animals, like clams, mussels, and scallops.

Class Gastropoda are single shelled animals including snails, abalone, and limpets, and nudibranchs, which as adults have no shells.

Class Polyplacophora have 8 plate like shells that connect together like a backbone; these are the chitons.

Class Cephalopoda are the squids, octopods, and nautiloids.

Class Scaphopoda are are the tusk shells. Phylum Nemertia are the ribbon worms Phylum Phoronida are the horseshoe worms Phylum Sipuncula are the peanut worms