Excavations at Sīrāf: Sixth Interim Report

British Institute of Persian Studies

Excavations at Sīrāf: Sixth Interim ReportAuthor(s): David WhitehouseSource: Iran, Vol. 12 (1974), pp. 1-30Published by: British Institute of Persian StudiesStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4300502 .

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EXCAVATIONS AT SIRAF

Sixth Interim Report

By David Whitehouse

The sixth season of excavations at Sirdf took place between November and March 1972-73. During the season we discovered a cemetery of monumental tombs used in the tenth century A.D. (Site 0) and investigated three other new sites: M, N and P. We concluded our work in the Sasanian complex at Site B, in the Sasanian and early Islamic " palace " at Site K and in the buildings at Site J. We re- trieved material from selected deposits by flotation, using equipment built on the spot. We collected evidence of former cultivation in the hinterland of Sirdf and in a joint venture with the Iranian authori- ties carried out rapid reconnaissance in the valleys of Jam and Galehd~r.

We are indebted to H. E. the Minister of Culture, Mr. Mehrdad Pahlbod, and the Director General of the Archaeological Service, Mr. A. Pourmand, for permission to continue our work at Sirtf. The Director of the new National Research Centre for Archaeology, Dr. Firfiz Bagherzddeh, gave us all

possible assistance, as did his colleague in the Department for the Conservation of Historical Monu- ments, Mr. S. M. Khorramabadi. Mr. Husain Bakhtiari accompanied us to Siraf as the Representative of the Archaeological Service and we thank him for his help. Mr. Jahangir Yasi and Mr. Muhammad Mavadat joined us for the expeditions to Jam and Galehdar.

The excavations at Sirdf are sponsored by the British Institute of Persian Studies. During the sixth season we received generous support from the British Museum, the British Academy and a munificent anonymous trust. The British Museum kindly released a member of staff to join the expedition. We acknowledge this support with gratitude.'

The expedition staff was as follows: David Whitehouse (director), Ruth Whitehouse, Warwick Ball and Peter Donaldson (site supervisors), John Morrish, Tony Wilkinson and David Williams (assistant supervisors and surveyors), Shirley Jarman, Sarah Jennings, Peter Farries and Nicholas Lowick (finds assistants), Krystyna Spirydowicz (conservator), John Hoar (draftsman), David Jeffery (photographer) and Mary Karshner and Imogen Robinson (general assistants). Oliver Watson and Donald Whitcomb visited the site and gave us valuable help. Shirley Jarman was responsible for studying the human remains, Tony Wilkinson and Donald Whitcomb for analysing the agricultural data and David Williams for the flotation.

Finally, my thanks are due to the Director of the British Institute of Persian Studies, Mr. David Stronach, and the Assistant Director, Mr. A. H. Morton, for their unfailing practical help.

The report which follows contains two sections:

I. The Subsistence Economy of Sir•if. 2. The Excavation.

x We thank also the Department of Civil Engineering, Imperial College of Science and Technology and the Galton Foundation for lending equipment. As before, the staffs of Decca Services and Price International Inc. gave us hospitality and assistance in Bushehr. In addition to direct financial support, our spon-

sors awarded bursaries to the following members of staff: Sarah Jennings, Shirley Jarman, Peter Donaldson, Peter Farries and David Williams. Under the terms of her award, Miss Jennings spent the spring and summer of 1973 helping to prepare material for publication.

1



2 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES

I. THE SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY OF SIRAF

Medieval accounts of Siraf emphasize its wealth as an entrep6t for trade with the East; fortunes were made at Sirdf and the duty on imported goods formed a significant part of the provincial revenue.2 Excavation has borne out these reports; the walls of Sirdf enclosed an area of more than 250 hectares, the buildings were impressive and the site is exceptionally rich in Chinese ceramics. The size and prosperity of Sirdf are particularly striking in the context of the local environment. Rugged mountains dominate the interior, on the coast the soil potential is classified as having " severe to extreme limita- tions "3 and the average rainfall is less than 300 mm. a year.

During the season we made a determined effort to investigate this apparent paradox and elucidate the subsistence economy of SirTf. Each year we have preserved such animal and plant remains as can be collected in the normal course of digging; last winter we examined selected deposits by flotation and thereby recovered samples of the smaller bones, shells and plant fragments which are missed in the trench. At the same time we studied the geomorphology, soils and agriculture (past and present) of the region, in an attempt to estimate the extent and nature of cultivation outside the medieval city. Istakhri and other writers mentioned the arid landscape of Sirif and we wished to find out whether the area could have yielded sufficient grain, vegetables and fruit to feed the city, or whether food had to be imported. As a complement to this enquiry, we investigated traditional methods of cultivation practised in the region today. Finally, we explored briefly the valleys of Jam and Galehdir, which provide the coastal villages with livestock, fruit and vegetables. Although these studies are not yet complete- identifications of the plant remains are expected in 1974 and final analyses of the fauna will follow later- we already possess a much clearer impression of the economic basis of Siraf than was possible previously.

Flotation. Using only materials available in Bushehr, we built two simple flotation units, based on the equipment developed at the British Institute of Archaeology in Ankara.4 Each unit consisted of an open box with a weir and a series of " traps ". In the box I mm.2 nylon mesh trapped non-flotable material larger than I mm.2 (the " residue "); smaller particles fell through the mesh and were discarded. The weir carried flotable material to a smaller box, where it was trapped by a I mm.2 sieve; this " flot " contained the botanical remains. The residue was shade-dried and sorted manually. Aiming at economy we used fifty-gallon drums for the main boxes and plastic bowls as the smaller flot boxes. The total cost of the units was only 4716 Rials

(,?26.20).5 We examined thirty-five samples, each containing o 4 m.3 of earth, from stratified deposits at Sites B, C, D, E, F, M, O and P. The samples ranged in date from the Sasanian period (at Site B) to the fourteenth or fifteenth century (at Site E). Among the finds from deposits datable between the ninth and eleventh centuries we noted broken coconut shells, date stones, lentils, cloves and numerous other fruits or seeds, which await identification. Other material included fish bones and such small objects as glass beads and a pearl.

Land-use (Fig. I). While the material collected by flotation promises to enlarge our list of foods con- sumed at Sirdf, a study of medieval land-use provided information on the extent to which food (plant food especially) could have been produced locally. Using as a base a planimetric map at a scale of I:25,000, we planned the following features within an irregular radius of 5-7 km. of Siraf: (I) geomorphology and soils, (2) the infrastructure of communications and water supply and (3) traces of settlement and land-use outside the city walls." It should be noted that few of the man-made features can be dated to a particular phase in the history of Siraf and that, at this stage of the enquiry, we are dealing simply with an abstraction, " the medieval city ", and not a sequence of developments.

2 For a summary of the documentary information, see David Whitehouse, " Excavations at Siraf: First Interim Report ", Iran VI (1968), pp. 1-22, especially pp. 2-3. For the progress of the excavation, see also " Excavations at Sirdf: Second Interim Report ", Iran VII (1969), PP. 39-62 ; " Excavations at Sirdf: Third Interim Report ", Iran VIII (1970), pp.x-I8; " Excavations at Sirdf: Fourth Interim Report ", Iran IX (1970), pp. 1-I7; and " Excavations at Sirdf: Fifth Interim Report ", Iran X (0972), pp. 63-87. Elsewhere in this paper,

the reports are referred to as Sirdf I, II, III, IV and V. 3 M. L. Dewan in W. B. Fisher (ed.), The Cambridge History of

Iran I. The Land of Iran (Cambridge, 1968), pp. 26o-61. 4 D. H. French, " An Experiment in Water-sieving ", Anatolian

Studies XXI (1971), pp. 59-64. 5 David Williams, " Flotation: a Cheap and Simple Method ", Antiquity XLVIII (I974), in press.

6 T. J. Wilkinson, " Post-Medieval Agricultural Decline in the Sirif Region, Iran ", Geographical Journal (1973), in press.



EXCAVATIONS AT SIRAF 3

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Fig. I. Geomorphology and medieval land-use in the vicinity of Sirdf.




Sirdf stood on a narrow coastal plain at the foot of the southern Zagros mountains, which here consist of a series of anticlines parallel to the coast. The Sirtf region is dominated by the Namak anticline. It contains five topographical zones, described here from south to north:

I. The coastal plain, composed of sediments and deltaic deposits. 2. The Bakhtiari escarpment of Pliocene sandstone and conglomerate, which rises to a height of

21o m. and is the outer shell of the Namak anticline. It forms the ridge on the north side of the site.

3. The Agha Jari scarp and badlands, a feature of which are beds of gypseous marl. Terrace residuals 3-80 m. above present river beds indicate earlier stages in the erosion of the area. The badlands include D6band valley, immediately north of Siraf, which contains a 15 m. terrace.

4. The Mishan scarplands, with scarp and vale topography caused by differential erosion of Miocene sandstone, limestone and marl.

5. The " Northern Highlands ", the limestone core of the Namak anticline, which rises more than 2000 m. and forms a natural barrier to communication between the hinterland and the coast.

A series of short seasonal rivers which rise in the Northern Highlands drains the vale and scarp topography of the Mishan and Agha Jari series. The rivers to the north-west of Siraf, those in the Gharba

Rfid system, dissect the Namak anticline with canyons up to 200 m. deep. Those to the north-east debouch from the Highlands into a zone of mountain front gravel fans and from here meander in deep valleys, reaching the sea via gorges through the Bakhtiari ridge. Two vacant gorges show the former

positions of watercourses now captured by tributaries of the major rivers. The sporadic but intense winter rains and the paucity of vegetation combine to permit maximum

run-off. Consequently, the Agha Jnri deposits have been devastated by sheet wash and gullying, while the surface of the Mishan scarplands now consists of bare rock with only scattered residuals of the former lithosol cover. Beyond the badlands, however, the high terraces of the Mishan series contain several stable valley heads, which have escaped the fierce erosion found farther downstream. We were able to correlate the valley heads with the residual soils on the lower scarps, and this suggests that the soil cover was once almost continuous. Furthermore, the occurrence of medieval field systems in the valley heads, of eroding field boundaries on the residuals and of fields, cisterns and other features on the 15 m. terrace in D6band valley shows clearly that much-perhaps most-of the erosion has taken place in the last millennium and that the soil cover was considerably more extensive in the period of Sirif's great prosperity.

We found evidence for three aspects of human activity in the Sirtf area: water supply, communications and cultivation. Installations connected with the water supply consisted mainly of conduits, traced intermittently from the city and fields in the coastal plain and the Aghd Jari and Mishan series to pools and aquifers at the foot of the Northern Highlands, the longest aqueduct being about 8 km. Today communication is provided by paths for pedestrians, donkeys and, in rare cases only, for camels. The major routes leading to Jam and Galehdar follow the lines of medieval roads, paved in places, doubtless to facilitate the use of camels. As a rule, paths follow the valley bottoms, climbing to the scarp crests only where the valleys become impassable. As part of the study of land-use we plotted isopleths of

travelling time, measured on foot along all the routes from the city walls to the field systems of the hinterland.

The nature of all cultivation is determined largely by soil potential. Despite depressing reports,' the soils of the Siraf area are cultivable. The soil of the coastal plain and D6band valley, for example, is a sandy loam which is relatively free of salt. It was not surprising, therefore, despite the limited extent of cultivation today, to find extensive traces of earlier field systems, some of which are demonstrably medieval and others presumably so. We mapped a total of 197 ha. of ancient fields or gardens, mainly on the coastal plain and in D6band valley. Similar soils cover a further 395 ha. in which no medieval fields survive, often (it seems) because the land is under cultivation today; we suspect that much of this area was farmed in the Sasanian and early Islamic periods. Moreover, erosion has removed the soil

' M. L. Dewan and J. Famouri, The Soils ofl Iran (FAO, Rome, I964), pp. 18o-84.




cover of 99 ha. in D6band valley, where field systems certainly exist, and here again we suspect that cultivation took place on a larger scale than the evidence indicates. Indeed, we suggest that some 700 ha. in the vicinity of Sirdf was either certainly or probably cultivated.

Today (even after the advent of the diesel pump), 75% of the cultivated land of the Tahiri region is dry farmed, with cultivators depending on the winter rains which may be insufficient or, even when the total amount of rainfall is adequate, cause the crops to fail by falling at the wrong moment. With their greater reserves of capital and manpower, the farmers of Sirdf were able to produce reliable, high-yield crops by irrigation.8 Indeed, the frequent association of conduits and field systems indicates that 72-80% of the land was probably irrigated. The percentages of medieval fields and gardens thought to be either probably or possibly irrigated or dry farmed are as follows:

Associated with the remains of conduits 72 On the assumed course of conduits I o No information exists 4 More likely to have been dry farmed 4 Probably dry farmed Io

Ioo%

To summarize: we conclude that some 700 ha. of land in the vicinity of Siraf may well have been cultivated in the period of maximum prosperity. At least 72% of this area (just over 500 ha.) may have been irrigated.

Although the potential yield of the fields of Siraf was considerably higher than the yield of the fields and gardens of Tdhiri (which has 2000 inhabitants), we assume that it was still inadequate for the needs of the city. If this is correct, Sirdf did import basic foodstuffs and in this context the paved roads to Jam and Galehdir assume special significance. They were not simply caravan routes to the cities of the Iranian plateau. As reconnaissance (to Jam in 1966 and 1973 and to Galehdir in 1973) confirmed, the valley of Jam and the much larger plain of Galehdar are fertile, well-watered areas, the produce of which would have found a ready market in the bazaars of Siraf.

2. THE EXCAVATION

The excavations lasted fourteen weeks, during which we employed up to 150 men. Work was concentrated in seven areas (Sites B, .J, K, M, N, O and P), but we also made small soundings at Sites C, D, E and F to collect samples for flotation. The main sites are described in the following order:

I. Site B. The Sasanian fort. 2. Site K. A palatial residence. 3. Sites M and P. Mosques, a defensive wall and other buildings near the shore. 4. Site J. A military complex on the west promontory. 5. Site N. A basilica-like building. 6. Site O. A monumental cemetery.

i. Site B. The Sasanian fort 9

Work has proceeded at Site B ever since the excavations began in 1966. In the first five seasons we discovered that the Great Mosque, which was built shortly after 803-4, was surrounded on three sides by a bazaar. Beneath the mosque lie the remains of a fort and another enclosure, built first in the

8 H. Bowen-Jones in W. B. Fisher (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran I. The Land of Iran, p. 571, records the following yields of wheat in central Iran:

by dry farming 290-360 kg. per ha. with irrigation 850-1900oo kg. per ha.

Thus, in this case irrigation leads to a 3-5 fold increase in the yield.

* Strdf I, pp. 9-II; Sfrdf II, pp. 41-44; Sirdf III, pp. 2-8; Sirdf IV, pp. 2-5; and Sirdf V, pp. 68-72.




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Fig. 2. Sirdf. The western part of the city.




Sasanian period. Indeed, in Iran XI (1973), PP- 33-34, I suggested that the fort may date from the fourth

century. Last year we returned to Site B with three final objectives: (I) to look for traces of occupation beneath the Sasanian fort, (2) to collect evidence for the date of the fort and to determine whether it was a square building, as proposed in Iran XI, and (3) to examine the rubble-free area north of the Great Mosque and test the suggestion in World Archaeology II, no. 2 (1970), p. I43, that it may have been a maiddn.

The earliest occupation. We found evidence of early structures in three soundings on the south side of the fort. Outside the south-east angle tower we excavated a rectangular tank, measuring I

? 6o x I

? 19 m.

internally, built of rubble and lined with waterproof sdrzij. Adjoining the tank was a second small structure, which we did not examine. Evidently, the tank was in use when work began on the fort, for one corner had been filled with mortared rubble to serve as a foundation for the tower. Nearby, in a sounding beneath the south range of magazines, we found fallen masonry sealed by I 03 m. of sand. Finally, near the gatehouse of the fort, we excavated part of a stone-lined hollow, possibly the site of a hut. Associated with all three features were types of pottery found also in the fort and the outer enclosure, notably Indian Red Polished ware. We also discovered a single sherd of Fine Orange Ware with Painted Decoration.1o We conclude, therefore, that the oldest structures at Site B belong to the early centuries A.D.; however, we have no reason for supposing that they are pre-Sasanian.

The Sasanianfort. By the end of the fifth season, we had exposed part of the south side of the fort, including a monumental entrance, the south-east angle and a small section of the east side (SirdfV, Fig. 3). The axis of the entrance was 31 m. from the south-east angle and, assuming that the south side was symmetrical, I suggested that the fort was 62 m. across. In Iran XI, p. 33, I conjectured that the building was square. Last year we tested this view by cutting a sounding at the projected north-east angle. The excavation yielded two important results. First, we found that the fort was approximately square and, secondly, we discovered a ditch (Fig. 3). The east side of the fort was 57 2 m. long, not 62 m., and the angle between the south and east sides was 940, not 900. On the north side of the fort was a ditch, separated from the outer wall by a berm I

"75 m. wide. The ditch was i "25

m. deep, with a vertical inner face and a flat bottom. We exposed a width of I '50 m., but the outer side lay beyond the edge of the trench, which circumstances prevented us from enlarging. Excavation revealed no trace of a ditch on the south side of the fort, and I conclude that only the landward approach was ditched.

On the south side of the fort we examined the area immediately in front of the gate and made soundings in the gatehouse and the magazines. At the entrance we found evidence for two main periods of construction. In the first phase, the entrance was flanked by two low " benches " abutting on to the towers (P1. I). The benches were made of mortared rubble and survive to a maximum height of o 4 m. The area between them was paved with boulders. In the second phase, the ground level in front of the entrance was raised by

o'7 m., completely burying the benches, which were not replaced. Excavation

inside the fort again revealed at least two periods of construction. Among the finds from beneath the floors of the later period was a Sasanian copper coin and two sherds of coarse black stoneware"-the earliest evidence at Sir~f for contact with the Far East.

The bazaar. The sounding to the north of the Great Mosque revealed not only the north-east angle of the fort, but also part of the bazaar, thereby showing that the rubble-free area was not a maiddn. We distinguished five main periods of building in this part of the bazaar, the history of which corresponded closely with that of the bazaar immediately outside the mosque. The earliest structures, the floors of which sealed two lead coins of c. I88/803-4, were either contemporary with the mosque or built shortly after the mosque was completed. Beneath the floors of phase 2 were five coins of the late eighth or very early ninth century and an earthenware bottle with a green alkaline glaze (P1. XIIa). The last phase was associated with" late sgraffiato ware "of the eleventh century (cp. SirdfII, P1. VIe; SiraSfIV, P1. VIIId). Throughout their history, the buildings in this part of the bazaar occupied the same area and had much the same plan. Among the material sealed by the floors of every period from 2 to 5 was

10 The rim of a beaker, cf. David Whitehouse and Andrew Williamson, " Sasanian Maritime Trade ", Iran XI (1973), pp. 29-49, especially Fig. 5a on p. 37.

x1 Sirdf IV, p. 3; David Whitehouse, " Chinese Stoneware from Sirkf: the Earliest Finds " in Norman Hammond (ed.), South Asian Archaeology I (London, 1973), pp. 214-55.




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Fig. 3. Site B. The Sasanian fort: a revised reconstruction of the plan.




bronze-working debris-small objects, scraps and crucibles-suggesting that this part of the bazaar was occupied traditionally by metalworkers. Taken with the results obtained previously outside the mosque and at Site C (Sirdf IV, pp. 10-12; SirdfV, pp. 71-72), the evidence from the sounding suggests strongly that the bazaar was built at the same time as the Great Mosque. This combined venture was an ambitious piece of re-development, planned within a decade of c. 800 and well advanced by c. 803-4-

2. Site K. A Palatial Residence12 In 1970-71 we began to excavate a group of buildings on the crest of the ridge separating Shilau

valley from the coastal plain. Surface remains suggested that the complex was more than 150 m. long and 75 m. wide. On the south side, where the ridge slopes gently down towards the sea, was a curtain wall visible intermittently for I o8 m. No such wall was necessary on the north side, where the ridge falls away precipitously into Shilau valley. Excavation at the west end of the complex revealed that the area had been terraced to accommodate two buildings: on the " lower platform ", a structure measuring at least 28 X 20 m. and, on the " upper platform ", an imposing structure measuring at least 37 x 38 m. and containing more than thirty rooms. The position and exceptional size of the complex appeared to justify the adjective " palatial ".

Last year we resumed work at the west end of the complex. By the end of the season we had un- covered the greater part of the " lower platform " (now termed Building A), nearly all of the " upper platform " (Building B) and parts of at least four other structures (Figs. 4 and 5). Immediately east of Building B stood Building C, which may well be part of the same structure as Building G, and beyond this was Building D. East of Building A was a yard, beyond which stood Buildings F and E. Among the finds from Site K was a white porcelain bowl (P1. XIIc).

Building A. This occupied a rock-cut terrace 53'5 m. above sea level; a plaster floor on the north side of the building stood at 53 - 86 m. Erosion of the south and west sides of the terrace had destroyed the edges of the structure, but the plan was fairly clear. Building A measured some 29 x 21 m. It contained two courtyards: a small yard to the west and a larger yard, measuring at least 7 X 12 m., to the east. Rectangular buttresses in the north-east angle showed that the building belonged to the tenth or early eleventh century.13 Some time after it was built, part of the north-west angle was demolished to make way for at least five graves, aligned approximately north-south (P1. IIIc). The graves were surmounted by stucco memorials, recalling the stone grave covers published in Sirdf II, pp. 61-62 and Sirdf IV, p. 16. Indeed, two of the monuments bear Qur'anic quotations in a floriated Kufic script. After the abandonment of Building A, the whole terrace became a cemetery.14

Building B (Pls. IIa and IIIa) stood on the crest of the ridge and is the largest structure so far discovered at Site K. If we include the rows of piers on the north and west sides, the building was 38 m. across. Here again, the ridge was terraced and the building comprised a central area, probably a courtyard, surrounded by ranges of rooms at different levels. Bed-rock in the central area stood at 58 I o m; the south range of rooms had floors at

54" 48 + o" Io m.; the corridor on the north side of the building had a floor at 52'72 m. (5. 38 m. below the yard). We found evidence of two major phases of construction. In period I the building had semi-circular buttresses; in period 2 rectangular buttresses were used. We excavated most of the building in 1970-71. Last year we completed the work by examining the south-east and north-east angles. At the south-east angle it appeared that in period I the building may have extended farther east, into the area now covered by Building G. At the north-east angle we discovered that a small cemetery came into use after the corridor had collapsed.

Building C (P1. IIIa) also occupied the crest of the ridge, with rooms on several levels. The excavated area adjoins the north-east angle of Building B. It contained rooms at two or more levels. The highest level, on the crest itself, comprised rooms with floors some 59 65 m. above sea level. Below this, with floors at 56 22 m., were two parallel rooms, 12 m. long and 2 6-3 o m. wide, connected by three openings. The south room contained two arches carried on shallow buttresses, perhaps to support partitions in an upper storey. Further north stood the walls of another group of rooms. Although rising from an

12 Sirdf V, pp. 72-74. 13 Sirdf III, pp. 13-14.

14 Sfrdf V, p. 74.




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even lower level (51 94 m.), the walls probably supported floors at the level of the parallel rooms.

Building G, on the south side of the ridge, may well represent the south-west angle of the structure. If this were so, the complete building measured 38-ox 0135 m. and straddled the ridge.

Surface remains (Fig. 4) showed that at least three structures stood on the crest of the ridge east of

Building C; two of these were 17 and 16 - 5 m. wide. In 1970-71 we excavated part of another structure, Building D, on the north slope of the ridge.

Building E (Pls. IIa, IIb and IIIb), situated near the boundary wall on the south side of the complex, was a rectangular structure with two courtyards,

15"4 m. wide and more than 20o m. long. At the south

end was a yard with floors at about 53* oo m. above sea level. A narrow flight of steps gave access to a

higher terrace supporting the second courtyard, which was flanked by rooms with floors at 55'55- 56-36 m. Buildings with two connected yards do not occur at Site F; they may be another feature of the " palatial " residences defined in SirdfV, p. 72.

Building E stood on the site of an earlier building, the plan of which was partly revealed by its foundations and earlier terraces. Associated with the first phase was abundant Sasanian pottery, comparable with material from early deposits at Site B. Scattered coins apart, this is the first evidence for Sasanian occupation at Site K.

Building F was 15 2 m. wide and more than 17 m. long. We examined only a small part of the structure and little is known of the plan.

3. Sites M and P. Mosques, a Defensive Wall and Other Buildings near the Shore. Site M is a rubble-free depression I50 m. west of Site F and immediately north of the beach (Fig. 6).

The depression measures some Ioo x 18o m. and in the centre the surface is less than I m. above sea level. It is separated from the beach by a narrow ridge. The area is surrounded on three sides by mounds of rubble, through which protrude the footings of numerous buildings. We investigated the depression to test the view that it might be a silted inlet, perhaps used for beaching ships during the occupation of Sir~f. The excavation took the form of a line of trenches (A, B, C, D, E, J and K), each measuring I o x 2 m. and separated by baulks 3 m. wide, across the depression. At the same time we cut another trench (F) across the ridge between the depression and the sea. Later we enlarged trench A to investigate two buildings on the east side of the depression and excavated two structures on the ridge. Among the features found on the ridge was a stout curtain wall, which we investigated further by excavating Sites PI and P2 between the depression and the water course which passes Site F.

The Depression. The excavation showed beyond doubt that the depression was not a silted creek, although in trench F we did find evidence of a pool or inlet. Trenches A-K revealed a thick layer of clay resting on a fossil beach. On the edge of the site, in trenches A, B and G, the beach sloped gently upwards towards the east. The clay resembled the clay which underlay Sites D, L and N15 and it appears that a sheet of clay underlies a large area in the western part of Siraf, from the Kundrak water course to the east edge of Site M, evidently a relic of former salt flats. If the earliest structures at Site L, which rest on the clay, are indeed Sasanian (as was suggested in SirdjfV, p. 81), then the marshes were already fairly dry in the Sasanian period.

West of Site M the old salt flats were densely built upon and it remains to discuss why the depression itself was empty. Trenches B-J and the west part of trench A, which together had an area of some

120o m2, contained fifteen shallow graves, dug into the clay, and it became clear that the area was a cemetery. Some of the graves were disturbed; the others were extended inhumations, aligned approximately north-south, with the head to the north. I suggest that the cemetery was still visible (indeed, perhaps still in use) when the western quarters of Siraf were laid out and that the planners respected it. The wall found in trenches F and K, which is visible intermittently on the surface, appeared to enclose the cemetery.

On the south side of the site, immediately above the beach, trenches F and H revealed deep deposits of refuse resting on clay only a few centimetres above sea level. The rubbish contained much pottery of

15 Sfrif IV, p. '3; Sfr4f V, pp. 78-81.




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the ninth and tenth centuries. It appeared, therefore, that a pool or shallow inlet existed and was used as a tip. Among the finds from the midden was a glass inkwell of colourless metal with silver weathering (P1. XIId).

Site Mi (Fig. 7 and Pls. IV and V). We excavated two structures on the east side of the cemetery: Buildings I and 2. The buildings had frontages on a street running from north to south and were

separated by a narrow alley. A second alley separated Building 2 from a third structure, which we did not examine. The streets had the same alignment as those at Site F, which lies 170 m. (perhaps Io blocks) to the east and 70 m. (perhaps 4 blocks) to the north. The secular building at Site PI had the same alignment as the houses at Site F and it is likely, therefore, that all three sites formed part of the same quarter, which extended from an undefined point between the Great Mosque and Site F to the cemetery at Site M and occupied an area of at least 5 ha.

Building I, which measured 12 m. wide x 9-13 m. deep, contained an entrance passage and five rooms arranged round three sides of a yard. We found evidence of two main periods of construction; the south side of the entrance had been rebuilt and room 5 originally had a cubicle or similar feature at the west end, which was later demolished. In room 3 an opening into the alley had been carefully blocked. With the exception of room 5, which had a paved floor, all the rooms had plaster surfaces. A row of sockets in the outer face of the south wall suggested that a narrow balcony existed, either forming a roof-

top parapet or screening first floor windows. Building 2 was a larger and more elaborate structure (P1. V). It measured 14 x 16-5 m., with a

triangular projection on the west side. The main building had two entrances and seven rooms sur-

rounding a central yard. It had two unusual features; first, all the rooms except 6 had entrances from the street and, secondly, rooms 2, 3 and 6 had narrow cubicles. Five rooms had platforms in one corner. Outside the rear of the building was a yard containing room I o, a latrine. The building had been richly decorated with stucco and the presence of fallen masonry allowed us to reconstruct the elevation of the west side of the yard.

The plan of Building 2 differed from those of the houses at Site F in the provision of numerous openings to the street. This arrangement suggests multiple occupation with independent activities in each of the rooms, a deduction supported by the provision of latrines outside rooms 2, 3 and 4. Clearly, the

building was neither industrial nor domestic (since the elaborate stucco is inconsistent with one-room, low-income apartments). I suggest instead that the building had a commercial function and may have contained a series of offices; certainly, the rooms were not shops comparable with the one-room premises in the bazaar.

Site M2. This area contained two buildings and the defensive wall. The buildings, a mosque and an unidentified structure, had been erected on the edge of the cemetery. The mosque was either a ruin or was demolished when work began on the wall; the second building was demolished.

The Mosque (Fig. 8 and P1. VIb). This was a rectangular building of a type already familiar at

SirTf.x6 Although little survived above floor level, we recognized two phases of construction. In phase I the mosque was a rectangular structure measuring 8 - 9 x 6 -8 m. internally. The interior was divided by a row of four diminutive piers which, with buttresses on the lateral walls, formed a transverse arcade. The

mosque was entered through an opening in the north-east wall, which was flanked by pilasters and so

presumably had a " frame " recalling the entrances to private houses at Site F, such as that illustrated in

Sirdf II, P1. IIIa. Small openings, perhaps windows, existed in at least one side of the mosque. The

qibla wall was reinforced with round buttresses at the angles and had a projecting mihrdb, the recess of which was only o 5 m. wide. In period 2 the mosque was rebuilt. The number of piers in the arcade may have been reduced. On the north-east side of the building a courtyard 8-o05 m. deep was constructed, with an entrance to the north-west. Subsequently part of the mosque was roughly restored.

Building 2 (Fig. 9 and P1. VIa). On the south side of the defensive wall (described below) we excavated the surviving part of a building of unknown size and function. The building may have continued north of the wall, but this area was not explored. The excavated part contained six rooms and other features, remarkable for their lack of symmetry. As a rule, buildings at Siraf were laid out with accurate

SSrdftr IV, p. I2.




I 0 [

/

N, Not f x

BUILDING 31

IIi I

\metres

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O 3i3 'r~~T~ O ~metres`

Fig. 7. Site Mr.




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Fig. 8. Site M2. The mosque. (Scale I :zoo).



EXCAVATIONS AT SiRAF 17

.1.... .1.F6 (?).steps

iRoom

/well3e N

/ I

,1/

S -1.325m1.17m flight of (?).steps

S-wellell 1

Uncertain metres

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metresd

Fig. q. Site Mr. Building 2. (Scale z:"zoo).




right angles; here, the rooms are of irregular size and shape. Three of the rooms had floors of waterproof sdrij and one contained a well; to the east of the building was a small saru-j-lined tank (F8). It is possible, therefore, that the structure was the washing area of a larger complex. Of the rooms with plaster floors, one had a platform in the south-west angle. Outside the east end of the building was a flight of steps to an upper storey or, more probably, the roof. Two parallel walls at the west end of the complex (F6) may have been the base of another flight of steps. Outside the north-east angle, standing apparently in a yard, was an oval feature I - 6 m. long, with a domed plaster top o'45 m. high (F I). The longer axis of the feature pointed towards Mecca. The form recalled the oval grave tops at Site O (see below, p. 29) and the alignment was consistent with a tomb. Thus, although we found no grave beneath the feature, we assumed that it was a cenotaph: a modest imdmzddeh in a yard beside a building of unknown function.

The Defensive Wall (Fig. 6). This was a composite structure comprising sections of curtain wall inserted in the gaps between existing buildings. The wall was I -30 m. wide and rested on a broad foundation 0. 75 m. deep. At the east end of Site M (in Trench H) the wall abutted on to the angle of a large building; at the west end it abutted on to a second substantial structure. During construction of the wall, Building 2 was partly demolished, while the mosque was either pulled down or had already been destroyed. In Trench H, where the defences incorporated part of a standing building, we found that the south wall of the latter had been reinforced and that partitions had been demolished to provide a clear space behind the curtain. We traced the wall for a total length of 170 m., from the west side of Site M to Site P. The nature of the defences suggested that they were erected hastily against a threat of naval assault; buildings were requisitioned, sound walls were included in the barrier and flimsy structures were demolished. In Trenches F and H the wall was built on the surface of the refuse deposits mentioned on pp. I2-14. Pottery and other objects from the tip belonged to the ninth and tenth centuries. I suggest a possible context for the construction of the wall on p. 21.

Site Pi (P1. VII and Fig. 10). Site PI comprised four periods of construction, during which the function changed completely. In period I the area probably contained a mosque. Little of this phase survived, but it appeared that the mosque was a small building, 7 - 5 m. wide and 7o0 m. deep, comparable with the mosques at Sites M2 and C. On the north-east and north-west sides of the mosque was a yard. A flight of steps to the north-east probably formed part of a staircase minaret, the earliest example on the Persian Gulf.17 By period 3 the mosque had been demolished and rebuilt, to form part of an industrial complex. Several rooms contained the bases, or impressions of the bases, of large storage jars and the whole area was covered with a layer of black, pitch-like substance (samples of which await analysis). Among the finds was the rib of a whale, fully 2 m. long. As a working hypothesis, we suggest that the complex may have been a factory for processing blubber, the oil from which was used for caulking boats. In period 4 the defensive wall was built across the site, making an abrupt change of alignment and continuing towards the sea.

Site P2. We excavated a single building at Site P2, a mosque with at least three periods of construction. The area of Sites F, M and P contains at least four mosques, three of which (M2, PI and P2) were built on the shore within a distance of only 200 m. It is remarkable that three of the mosques (M2, PI and F)18 ceased to have a religious function well before the abandonment of Siraf-a phenomenon which demands explanation.

4. Site J. A Military Complex on the West Promontory.19 In I1970-7 I we excavated two buildings on the promontory which forms the west side of Tahiri bay:

a large structure resembling a caravanserai or warehouse and a bath house. The buildings occupied a strategic position, controlling not only the bay, but also the city wall, which ran from the promontory to the ridge on the landward side of Siraf. Last year we examined the relationship between the city wall, the warehouse and the baths. We found that the city wall ended at a large compound, presumably a fort, part of which (Building C) lay to the south of the warehouse. Building C had been considerably

17 David Whitehouse, " Staircase Minarets on the Persian Gulf ", Iran X (1972), pp. I55-158.

18 For the mosque at Site F, see Sirdf IV, pp. 7-8. 19 Straf V, pp. 74-78.




430 431 432

i DefensiveWall

Room 1 N

- 489

.Room

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Before Period 4 Period 4

Period 1 Period 5

Period 2 ] Paved floors

0 15 -487 01487 -

Metres

430 431 432

lII Fig. io. Site Pi. (Scale z:2oo).




,/I 33 II

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WAREHOUSE

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Fig. zz. SiteJ. (Scale z:zooo).




eroded, but enough survived to show that it was an irregular structure containing several yards surrounded by barracks or magazines (Fig. I I). The bath house, it appeared, stood in the compound, which extended for an unknown distance towards the north. The warehouse also stood in the com-

pound, but was not an original feature. Excavation beneath the floors, begun in 1970-71, showed that it had been inserted at the expense of earlier features; walls had been demolished to create an open space,20 in which the structure was built. Finds from deposits beneath the warehouse floor suggested that the work took place in the tenth century. With its key position and physical connection with the city wall, the compound had a distinctly military appearance and the large building may well have been an arsenal rather than a commercial warehouse.

Taken with the defensive wall at Sites M and P, the warehouse or arsenal assumes major significance. The former provided Sirdf (for the first time, it seems) with protection against attack from the sea; the latter, if a warehouse, brought the merchandise on which the city depended under direct military surveillance or, if an arsenal, indicates an increase in the military presence at Siraf. The archaeological evidence contains nothing to contradict the view that both structures were built at about the same time.

As this report went to press, Mr. Andrew Williamson provided a plausible context for the military works at Sirdf. In a paper at the Seminar for Arabian Studies, held at Cambridge in June 1973, Williamson described the rise and fall of Suhlr in Oman. The Omanis emerged as a major force in

943, when they attacked Basra. In 952-53 they again attacked Basra, in alliance with the Carmathians of Bahrain. As Istakhri makes clear, Suhar was an important city in the mid-tenth century. The rise of

Suhdr caused alarm in the Bilyid administration and in 965 Mu'izz ad-Daula sent two expeditions against Oman. The second expedition, mounted from Siraf, gave the Bfyids control and they estab- lished a base in Oman. In 972-73 the Omani garrison mutinied. Abo IHarb, 'Adud ad-Daula's

general, mustered a large punitive force, attacked Oman and destroyed Suhar. The defences at Sites M and P, hastily erected by plugging the gaps between existing buildings, were

built against a specific threat and it would be reasonable to identify that threat with either the Carma- thians of Bahrain-which is a day's sailing from Sirdf-or the fleet of Suhar. It is no less reasonable to see the new building at Site J as a naval arsenal erected by the Btiyids in connection with their counter- offensive in the Gulf.

5. Site N. A Basilica-like Building (Fig. 12). Site N stands in the western suburbs of Siraf, only 90 m. from the city wall and 125 m. from the

beach. It is 40 m. (perhaps two blocks from the street leading to the gate at Site L and 240 m. from the

pottery (Site D). It contains a single, poorly-preserved structure: a basilica-like building Io. 15 m.

square. The building comprised a single room divided by piers into three unequal parts: a central " nave ", 3 -26 m. across, and two " aisles ",

2"I-2-2 m. wide. We found traces of a niche or niches in

the south wall and the position of a setting for a small fixture at the south end of the nave. Beyond the south wall, apparently added in a secondary phase of construction, was a narrow rectangular platform.

The " basilica " was built of mortared rubble. The walls and piers had no foundations, but rested

directly on the ground. On the north, south and east sides the outer walls varied in width from o065-

o 70 m;. the west wall was only o.42

m. thick. The piers were o.58-o-65

m. wide. The piers and walls, both inside the building and out, were covered with white plaster. The walls survived to a maximum height of o 6 m. and, as the site had been cleared of rubble by cultivators, nothing remained to indicate either the height of the building or the nature of the roof.

The building had a simple plan. The floors were 0o9 m. above ground level and originally the outer walls were surrounded on all four sides by a step, o 6 m. wide and o'3 m. high. The interior was divided by two arcades, each containing two piers and a buttress on the north and south walls. The piers, which varied in length between I

.68 and I '78 m., were separated by gaps I 38-I .43 m. wide.

Each gap had a plaster sill, o0 04-0 07 m. high. On the north side of the basilica, a flight of three steps, o09 m. high and o 84 m. wide, gave access to an opening into the nave. The opening, which was very

2o SirdIfV, P1. VIc shows the footing of a demolished wall below the floor of the courtyard in the east part of the warehouse.




372 373

5.73 Steps F-------------------

I-6...08j

I .6

496

496 672 67 F 1

N

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6.63 ?

6.56 i F5

i. L --F4 F2 BM 6.466

4.57 495 -

Period 1

495 Walls Period 2 373

Foundations f Foundations -*

0 5 I I I I

Metres 372

WBm DWd

Fig. Iz. Site N. The basilica-like building. (Scale i :roo).




eroded, appeared to be 2 3 m. wide, with the steps at one side. It is possible that a pier, now completely destroyed, originally divided the opening into two: a doorway to the west and a window to the east.

Openings about I .6 m. wide existed at the north ends of the aisles, again presumably for windows. In the east wall two openings, I -48 m. and I 6 m. wide, survived opposite the piers of the arcades. Little remained of the west wall; I assume it contained openings comparable with those to the east. Outside the east wall was a stepped abutment (Fi) of unknown function.

We found evidence for rebuilding in only one area: outside the south wall, where the step was buried in a structure I

. 8 m. across, which ran the whole width of the basilica. The structure was badly ruined

and we ascertained only that it was revetted with walls of mortared rubble and had a plaster floor at the same level as the floors of the basilica itself. It was not clear whether the revetments supported walls or

piers, or whether the structure was simply a bench. The south wall, which had been reduced to floor level for almost its total length, contained three

fragmentary features: at the end of the nave the wall was built in two parts, with a clear break in bond

parallel to the sides (F2); at the end of the east aisle, a similar break (F3) was associated with a jamb and a plaster sill; finally, a third break in bond (F4) occurred at the end of the west aisle.

We must assume that the breaks in bond had specific functions, for they would have weakened the outer wall. They mark, I suggest, the positions of niches. On the outer side of the break, the wall would have been constructed to the full height of the buildings; on the inner side it was simply the base of a recess. The jamb and sill in the east aisle may well have formed part of a niche, although it is possible that they belonged to an opening, created by demolishing the niche, when the external structure was added.

The basilica contained one internal feature (F5): a rectangular slot in the floor at the south end of the nave. The slot, which measured I 24 x o0 - 46 m., was immediately in front of the " niche " and lay on the axis of the nave. The sharp, vertical edges of the feature suggested that the floor was laid round a

rectangular fixture, possibly of wood. We found no firm evidence for the date of the basilica. It was built on open ground and the only

significant material from earlier deposits consisted of some 750 sherds. The unglazed pottery included both " brittle " ware and products of the kilns at Site D. All the glazed sherds were monochrome green. The material thus appeared to fall between the early ninth century filling of the Great Mosque (with abundant brittle ware) and the end of the " round buttress " phase at Site F (by which time pots made at Site D and glazed wares of the " Samarra " group were common). If the sample is representative, the basilica was built in the ninth century.

The function of the building is unknown. However, it was evidently intended for congregational use and the plan, which has no parallel at Siraf suggests that it may have been a church. Attractive as it is, this identification is far from certain and should be used with considerable caution.

6. Site O. A Monumental Cemetery The cemetery at Site O occupied a spur overlooking the west end of SirMf, immediately north of the

funerary mosque at Site G21 (Fig. 13 and P1. VIIIa). The spur runs from north to south, ending in a

plateau interrupted only by a long outcrop of rock. On either side of the spur the ground falls almost

vertically into deep ravines. To the north the spur becomes a steep-sided ridge. The cemetery occupied the plateau and part of the ridge, an area measuring some Ioo X 150 m., with outlying tombs across the ravine to the east. It contained a large group of monumental tombs, associated with numerous graves. The tombs were intended for collective disposal of the dead. They were used-and possibly built-in the ninth and tenth centuries A.D. Like so many parts of the escarpment above Siraf, the area had a long history of funerary use; it contains rock-cut tombs of the type described in SirdfV, p. 65 and P1. Ia, the monumental cemetery and the mosque at Site G, for which we have no evidence before the thirteenth century.

21 Sfraf III, pp. 15-I8; SirafV, pp. 84-85.




CI

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Fig. z3. Site O. The monumental cemetery. (Scale I :iooo).




The monumental tombs. The principal feature of the cemetery was the tombs, which varied in size from 5 -05 x 5"-

Io m. to about 9 -5 x Io 10o m. We excavated ten tombs (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, J, K, and

M) and exposed the edges of two others (Tombs H and L). Surface remains suggested that the area shown in Fig. 13 contained some forty tombs. Fallen masonry at Tomb D showed that the walls were at least 6-9 m. high. The tombs, therefore, were impressive; they were comparable in size with the Tomb of Isma'il the Sdmanid at Bukhara and they heavily outnumbered the sixteen tombs in the monumental cemetery of Shih-i Zindeh at Samarqand.

Nine of the ten excavated tombs were intended for collective burial. They formed a group, which is divisible into two main types. The tenth (Tomb K) had a different plan and was used for single burials in graves. All were aligned approximately north-south. They were built of mortared rubble and had semi-circular or rectangular buttresses. In the nine collective tombs we found no evidence for openings, which were above floor level. Details of the tombs are as follows:

Type A (Fig. I4). Small tombs divided into two parts: an anteroom to the east and chambers or

compartments for the bodies to the west.

Tomb A measured 5'4 x 5-2 m. and had round buttresses at the angles. The walls survived to a maximum height of I

"94 m. The west part contained four compartments, each covered by a

semi-circular vault I . I6 m. high. Above the north compartment were traces of a plaster surface, possibly the floor of an upper row of compartments at shoulder-height. Tomb G measured 5-05 x 5 - 0o m. and had a combination of curvilinear and rectangular buttresses. The walls survived to a maximum height of 0 - 77 m. The anteroom contained a ruined feature, possibly a flight of steps. The west part was divided into two chambers. Each chamber was open at the front, with only a plaster kerb separating it from the anteroom. The tomb contained the remains of six skeletons.

Type BI (Fig. 15). Larger tombs containing three elements: a corridor on the east-west axis of the monument, a pair of chambers to the north and a second pair of chambers to the south. The chambers were vaulted. Some were divided by low kerbs into body-size compartments.

Tomb C measured 7"40

x 7 -75 m. and had round buttresses at the angles and a single semi- circular or rectangular buttress on each of the sides. The walls survived to a maximum height of o 69 m. A rubble and plaster feature at the east end of the corridor may be the base of a flight of

steps. The tomb contained twelve or more burials. Tomb D (Pls. IXa, XIa and XIb) measured 6 - 25 x 7 20 m. and had round buttresses at the

angles and on the east and west sides. A fallen wall showed that the tomb (without the roof) was at least 6-9 m. high. At the east end of the corridor was a flight of steps. Each chamber contained four body-size compartments. Tomb E (Pls. XIc and d) measured 6 I x 7-5 m. and had round buttresses at the angles and a

single semi-circular or rectangular buttress on the east and west sides. The walls survived to a maximum height of 2 5 m. The corridor contained a plastered feature, possibly the base of a

flight of steps. Two of the four chambers were divided into body-size compartments. The tomb contained at least 47 skeletons. Tomb J (P1. Xa) measured

5"35 x 5'70 m. and had round buttresses at the angles. It had been

completely ruined and rebuilt, apparently for use as a shelter, perhaps recently.

Type B2 (Fig. i6). We found two variants of Type BI, each with an additional chamber, either at one end of the building or inserted in the corridor.

Tomb B measured 7 oo x 8 35 m. and had round buttresses at the angles. A rectangular buttress reinforced the north side. The walls survived to a maximum height of I 42 m. At the west end of the corridor stood a flight of steps. An opening at the east end of the corridor gave access to a chamber 5 80 m. long and I

"97 m. wide. The tomb contained at least 52 skeletons.




Tomb G

N

Tomb A

N

0 5 !I I I

metres

DWd

Fig. 14. Site O. Tombs A and G. (Scale z:roo).




Tomb D

Tomb E

N

0 5 I I I I I

DWd metres Fig. 15. Site O. Tombs D and E. (Scale s : oo).




Tomb F

Steps

N

Tomb B

S! teps

N

0 5 I I I I I

metres DWd

Fig. z6. Site O. Tombs B and F. (Scale i:zoo).



P1. Ia. Site B. The Sasanian fort. The entrance in phase I, looking north-west.

P1. Ib. Site B. The Sasanian fort. The entrance in phase I, looking north.



P1. IIa. Site K. Buildings E (in the foreground) and B (in the middle distance, on the right), looking west.

P1. IIb. Site K. Building E, looking north.



Pl. IlIa. Site K. The north sides of buildings B and C, looking west.

Pl. IlIb. Site K. Foundations of two periods in building E. Pl. IIIc. Site K. The cemetery in building A, looking south-west.

3B



Pl. IVa. Site Mi. The street between buildings 2 and 3, looking west.

Pl. IVb. Site Mi. Building I, the street between buildings i and 2 and the cemetery, looking west.



P1. Va. Site Mi. The east end of building 2, looking north, with the main street to the right.

Pl. Vb. Site MI. The courtyard of building 2, looking west.



Pl. VIa. Site M2. Building 2, looking north. The arrows indicate the later defensive wall.

Pl. VIb. Site M12, looking east. In the foreground are the mosque, the defensive wall and building 2. The arrow indicates the position of Site PI.



Pl. VIIa. Site PI, looking north, with the converted mosque in the foreground.

Pl. VIIb. Site PI. The staircase minaret, looking north, with the defensive wall on the right.



Pl. VIIIa. Site O. The monumental cemetery, looking south-west.

Pl. VIIIb. Site 0. Tomb K. looking west.



Pl. IXa. Site O. Tomb D, looking south.

Pl. IXb. Site 0. Graves between tombs D and E, looking north.



Pl. Xa. Site O. Tomb J, looking north.

Pl. Xb. Site O. The interior of tomb F, looking east.



P1. XIa. Site O. The steps in Tomb D. Pl. XIb. Site O. Tomb D. Room 2, containing three skeletons with heads to the north.

Pl. XIc. Site O. Tomb E. The north-east chamber, containing at least twenty two skeletons, looking north.

P1. XId. Site O. Tomb E. The earliest skeletons in the north-east

chamber, looking north. The four adult skeletons aligned north-south have been moved to make room for one adult and one child aligned

east-west.



P1. XIIa. Site B. Earthenware bottle with green alkaline glaze, height 17-3 cm.

Pl. XIIb. Site O. Unglazed earthenware jug, height 15-2 cm.

P1. XIIc. Site K. White porcelain bowl, diameter 12-o cm. Pl. XIId. Site M2. Glass " inkwell ", height 6.

8 cm.




Tomb F (Pl. Xb) measured 7-55 x 8-oo m. and had round buttresses at the angles, with a semi- circular buttress on the north side. The walls survived to a maximum height of I - 8 m. The tomb contained a wide corridor, at the west end of which stood the extra chamber. A flight of steps survived at the east end of the corridor. We found the remains of at least 44 skeletons. Tomb M, which measured about

9"5 Io0 - o m. may have been of this type, but it was so ruined

that the complete plan could not be determined.

Tomb K was 5"4

m. square, with doors or windows in all four sides. The walls stood to a height of

2-75 m., at which level no trace of the squinches, which I assume to have existed, was visible. The tomb contained at least fifteen graves, marked by oval or rectangular plaster covers.

The Graves (P1. IXb). The spaces between the tombs contained many rock-cut graves, most of which were aligned approximately north-south. When well-preserved, the graves had low oval or

rectangular covers, similar to the graves in Tomb K. Indeed, in some areas the floor of the cemetery was a continuous plaster sheet with low swellings to mark the graves. It is possible that the large cemeteries of rock-cut graves (e.g. the " Main Cemetery " shown in Sirdf I, P1. IIa) which form one of the most

prominent features of the site, were originally plaster covered. At Site O three graves retained carved sandstone covers and several others had fragmentary stucco covers, comparable with the covers at Site K (see above, p. 9).

Disposal of the Dead. If we exclude Tomb K and the rock-cut graves, the excavation yielded evidence of a consistent funerary practice, the main elements of which were as follows:

I. The complete corpse was placed on the floor of the tomb. We found only one group of nails, suggesting that coffins were rarely, if ever, used.

2. The tombs were intended for collective disposal of the dead. They contained both sexes and all

ages, including infants. Tomb B yielded the remains of at least 52 persons. The tombs may have been used for a considerable time and earlier " burials " were pushed aside to make room for new

corpses; P1. XId shows four adult and several infantile skeletons, the legs of which had been moved to make room for another adult and a child.

3. Most bodies were aligned north-south, but Tombs A and G were built to receive corpses aligned east-west. Tomb B, among others, had bodies on both alignments.

4. Corpses were sometimes buried with ear- and finger-rings, beads and bracelets. Several tombs contained eggshell ware jugs (including P1. XIIb) or, rarely, glass vessels.

Date. None of the tombs contained an inscription and the grave-goods provided our only evidence for their date. In assessing this evidence we should bear in mind that monuments used for collective burial may be emptied from time to time to make room for new bodies and, if this happens, burials which appear to be " primary " may well be considerably later than the construction of the tomb. The earliest datable objects from the tombs were stamp seals of Sasanian type (cp. Sirdf V, Pls. XIId and e) and a coin of Khusro II (590-628), pierced for use as a pendant, all of which could have served as per- sonal ornaments in post-Sasanian times. The latest stratified finds were the jugs and glass vessels, which have parallels in ninth and tenth century contexts elsewhere at Siraf, and three finger rings bearing Arabic inscriptions, one using a form offloriated Kufic attributable to the tenth century. Architectural

details, notably the buttresses, could be used to support the view that the tombs were built in the ninth or tenth century.

Discussion. Whatever the date of the earliest tomb at Site O, it is impossible to escape the conclusion that the cemetery was still in use in the Islamic period; we have ninth and tenth century objects from the tombs and several graves have stone or stucco memorials which are explicitly Islamic. Furthermore, the size of the tombs suggests that they were built by a wealthy section of the community.

In this context, the burial practice in the tombs presents a considerable problem. If the tombs were used by a Muslim or nominally-Muslim group, that group had adopted a funerary rite which would have been abhorrent to most of its co-religionists. If they were used by non-Muslims, we must face the problem of their identity. In either case, it appears that leading citizens of Siraf behaved in a manner which the majority of Muslims would have found extraordinary.

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The funerary rite would have been unacceptable not only to Muslims, but also to Christians and

Jews, all of whom prefer single burial in a grave. Although unorthodox, it might have appeared less unusual to Zoroastrians; the rock-cut tombs at Siraf were used for collective disposal of the bones after

exposure and the custom of placing bodies on a floor would preserve the earth from pollution. We know that Zoroastrian communities survived long into the Islamic period in parts of Firs and that the

Bilyids had considerable respect for traditional Iranian institutions. It is possible, therefore, that Zoro- astrian customs were familiar to, and tolerated by, many of the inhabitants of Siraf in the ninth and tenth centuries and that the cemetery at Site O, which contained both monumental tombs and single graves, some of which are undoubtedly Islamic, represents a response to the " Iranian revival" pro- moted by the Btiyids.22 As a working hypothesis, I suggest that the cemetery was used by a nominally- Muslim community, members of which adopted a hybrid rite with echoes of non-Islamic funerary practice.

22 C. E. Bosworth, "The Heritage of Rulership in early Islamic Iran and the Search for Dynastic Connections with the Past ", Iran XI (1973), PP. 51-62.



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Excavations at Sīrāf: Sixth Interim Report

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