310 CHAPTER 7 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language Exercises --_ .... . .. __ . - Data in languages other than English are given in phonetic transcription without square brackets unless otherwise stated. The phonetic transcriptions of English words are given within square brackets. 1. The fol lowing sets of minimal pairs show that English Ipl and Ibl contrast in initial, medial, and fi nal positions. Init ial pit/bit Medial rapid/rabid Final cap/cab Find similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given: a. Ik/-/gl d. Ib/-I g. lsi-lSI h. Iml-/nl e. Ib/-Iml h. ItSI-/d31 c. Il/-/r/ f. Ip/-If/ i. Is/-/zl 2. A young patient at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford, England, follow- ing a head injury, appears to have lost the spelling-to-pronunciation and pronunciation-to -spelling rules that most of us can use to read and write new words or nonsense strings. He also is unable to get to the phonemic representation of words in his lexicon. Consider the following examples of his reading pronunciation and his writing from dictation: Stimulus Reading Pronunc iat ion Writing from Dictation fame mil FAM cafe Isfil KAFA time Ita Imil TIM note Inotil or Imtil NOT praise Ipra-a I-sil PRAZ treat Itri-tl TRET goes Igo-ESI GOZ float Ifb-tl FLaT What rules or patterns relate his reading pronunciation to the written st im- ulus? What rules or patterns relate his spe lling to the dictated stimulus? For example, in reading, a corresponds to lal or l/; in writing from dictation lei and ll correspond to written A. 3. Read "A Case of Identity, " the third story in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (and no fair reading summaries, syn- opses, or anything other than the original-it's online). Now all you have to do is explain what complementary distribution has to do with this mystery. 4. Consider the distribution of [r] and [1] in Korean in the fol lowing words. (Some simplifying changes have been made in these transcriptions, a nd those in exercise 6, that have no bearing on the problems.) rubi "ruby" mul "water " kir-i "road (nom.) " pal "arm"
Transcript
310 C HAPTER 7 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language
Exercises --_ ....... __ ... _------------------
Data in languages other than English are given in phonetic transcription without square brackets unless otherwise stated. The phonetic transcriptions of English words are given within square brackets .
1 . The following sets of minimal pairs show that English Ipl and Ibl contrast in initial, medial, and final positions.
In itial
pit/bit
Medial
rapid/rabid
Final
cap/cab
Find similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:
a. Ik/-/gl d. Ib/-Iv! g. lsi-lSI h. Iml-/nl e. Ib/-Iml h. ItSI-/d31 c. Il/-/r/ f. Ip/-If/ i. Is/-/zl
2 . A young patient a t the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford, England, following a head injury, appears to have lost the spelling-to-pronunciation and pronunciation-to-spelling rules that most of us can use to read and write new words or nonsense strings . He also is unable to get to the phonemic representation of words in his lexicon. Consider the following examples of his reading pronunciation and his writing from dictation:
Stimulus Reading Pronunciation Writing from Dictation
fame Ifremil FAM cafe Isrefil KAFA time ItaImil TIM note Inotil or Imtil NOT praise Ipra-aI-sil PRAZ treat Itri-retl TRET goes Igo-ESI GOZ float Ifb-retl FLaT
What rules or patterns relate his reading pronunciation to the written stimulus? What rules or patterns relate his spelling to the dictated stimulus? For example, in reading, a corresponds to lal or lre/; in writing from dictation lei and lrel correspond to written A.
3. Read "A Case of Identity," the third story in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (and no fair reading summaries, synopses, or anything other than the original-it's online) . Now all you have to do is explain what complementary distribution has to do with this mystery.
4. Consider the distribution of [r] and [1 ] in Korean in the following words. (Some simplifying changes have been made in these transcriptions, and those in exercise 6, that have no bearing on the problems.)
rubi "ruby" mul "water" kir-i "road (nom.)" pal "arm"
saram irum-i ratio
"person" "name (nom.)" "radio"
s�ul ilgop ibalsa
"Seoul" "seven" "barber"
Are [r] and [1] allophones of one or two phonemes?
a. Do they occur in any minimal pairs ? b. Are they in complementary distribution? c. In what environments does each occur? d. If you conclude that they are allophones of one phoneme, state the rule
that can derive the phonetic allophonic forms.
Exercises 311
5. Consider these data from a common German dialect ( [x] is a velar fricative, [�] is a palatal fricative) .
a. Are [x] and [�] allophones of the same phoneme, or is each an allophone of a separate phoneme? Give your reasons.
h. If you conclude that they are allophones of one phoneme, state the rule that can derive the phonetic allophones.
Here are some additional data from Korean:
son "hand" Sihap "game" som "cotton" Silsu "mistake" sos�l "novel" Sipsam "thirteen" sek "color" Sinho "signal" Isa "moving" maSita "is delicious" sal "flesh" oSip "fifty" kasu "singer" miSin "superstition" miso "grin" kaSi "thorn"
a. Are [s] and [S] allophones of the same phoneme, or is each an allophone of a separate phoneme? Give your reasons.
h. If you conclude that they are allophones of one phoneme, state the rule that can derive the phonetic allophones.
7. In Southern Kongo, a Bantu language spoken in Angola, the nonpalatal segments [t,s,z] are in complementary distribution with their palatal coun- · terparts [tS,s,3] , as shown in the following words:
312 C H APTER 7 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language ------------------------------
zevo "then" ze1Jga "to cut" 31ma "to stretch" tenisu "tennis"
a. State the distribution of each pair of segments.
Example: [t]-[tJ] : [t] occurs before [0] , [a] , [e] , and [u] ; [tJ] occurs before [i] .
[s]-[SJ : [z]-[3] :
b. Using considerations of simplicity, which phone should be used as the underlying phoneme for each pair of nonpalatal and palatal segments in Southern Kongo?
c. State in your own words the one phonological rule that will derive all the phonetic segments from the phonemes. Do not state a separate rule for each phoneme; a general rule can be stated that will apply to all three phonemes you listed in (b) . Try to give a formal statement of your rule.
d. Which of the following are possible words in Southern Kongo, and which are not?
i. tenesi
vi. i3il03a
ii. 10tJunuta lll. zeV0313l iv. JiJi v. 1Jkasa
8. In some dialects of English, the following words have different vowels, as is shown by the phonetic transcriptions:
A B C
bite [bAit] bide [bald] die [dal] rice [rAls] rIse [raIz] by [bal] ripe [rAlp] bribe [bralb] sigh [sal] wife [WAif] wives [walvz] rye [raI] dike [dAlk] dime [dalm] guy [gal]
nine [nam] rile [rad] dire [daIr] writhe [raIo]
a. How may the classes of sounds that end the words in columns A and B be characterized? That is, what feature specifies all the final segments in A and all the final segments in B?
b. How do the words in column C differ from those in columns A and B? c. Are [AI] and [al] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons. d. If [AI] and [al] are allophones of one phoneme, should they be derived
from IAII or lall? Why? e. Give the phonetic representations of the following words as they would
be spoken in the dialect described here: life lives lie ____ _
file bike lice _____ _
f. Formulate a rule that will relate the phonemic representations to the phonetic representations of the words given above.
Exercises 313 -------_ ... - .-_._-_ ... ------
9. Pairs like top and chop, dunk and junk, so and show, and Caesar and seizure reveal that It I and ItSI, Idl and Id3/, lsi and lSI, and Izi and 131 are distinct phonemes in English. Consider these same pairs of nonpalatalized and palatalized consonants in the following data. (The palatal forms are optional forms that often occur in casual speech.)
Nonpalatal ized Palatalized
[hIt mil "hit me" [hItS ju] "hit you" [lid him] "lead him" [lid3 ju] " lead you" [phres AS] "pass us" [phreS ju] "pass you" [luz oem] "lose them" [IU3 ju] " lose you"
Formulate the rule that specifies when It/, Idl, lsi, and Izi become palatalized as [tS] , [d3] , [J] , and [3] . Restate the rule using feature notations. Does the formal statement reveal the generalizations?
10. Here are some Japanese words in broad phonetic transcription. Note that [ts] is an alveolar affricate and should be taken as a single symbol just like the palatal fricative [tJ] . It is pronounced as the initial sound in tsunami. Japanese words (except certain loan words) never contain the phonetic sequences * [ti] or * [tu] .
tatami "mat" tomodatSi "friend" utSi "house" tegami "letter" totemo "very" otoko "male" tSitSi " father" tsukue "desk" tetsudau "help" Sita "under" ate "later" matsu "wait" natsu "summer" tsutsumu "wrap" tSizu "map" kata "person" tatemono "building" te "hand"
a. Based on these data, are [t] , [tS] , and [ts] in complementary distribution? b. State the distribution-first in words, then using features-of these
phones. c. Give a phonemic analysis of these data insofar as [t] , [tS] , and [ts] are
concerned. That is, identify the phonemes and the allophones. d. Give the phonemic representation of the phonetically transcribed Japa
nese words shown as follows. Assume phonemic and phonetic representations are the same except for [t] , [tS] , and [ts] . tatami I I tsukue 1 __ 1 tsutsumu 1 __ 1 tomodatSi 1 __ 1 tetsudau 1 __ 1 tSizu I I utSi I I Sita I I kata I I tegami 1 __ 1 ate 1 1 koto 1 1 totemo 1 __ 1 matsu 1 1 tatemono 1 __ 1 otoko 1 1 degutSi 1 __ 1 te 1 1 tSitSi 1 1 natsu 1 1 tsuri 1 1
11. The following words are Paku, a language created by V. Fromkin, spoken by the Pakuni in the cult classic Land of the Lost, originally an NBC television series and recently a major motion picture. The acute accent indicates a stressed vowel .
a. otu "evil" (N) h. rosa "evil" (Adj )
c. etogo d. etog6ni
"cactus" (sg) "cactus" (pi)
314 CHAPTER 7 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language
e. paku "Paku" (sg) j. amp6ni "hairless ones" f. pakilni "Paku" (pI ) k. [mi "mother" g. epo "hair" 1. amIni "mothers" h. mp6sa "hairless" m. ada "father" 1. [mpo "hairless one" n. ad�i "fathers"
i . Is stress predictable? If so, what is the rule? ii. Is nasalization a distinctive feature for vowels ? Give the reasons for
your answer. iii. How are plurals formed in Paku?
12. Consider the following English verbs . Those in column A have stress on the penultimate (next-to-Iast) syllable, whereas the verbs in column B and C have their last syllable stressed.
a. Transcribe the words under columns A, B, and C phonemically. (Use a schwa for the unstressed vowels even if they can be derived from different phonemic vowels. This should make it easier for you. )
e.g. , astonish /�stamS/, collapse /k�lreps/, amaze /�mez/
h. Consider the phonemic structure of the stressed syllables in these verbs . What is the difference between the final syllables of the verbs in columns A and B? Formulate a rule that predicts where stress occurs in the verbs in columns A and B .
c . In the verbs in column C, stress also occurs on the final syllable. What must you add to the rule to account for this fact? (Hint: For the forms in columns A and B, the final consonants had to be considered; for the forms in column C, consider the vowels . )
13. Following are listed the phonetic transcriptions of ten "words." Some are English words, some are not words now but are possible words or nonsense words, and others are not possible because they violate English sequential constraints.
Write the English words in regular spelling. Mark the other words as possible or not possible. For each word you mark as "not possible," state your reason.
Word Possible Not Possible Reason
Example: [erot] throat [slig] X [lsig] X No English word can begin
with a liquid followed by an obstruent.
Word Possible Not Possible Reason
a. [phril] b. [skritS] c. [khno] d. [mal] e. [gnostIk] f. [jun<lkh:>rn ] g. [fruit] h. [blaft] 1. [1]ar] j . [rep<lph leksi]
14. Consider these phonetic forms of Hebrew words:
[v]-[b] [f]-[p]
bika "lamented" litef "stroked" mugbal "limited" sefer "book" Sayar "broke" (masc.) sataf "washed" Savra "broke" (fern.) para "cow" ?ikev "delayed" mitpaxat "handkerchief" bara "created" ha?alpim "the Alps"
Assume that these words and their phonetic sequences are representative of what may occur in Hebrew. In your answers, consider classes of sounds rather than individual sounds.
Exercises 315
a. Are [b] and [v] allophones of one phoneme? Are they in complementary distribution? In what phonetic environments do they occur? Can you formulate a phonological rule stating their distribution?
b. Does the same rule, or lack of a rule, that describes the distribution of [b] and [v] apply to [p] and [f] ? If not, why not?
c. Here is a word with one phone missing. A blank appears in place of the missing sound: hid_ik. Check the one correct statement.
i. [b] but not [v] could occur in the empty slot. ii. [v] but not [b] could occur in the empty slot. iii. Either [b] or [v] could occur in the empty slot. iv. Neither [b] nor [v] could occur in the empty slot.
d. Which of the following statements is correct about the incomplete word _ana?
i. [f] but not [p] could occur in the empty slot. ii. [p] but not [f] could occur in the empty slot. iii. Either [p] or [f] could fil l the blank. iv. Neither [p] nor [f] could fill the blank.
e. Now consider the fol lowing possible words (in phonetic transcription) : laval surva labal palar falu razif
If these words actually occurred in Hebrew, would they:
316 CHAPTER 7 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language
1. Force you to revise the conclusions about the distribution of labial stops and fricatives you reached on the basis of the first group of words given above?
ii. Support your original conclusions? iii. Neither support nor disprove your original conclusions?
15. Consider these data from the African language Maninka.
a. What are the two forms of the morpheme meaning "-ing"?
(1 ) _______ (2) ______ _
h. Can you predict which phonetic form will occur? If so, state the rule. c. What are the "-ing" forms for the following verbs?
da " lie down" ____ _
men "hear" _____ _
famu "understand" ____ _
d. What does the rule that you formulated predict for the "-ing" form of sunogo "sleep" ______ _
e. If your rule predicts sunogoli, modify it to predict sunogoni without affecting the other occurrences of -Ii. Conversely, if your rule predicts sunogoni, modify it to predict sunogoli without affecting the other occurrences of -ni.
16. Consider the following phonetic data from the Bantu language Luganda. (The data have been somewhat altered to make the problem easier. ) In each line except the last, the same root occurs in both columns A and B, but it has one prefix in column A, meaning "a" or "an," and another prefix in column B, meaning "little."
A B
enato "a canoe" aka:to "little canoe" enapo "a house" aka:po "little house" enobi "an animal" akaobi "little animal" empipi "a kidney" akapipi "little kidney" eIJko:sa "a feather" akako:sa "little feather" em:a:m:o "a peg" akaba:m:o "little peg" eIJ:5:m:e "a horn" akag5:m:e "little horn" en:'imiro "a garden" akad'imiro "little garden" enugeni "a stranger" akatabi "little branch"
Base your answers to the following questions on only these forms. Assume that all the words in the language follow the regularities shown here. (Hint: You may write long segments such as /m:/ as /mm/ to help you visualize more clearly the phonological processes taking place. )
a. Are nasal vowels in Luganda phonemic? Are they predictable? h. Is the phonemic representation of the morpheme meaning "garden"
Idimiro/? c. What is the phonemic representation of the morpheme meaning
"canoe" ? d . Are [p] and [b] allophones of one phoneme? e. If /am/ represents a bound prefix morpheme in Luganda, can you con
clude that [amdano] is a possible phonetic form for a word in this language starting with this prefix?
f. Is there a homorganic nasal rule in Luganda?
Exercises 317
g. If the phonetic representation of the word meaning "little boy" is [akapo:be] , give the phonemic and phonetic representations for "a boy."
Phonemic _________ Phonetic ________ _
h. Which of the following forms is the phonemic representation for the prefix meaning "a" or "an" ?
i. /en/ ii. /en/ iii. /em/ iv. /em/ v. le:/
1. What is the phonetic representation of the word meaning "a branch" ? j . What is the phonemic representation of the word meaning " little
stranger" ? k . State the three phonological rules revealed b y the Luganda data.
17. Here are some Japanese verb forms given in broad phonetic transcription. They represent two styles (informal and formal) of present-tense verbs. Morphemes are separated by +.
Gloss I nformal Formal
call yob + u yob + imasu write kak + u kak + imasu eat tabe + ru tabe + masu see mi + ru mi + masu leave de + ru de + masu go out dekake + ru dekake + masu die Sin + u Sin + imasu close Sime + ru Sime + masu swindle katar + u katar + imasu wear ki + ru ki + masu read yom + u yom + imasu lend kas + u kaS + imasu wait mats + u matS + imasu press as + u aS + imasu apply ate + ru ate + masu drop otos + u otoS + imasu have mots + u motS + imasu wm kats + u katS + imasu steal a lover netor + u netor + imasu
318 CHAPTER 7 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language ... -.. -.--" .. ---- �-
a. List each of the Japanese verb roots in their phonemic representations. b. Formulate the rule that accounts for the different phonetic forms of
these verb roots. c. There is more than one allomorph for the suffix designating formality
and more than one for the suffix designating informality. List the allomorphs of each. Formulate the rule or rules for their distribution.
18. Consider these data from the Native American language Ojibwa.1 (The data have been somewhat altered for the sake of simplicity; lei is a palatal stop.)
anok:i: "she works" a:k:osi "she is sick" aye:k:osi "she is tired" ine:ntam "she thinks"
a. What forms do the morphemes meaning "I" and "you" take; that is, what are the allomorphs?
h. Are the allomorphs for "I" in complementary distribution? How about for "you" ?
c. Assuming that we want one phonemic form to underlie each allomorph, what should it be?
d. State a rule that derives the phonetic forms of the allomorphs. Make it as general as possible; that is, refer to a broad natural class in the environment of the rule. You may state the rule formally, in words, or partially in words with some formal abbreviations .
e. Is the rule a morphophonemic rule; that is , does it (most likely) apply to specific morphemes but not in general? What evidence do you see in the data to suggest your answer?
19. Consider these data from the Burmese language, spoken in Myanmar. The small ring under the nasal consonants indicates a voiceless nasal. Tones have been omitted, as they play no role in this problem.
ma "health" lJeI "unhurried" na "pain" qu "flame" mji? "river" IJlon "flour" nwe "to flex" IJla "order" nwa "cow" IJweI "heat" (verb) ml "flame" lJa "nostril"
Are [m] and [IJl] and [n] and [1;).] allophones or phonemic? Present evidence to support your conclusion.
"I eat" "You sleep" " I go" "We come" "I walk" "You see" "You found out" "I climbed up" "You fell" "I hunt" "We put on top"
amma inneI aIJIJuu umpl antu iIJka injama amweli inoa anie unlamaba
"I don't eat" "You don't sleep" "I don't go" "We don't come" "I don't walk" "You don't see" "You didn't find out" "I didn't climb up" "You didn't fall" "I don't hunt" "We don't put on top"
a. What is the phonemic form of the negative morpheme based on these data?
h. What are its allomorphs? c. State a rule that derives the phonetic form of the allomorphs from the
underlying, phonemic form. d. Another phonological rule applies to these data. State explicitly what
the rule does and to what natural class of consonants it applies. e. Give the phonemic forms for all the negative sentences.
21. Here are some data from French:
Phonetic Gloss
p�ti tablo "small picture" no tablo "our pictures" p�ti livr "small book" no livr "our books" p�ti nave "small turnip" no nave "our turnips" p�tit ami "small friend" noz ami "our friends" p�tit wazo "small bird" noz wazo "our birds"
a. What are the two forms for the words "small" and "our"? h. What are the phonetic environments that determine the occurrence of
each form?
Exercises 319
c. Can you express the environment by referring to word boundaries and using exactly one phonetic feature, which will refer to a certain natural class? (Hint: A more detailed phonetic transcription would show the word boundaries (#) , e.g., [#no##livr#] . )
d. What are the basic or phonemic forms? e. State a rule in words that derives the non basic forms from the basic
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