Expectance

8/19/2019 Expectance

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/expectance 1/14

teorema

Vol.

XXXI/3,012,

p.

49-163

ISSN: 210-1602

[BIBLID

210-1602

2012)

1:3;

p.

49-163]

Expectation

and

Anticipation

As

Key

Elements

for

the

Constitution

of

Meaning

in

Music

Elisa

Negretto

Resumen

Utilizando

n

nfoque ultidisciplinar

ue

ombina

a

fenomenología,

a musico-

logía

a

psicologíaognitiva

e a

música,

bordonel

presente

rtículoos

aspectos

siguientes:de

qué

maneraos

oyentes

econocenn su

propia

xperienciaerceptiva

musical

n

ignificado

special?,, cuáles

on os

spectosrincipalesue

determinan

el

significado

ubjetivoue

una

xperiencia

usical

dquiere

nuncontextoenuna

situación

specíficos?

entrándome

n a maneran

que

os

oyenteserciben

a

música,

miobjetivorincipals encontraros elementoslave ue nfluyenn a creacióne

significado

e las

experiencias

usicalesotidianas.

n

particular,

nalizo n

proceso

cognitivospecialmentemportante

ara

a construcciónel

ignificado

urantel desa-

rrolloe un cto

erceptivo:

l

proceso

e a

expectación.

e este

modo,

ropongo

na

distinción

onceptual

ntre

expectativa anticipación ,rgumentando

ue

una

y

otra

influyen

emaneraiferente

n a

experienciaerceptiva

e a música

,por

anto,

n l

significadoue

sta

dquiereara

ada ndividuo.

Palabras clave:

expectación,nticipación,

onstitución,

ignificado,

xperiencia

perceptiva.

Abstract

Through

n

interdisciplinarypproach

nvolvinghenomenology,usicology

and

ognitivesychology

f

music,

his

aper

xamines

he

ollowinguestions:

ow

do istenersecome

ware

f heir usical

erceptualxperience

s

having specific

meaning?

nd,

what re hemain

spects

onstituting,

ithin

particular

ontext

nd

a set f

ircumstances,

he

ubjective

eaning

f musical

xperience?ocusing

n

the

way

isteners

erceive

usic,

his

aper

ims o find he

key

lementshatnflu-

encehow

meaning

s

shaped

n

everyday

usical

xperience.

he

paper nalyzes

x-

pectation, cognitiverocess

hat s

particularly

elevantor he

constitutionf

meaninguring

he

nfolding

f he

erceptual

ct.

inally,conceptual

istinctions

proposed

etween

expectation'

nd

anticipation',

nd

t

s

argued

hat

hey

make if-

ferentontributionso he

erceptual

xperience

fmusic

nd,

herefore,

o

hemean-

ingmusiccquiresor he ubject.

KEYWORDS:

xpectation,

nticipation,

onstitution,

eaning,erceptualxperience.

149

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1

0

Elisa

Negretto

I. Introduction

The human

erceptualxperience

s a fundamental

rocess

f

knowledge

that llows

the mmediatewareness

f

an event

r

object

n

theworld o be

understoods

meaningful.

ccording

o

Gallagher

ndZahavi

2008),

percep-

tion

oes

beyond simple eception

f

nformation;

t

s a

process

n

which

n-

terpretations

hange ccording

o context nd

may directly

e influenced

y

previous

xperiences.

Focusing

n individual

uditory erception,very erceptual

wareness

of a

particular

ound

xperience

musical

r

otherwise)

as a

specific

mean-

ing

for he

ubject.

hanks

o

complex

mental

rocesses

such

s

expectation,

anticipation

nd

grouping)

nd

perceptual

tructures

such

as

intentionality

and

temporal

tructure),

eanings

re

constituted'

n

consciousness ithout

themediation f

conscious

hought.

Related

o the

problem

f where

meanings

ome

from,

usserl'

inter-

pretation

f time-consciousness

s an

attempt

o

reply

o the

question:

how,

in

a flow

of

consciousness,

s the wareness

f a

temporally

xtended

bject

constituted?

Brough

2005),

p.

248].

And

n

thecase

of music he

question

becomes:

how s the

perceptual

wareness

f a musical vent

a

temporally

extended

bject

constitutedy subjectna complex uditorynvironment?

'Constitution'

s a

concept

used

by

Husserl

o

explain

the

origin

f

meanings

Sokolowski

1964)].

It

is an articulated

rocess

f consciousness

that

overns

he

way

meanings

ome

to be

-

how human

eings

re

awareof

their

xperience

n theworld s

meaningful.

In

regards

o musical

xperience,

hrough

he

process

of

constitution,

listeners nderstand

equences

f sounds

s music

byperceptuallyrganizing

them

ntomusicalforms.

n this

way,

auditory xperiences

cquire pecific

meanings:

firstly,

hat

of

being

musical

experiences.

isteners'

musical

knowledge

nd

past experiences

lso

concur o form

more

omplex

mean-

ingframedntheparticular omentnd context.Musicmaybe something

familiar,

motionallyowerful,

r have a

specific

musical

meaning

like

be-

ing

n sonataform

r the

ong

of a

famous

ongwriter).

nterestingly,

t

the

perceptual

evel,

isteners

o not

need to

consciously

eflect

n their

xperi-

ence

n

order

o be aware

f such

meanings.

This

brings

s

to examine

how listeners

rganize

uditory

races nd

how this

organization

nfluences

he kind of

meanings

musical

or extra-

musical)

that

xperiences

f sound

acquire

at the

perceptual

evel.

In line

with he

development

f the

cognitive

sychology

f music

nd a

phenome-

nological

nderstanding

f

thehuman

erceptual

tructures

f

consciousness,

aninterestingaytoengage n this nquirysby nvestigatinghemainmen-

tal

processes

hat etermine

he

onstitution

f

meanings.

First,

his

equires

n

analysis

f various

elevant

mpirical

tudies nd

hypotheses

onsidering

hat isteners

entally

o to

hearmusic:

which

er-




Expectation

nd

Anticipation

s

Key

Elements

or

..

151

ceptual

tructuresre

nvolved nd

which

ognitive

rinciples

re used. The

main

goal

of this

paper

s to find he

key

elements

hat nfluence

isteners'

constitution

f

meaning

nd the

specific,

ubjective

meaning

musical

x-

perience

cquires.

n this

way

we

may

better

nderstand here

meanings

come

from nd how human

eings

know nd become

familiar

ith

heworld

they

nhabit.

II.

The Expectation Process

Music s

composed sing

ndividual ounds hat

re heard

s

a continu-

ously

onnected

hole.

t

presents

tself s

a

continuous

rocess

n

which,

t

every

moment,

hat

people

hear

follows

n

a

compelling

way

from

what

came before.

hanks o

specific erceptual

mechanisms,

ognitive rinciples

and neural

rocesses,

istenersre able to find

elationships

mong

he ound

events

ccurring

n

the coustical nvironment.

n

this

way

they ntegrate

he

sounds

hey

ear nto structuralhole and

thereby

nderstandhe cousti-

cal environment

n

terms fmusical tructures.

A

specific ognitive rocess,

hat f

expectation,

eems

o be

particularlyrelevant or oth he

understanding

nd constitutionf

meaning uring

heun-

folding

f the

perceptual

ct.

n

itsbroader

ense,

xpectation

ay

be consid-

ered as a basic

strategy

f the humanmind that

reflects

tendency

an

intentional ovement

oward he

future.uch movements based on

previous

experiences.

uring

he

perceptualrganization

f

sounds,

istenersreate x-

pectations

bout he uturefthe

ngoing

music r

ncoming

ound

vents,

hus

influencing

oth

he

way

relationships

etween ounds

remade ndthemean-

ing

emotional,

usical r

otherwise)

heir

uditoryxperience

ay cquire.

The

majority

f theories

Meyer

1956),

Narmour

1990; 1992),

Huron

(2006)]

and

empirical

tudies

Margulis2003),

Larson

2004),Margulis

&

Levine

2004),

Unyk

& Carlsen

1987),

Krumhansl

Agres

2008)]

have

explained

musical

xpectations

ithin

he framework

f the Western

onal

syntacticystem

nd

n

accordancewith

he tructural

egularities

hat isten-

ers learn

through

ultural

xposures.

Many empirical

tudieshave

demon-

strated hat isteners

evelop

ome sort f

basic structural

nderstanding

t

the

perceptual

evel.

Expectations

re built n the

basis of

syntactic

elation-

ships

etween

musical ounds nd

their

requency

f

occurrence.

Following

his

perspective,

musical

meaning

s

the

product

f

expec-

tation

when musical

vent

oints

o

and makesus

expect

nother

musical

event.

n

Meyer's

words,

the

ignificance

f a

musical vent

be

it

a

tone,

motive, phrase, r a section lies inthefact hatt eadsthepracticedis-

tener o

expect,

onsciously

r

unconsciously,

he

arrival f a

subsequent

event

as

cited

n

Levinson

1997),

p.

53].

Listeners'

xpectations

re

based

on the

way

they

onnect heir

nowledge

f

musical

tyle

with

probability




1

2

Elisa

Negretto

about future ventsbased on statistical

requency.

he actual

expectations

felt

y

istenersre a

consequence

ftheir

ast xperiences.

The mostwell-knownheories

Meyer

1956),

Narmour

1990; 1992),

Huron

2006)]

characterize

xpectation

s a

process

hat

trongly

nfluences

listeners' motional

nd

affective

esponse

o

music,

hus

determining

he

constitutionf extra-musical

eanings.According

o

Meyer,

motions re

aroused

n

the istener hen

tendency

o

respond

o a stimulus

an

expecta-

tion

is arrested r inhibited.

n

a tonal

ontext,

or

xample,

isteners e-

velop

a

sense of

musical

xpectation

hat

s derived rom onalhierarchies

(e.g. tonic, ubdominant,ominant).ven in this ase, expectationsnvolve

syntacticelationships

etween ifferent

arts

fthemusical

tructure.

he ful-

filmentr violation f an

expectation ay

rise

n

the istener

articular

mo-

tions. or

nstance,

heviolation f n

expected

melodic ttack

riggersstrong

feeling

f

urprise

hat

might

e

followed

y particular

motional

esponse.

Works ike

Haydn's ymphony

o.

94 in

G

major

Surprise ymphony

1791)

show

how

expectations

nd their iolations nfluence he emotional

meaning

f the listener'smusical

experience.

ue to the

way

it is

con-

structed,

hework ets

up

some

work-specificxpectations

hat

re then io-

lated. For

example,

he

Symphony's

main theme

appearing gain

in

the

secondmovement contains n isolated ortissimohord,whichdoes not

commonly

ccur

n

slow,

quiet

music.This solated hord auses

a

senseof

surprise

a

cognitivelysimple'

emotion,

nd a common

esponse

o unex-

pected

timuli

hat

may

be followed

y

other motions uch as

fear,

oy,

or

sadness.

An

important

actor

ontributing

o the

surprise

s the

composer's

previous

ntroductionf thisthemewithout he

presence

f the fortissimo

chord.

Fig.

1

Maintheme rom .

Haydn's ymphony

°

94

('Surprise'),

econd

movement

Andante),Huron 2006),

p.

278].

InVuust nd Frith's pinion,musical xpectations a goodcandidate

for he fundamental echanism

uiding

he

experience

f musical

meaning

as well as emotion

(2008),

p.

600].

In

particular,




Expectation

nd

Anticipation

s

Key

Elements

or..

153

. mostmusic

heoreticiansonsider usical

nticipation

s one f he

rincipal

means

y

which

music

onveys eaning

nd motion.

ccording

o this

oint

of

view,

nderstanding

usics relatedo he

nticipatorynterplay

etweeno-

cal

auditory

ventsnd

deeper

tructural

ayer artly

nherentn hemusic

t-

self,

nd

partlyrovidedy

mentaltructures

n

he isteners

hats nduced

y

music.

n

short,

hemusical

xperience

s

dependent

nthe tructures

f he c-

tual

music,

s well s on he

xpectations

f he

nterpreting

rain. hese

xpec-

tationsre

dependent

n

long-termearning

f musical tructures

culture-

dependent

tatistical

earning),amiliarity

ith

particulariece

f

music,

nd

short-term

emory

or he mmediateusical

istory

hile

istening

o musi-

cal

piece,

s well s on deliberate

isteningtrategies.

rain tructures

nderly-

ing

musical

xpectation

re

thus

haped y

culture,

s well as

by personal

listeningistory

ndmusical

raining

Vuust

Frith

2008),

.

599].

The authors ot

nly uggest

herelevance f

expectation

or he

onstitution

of

meaning,

ut ndicate

most

f

the

spects

hat nfluence

he

process:

ub-

jectivity,

ormalmusical

tructures,

earning

nd

culture,

emory

nd

tempo-

ral

development.

he basic

idea

is that

meaning

n

music s

constituted

n

real-time

ynamic rocesses,

nd

expectation

s

particularly

elevant

n

de-

termining

uch

meaning.

Whatbecomes pparents that hese uthors likemany thers use

not

only

he erm

expectation'

ut

ven

anticipation'

ithout

learly

istin-

guishing

hem.

n

what

follows,

efraining

rom n

extensive

iscussion n

musical

xpectation

heories nd

empirical

tudies,

will

question

he ana-

lytical

erms

nticipation

nd

expectation

ith

he aim to

provide

helpful

distinctionor

better

omprehension

f

the

way

cognitive rinciples

nflu-

encethe

ubject's

musical

xperience

nd the

onstitutionf

meaning.

III. Expectation versus

Anticipation

In

the

Glossary

f

hisbookSweet

Anticipation:

usic

nd the

sychology

of

Expectation

David

Huron

ives

the

following

efinition

f

anticipation':

1.

The

subjective xperience

ccompanying

strong xpectation

hat

par-

ticular ventwill

occur;

lso referredo

as the

eeling f

anticipation.

.

In

Western

music

heory, type

f melodic

mbellishmentn

which

n

expected

note s

immediatelyreceded

y

the ame

pitch.

.g.

The ta

n

the

ta-dah

cadence

[(2006),

p.

409].

He also

relates

anticipation'

o

'premonition',

which e

defines s a

long-rangeeeling

f

nticipation[(2006),

p. 418].

In

the

glossary

we do not

find

definitionf

expectation',

ven

though

oth

expectationnd anticipationre fundamentaloncepts n Huron'stheory.

They

both

ppear

n

the

itle f his

work

Sweet

Anticipation.

usic and

the

Psychology

fExpectation)

n

a

way

that

uggests

uron

iews

anticipation

as a

particular

ind

sweet

nticipation)

r

part

f a

general

rocess

f

expec-




1

4

Elisa

Negretto

tation

for

which here s a

'psychology

f).

Through

careful

nalysis

f

the

book,

t

emerges

hat sweet

nticipation'

as a

specific

echnical efini-

tion:

t

refers o the

positive eelings

hat risefrom onscious

hought

bout

some future

vents,

uch

as the

thought

f

attending

concert.

ence,

t

is

considered

s a

special

subset f

expectation.

nfortunately,

urondid not

dwelltoo much

n

particularypes

f

expectation;

verall he

ubject

matter

of his book

is betterdentified

y

the subtitleMusic and the

Psychology

f

Expectation.

owever,

he

verypresence

f a definition

f

'anticipation'

means thatHuron

makes a distinctionetween

he two terms

n

question,even

though

hey

re not

clearly

distinguished

n his work.One wonders

what

kind f distinctione makes

ndhowthis

istinction

ay

be relevanto

a better

omprehension

f the

musical

xperience. learly, hey

re

part

f a

general

endency

f human

eings

o

plan

for

hefuture.

n

generating

hem,

individuals

xpect

heir

lans

to

come to fruitionince

they

re both

part

f

the

ubject's

ntentional

ovement

owards hefuture.

I

suggest

hat,

n

a broader

ense,

xpectation

efers o a

complex

men-

tal

process

hat

s fundamental

or he

omprehension

f music.

n itsnarrow

sense,

xpectation

s a

mental tate

f

suspense

bout

what s

going

n,

dur-

ing

which

range

f

probable

vents re

expected

o

happen.

Anticipation

s

a

particular

oment

uring

he

process

of

expectation:

tis themomentn

which

isteners

epresent

n theirmind

ow

precisely

hemusicwill

go

on.

The

specificity

f

expectation

ersus

anticipation

an be

better x-

plained

y

analysing mpirical

tudies

n

thefield f

cognitive sychology

f

music hat ocus

n

musical

xpectation

ith he

upport

f

the

phenomenol-

ogical

account

fthe

emporal

tructure

fhuman

onsciousness:

he

descrip-

tionof

the tructure

f

the

emporal

low f consciousness

hich llows for

the

perception

f

enduring bjects

as

they

re

experienced

y

the

subject

[Husserl

1893-1917)].

An

aspect

f

the

perceptual

xperience

f

music,

which s at

thebasis of

the onstitutionf

subjective

musical

meanings,

s its structuralnfoldingn

time.

isteners

onstitute

heir

erceptual

omprehension

f music

during

ts

temporal

evelopment;

hat

s,

the moment-to-moment

nfolding

f sound

events

e.g.

a

note,

noise or

a

sequence

f

sounds)

hat ccur

n

their

iving

auditory

nvironment.

The

temporal

tructure

f

human onsciousness

eems

o

develop

tself

at

two evels

of

complexity.

t thefirst

evel,

due

to themovement

f

reten-

tion-primal

mpression-protention,

he

isteners

able to

perceive

sequence

of acoustic

vents

s

an

enduring

bject.

uch events

re thus

xperienced

s

a

unity ersisting

n

time.

At the econd

evel,

memories

f

past

experiences

and expectationsboutthe futurere involved n order o constitutehe

meaning

which hat

xperienced

bject

has for

he

subject.

Both

evels of

complexity

re

part

f he

erceptual

ct

nd,

hanks

othe

ontribution

fother

cognitive

rinciples,

hey

llow

for

meaningful

rganization

f sounds

n




Expectation

nd

A

nticipation

s

Key

Elements

or...

155

time. hesetwo evels

re

strictly

elated:

econdary emory

nd

expectation

elaborate

nd

olidify

hat

hemore

rimitive

orms irst ake vailable.

IV. Differences Between

Expectation

and

Anticipation

VI.

1

Object fReference

Expectation

nd the

attempt

o

anticipate

he future an be

explained

through

he

phenomenologicaloncept

f

temporal

horizon',

which s

part

of the

temporal

tructure

nd

represents

he

place

where ntentional ove-

ment oward n unknown utures

developed.

At

thebasis of

this

oncept

s

the dea

that,

s

Miller

writes,

objects

re

perceptuallyxperienced y

us

inadequately :

t

anygiven

moment he

object

s

always

xperienced y

us

as from certain

erspective,

s

having

more o

it

than s

captured y

our

perceptual

ct at thatmoment

Miller 1984),

p.

82].

We have an

incomplete

perceptual

xperience

hat nvolves n

intentional ovement

oward he

pos-

sibilities hat ould

fulfil he ontent f our

perceptions.

he horizon an thus

be understoods a setof

possibilities

o

which he

onsciousness

oints

ur-

ing

the

perceptual emporal

xperience.

t consists f a

pattern

f recollec-

tions nd

expectations

egardingast

nd future

xperiences

n

relation

o the

present

ct of

perception,

hose content

ontinually

hanges

s the

percep-

tual

experience

rogresses.

Moreover,

t

guarantees

he

subjective spect

of

the

xperience

nd shows he

nfluencef

earning

nd

past

xperiences.

Due to

these

features,

he

concept

f horizon

may

be

related o the

probabilistic

spect

f the

xpectation

rocess,

which s

captured

y

the on-

cept

of statistical

earning.

n

his

psychological

heory

f

expectation

the

ITPRA,

which

ttempts

o

explain

how

expectations

voke

various

feeling

states),

Huron

rgues

hat he

process

f

expectationepends ponauditory

learning:

istenersearn he

regularities

f thesoundenvironmentnd

they

are sensitive o

the

probabilities

f

differentound

vents nd

patterns.

hese

probabilities

re then

sed to form

xpectations

bout

hefuture.

herefore,

what isteners

xpect

might imply

eflect

what

they

have

most

frequently

experienced

n

the

past.

For

example,

tudies ave shown

hat

isteners'

peed

of

response

verbal

r

otherwise)

s

faster hen

hey

re

exposed

o musical

material

hat remore

requentlyresent

n

themusic

f heir

ulture.

Based on

the

oncepts

f

horizon',

tatistical

earning

nd

the dea that

in

expecting

futurevent

here s

somekind f

referenceo

its

being',

one

important

ifferenceetween

xpectation

nd

anticipation

merges. propose

that xpectationefers o something ossible,butnot welldefined,nd be-

longing

o a

range

f

probabilities

ithin

he

ndefinite

ossibilities

f

theho-

rizon,

while

anticipation

ttends

o a

specific

vent n

the

future hich

s

already

known.

herburne,

or

xample,

ses

anticipation

o

suggest

he




156

Elisa

Negretto

awaiting

f a known utcome nd seems to contrast

t

with

expectation ,

which

uggests

hat he

range

of

probable

vents s known ut the

unique

event s not

Titchener

Broyles

1973),

p.

18].

In

trying

o understand hat

having

n

expectation'

means,

Huron

d-

dresses he

questions:

how

precise

re

expectations?

o we

expect pecific

events,

r do we

expect

classes or

types

f events?

(2006),

p.

41].

He

firstlyeplies

o such

questions y observing

hat

one

definitionf

expecta-

tion

might

lassify

t

s

a form f mental

r

corporeal

belief that ome vent

or class of events s

likely

o

happen

n

thefuture

(2006),p. 41].

The term

'belief

may

refer o a

range

f

expected ossibilities

ithdifferent

egrees

of

certainty

bout he occurrence

f a futurevent.Beliefs bout hefuture

are evident

n

a

person's

action-readiness' that

s,

changes

f

posture,

me-

tabolism,

r

conscious

houghts

hat

repare

he ndividual or ertain

ossi-

ble

outcomes,

utnotfor thers.

xpectation,

hen,

llows isteners

o

believe

that

omething

ill

happen

nd to

prepare

hemselves

o

respond,

ut this

does notmean

hat

hey epresent

specific

vent

n theirmind. o sum

up,

expectation

efers o

a

series

f

possibilities

nd

t

ndicates mental tate

n

which hemost

ikely

vents o occur re

expected.

In

Meyer's

view,

expectations

re

not

specific,

ut

ndicate

general

stateof

suspense:

what s

expected

n thisstateof

suspensemay

not be

specified,

ut

thisdoes not

mean that

ny consequent

s

possible

Meyer

(1956),

p.

29].

Listeners ense

hat

omething

ill

happen,

nd

althoughhey

are not aware of

exactly

what he

expected

musical

vent

will

be,

they

re

sensitive o a

range

f

possibilities

hich re built n

thebasis of

previous

experiences. uspense,

n

fact,

s a

product

f

ignorance

bout

upcoming

events,

rom hich

trong

mental endenciesoward

hefuturerise.

Huron efines

nticipation

s the

ubjective xperienceccompanying

strong xpectation

hat

particular

ventwill occur:

according

o standard

phenomenological

ccounts,

nticipation

efers o the most

probable

ccur-

rencewithin he ndefiniteossibilitiesf the horizon ndtheprobabilities

offered

y

immediatelyrevious

xpectations. nticipation

an thusbe

re-

lated

o some

specific

vents

nd the act' of

anticipating

hem

for

xample,

through

mental

epresentation),

hile

xpectation

s a 'sense' about

future

that s not

learly

efined.

In theframeworkf

the

probabilistic

haracterfthe

xpectationrocess

and

the tatistical

orkings

fthe

human

mind,

argue

hat

isteners

evelop

statistical

ierarchy

f

possible

vents hat

uides

he

pattern

f

probabilities

and determines

heir

xpectations

r

anticipations.

his

helps

them,

or x-

ample,

o

predict

he

ikely emporal

lacement

f future usical

vents.

he

hierarchyfpossibilitieshat ubjectsmaintain uringheir xposure othe

auditory

nvironment

as

a

strong

ubjective

haracterecause

t

s based

on

an individual

ubject's

knowledge

nd

experiences.

hus,

n

the ase

of

very




Expectation

nd

Anticipation

s

Key

Elements

or..

157

familiar

music,

isteners

an

have

quiteprecise

nticipations

ue to thecon-

tributionf

earning

nd

memory.

IV.

2

Awareness nd

Mental

Representation

In

order o

further

ackle he

distinctionsnd similaritiesf

anticipation

and

expectation,

wo

mportant

uestions

eed to be addressed:

irst,

re is-

teners

wareof

their

xpectations

nd

anticipations?

econd,

s the

object

f

one's

expectation

r

anticipationerceivedy

the

ubject?

Considering

he ast

question

irst nd

following

phenomenological

perspective,

xpectation

nd

anticipation

re both

ctsof

consciousness,

art

of a

cognitive

rocess

hat

evelops

tself

uring

he

perceptual

ct.

However,

they

o not

correspond

o the

perception

f

a future

ventbecause

such an

event s not

yet

ensorilyxperienced

or t

s

present

o

consciousness.

The vast

majority

f

expectations

re

unconscious;

hey

re

occurring

all the

timewithout

xplicit ognitive

wareness. he

perceivers

an,

how-

ever,

be

aware of

experiencing

stateof

expectation

nd

suspense

bout

something

n

the

future,

hich s not

exactly

nown.

ecause of such

uncer-

tainty,

he tate f

expectation

oes not

correspond

o a mental

epresentationofwhichhe

erceivers

an beaware f.

We

may

therefore

efine

xpectation

s a

pre-presentation

f

future,

not-clearly

efined

vents

belonging

o a

range

of

possibilities

ontained

within

he

subject's

horizon. t

results n

a mental

tate f

suspense

uring

which

range

f

possibilities

re

pre-presented

n

consciousness:

here s a

kind f

referenceo

these

uture

vents,

utnot

present

erception

f them

or

the

wareness hat

omethingpecific

s

going

o

happen.

This

theoretical

odel s

supportedy

empirical

tudies hat

uggest

hat

x-

pectation

efers

o a state f

tension

bout

whathas to

come,

but

t

s

nota

conscious

representation

f

a

specific xpected

vent

Margulis

&

Levine

(2004),

Barnes& Jones

2000)].

I

propose

hat

nticipation

s

mental

epresentation

ay

ead to

listen-

ers'

awareness

f a

mental

rojection

bout

future

redicted

vent.

Antici-

pation

hus

becomes he

actionof

mentally

epresenting

highly

xpected

event

r a

known

utcome

efore ts

occurrence

n

time.

t

s

based on a

past

experience

ith

imilar

musical

ituations

nd

follows

strong

xpectation.

It

is not

an act of

perception

ecause t

does not

coincidewith

he

sensory

experience

f

the

anticipated

bject

which

s

not

present

o

consciousness)

and it

does not

have

the

complex

tructure

f a

perceptual

ct.

More

pre-

cisely,

propose

o

consider

nticipation

s a

'quasi-perception'

f a

future

event hatwe 'perceive' n advance ndwithouttssensory ccurrencesn

the

moment

f ts

nticipation

n

our

mind.

However,

his

pproach

rings

nto he

forefront

he

problem

f

how to

consider

mental

epresentations.

n

general,

mental

epresentation

s an im-




1

8

Elisa

Negretto

age,

a

concept

r a belief.

t

has a

strong ubjective

haracterhat

epends

upon

one's own

experiences.

s

previously

tated,

n

the ase of

anticipation

in

music,

herelatedmental

epresentation

s based on a

highly

xpected

u-

ture vent hat s

in some

way

similar o an

experience

n

the

past.

t

could

correspond

o a structuraleature f

the

music,

particular

nstrument,

meaning

r musical ontent

hat re related nd determined

y

the

ubject's

experience.

hus,

one has

mental

epresentations

f musicbecause one re-

latesa musical

vent

in

theform

f an

auditorymage,

ontent,

oncept

r

belief)

o

something

hat s or

has been

part

f his/her

ubjective xperience.It s inthis rameworkhat

nticipation

as to be understood.hisunderlines

the

ubjective

nd

experiential

haracterf

themental

epresentation

hat is-

teners

orm

n

response

o a musical

bject

s

a

way

to

anticipate

ts future

ongoing.

In

thefield

fmusic

ognition,

elodic

xpectation

s

generally

efined

as

the

endency

o have a

feeling

bout

what

might

ome next

n

a

melody

r

succession fharmonies.

or

example,

f

he

scending

musical

artial

ctave

'do-re-me-fa-sol-la-ti...'

s

heard,

isteners amiliar

ithWestern onalmusic

will

have

a

strongxpectation

o hear ne

more

note,

n

order o

complete

he

octave,

henote

do' an octave

higher

han

he do on which

hey egan.

This

expectation

ouldbe

very

trong. propose

o considerhe

general

eel-

ing

of

moving

oward

musical

oal

as

an

expectation,

nd the

trong xpec-

tancy

o

hear he

pecific

ote do' as

an

anticipation.

IV.3 Function

Another

mportant

spect

which

istinguishes

xpectation

nd

anticipa-

tion oncerns

heir unction.

his s clear

f

we

analyse

he

way subjects

re-

pare

hemselves

or he vent

utcome.

From

biological erspective,

n

the

ase ofmusical

xpectation,

,

as

a

listener,eel hat

omething

as tohappen ndso preparemyselfo react o

it,

whilenot

being

ure

what he

something'

s. When

nticipation

ccurs,

n

the other

and,

not

onlyprepare

myself

or

pecific

vents,

ut

react

o

them efore

heir ffective

ccurrence

Zanto,

nyder

Large

2006)].

It

follows

hat

xpectation

as the

biological

function

f

preparing

he

subject

o

respond

o a

probable

uture

vent,

while

anticipation

llows

the

subject

o

act

n

response

o

the

nticipated

vent efore

t

occurs.

In his

TRPA

theory

f

expectation,

avid

Huron

istinguishes

ive x-

pectation-related

esponse

ystems

hat re

evoked

t different

imes

during

the

expectation

ycle;

these

re divided

nto

pre-outcome

nd

post-outcome

responses ith espectothe vent nset. hepre-outcomeesponsesre:the

imagination

esponse

nd

the tension

esponse.

According

o

Huron,

he

former as

the

purpose

f

motivating

n

organism,

to behave

n

ways

that

increase

he ikelihood

f

future

eneficial

utcomes

(2006),

p.

15].

n im-




Expectation

nd

Anticipation

s

Key

Elements

or..

1 9

imagining

ifferent

utcomes,

eeling

tates re thus ctivated.

he latter as

the

purpose

f

preparing

n

organism,

for n

impending

vent

y tailoring

arousal

nd attentiono match

he evel of

uncertainty

nd

importance

f an

impending

utcome

(2006),

p.

15].

As an

expected

vent

pproaches,

hysio-

logical

rousal

ypically

ncreases,

ften

eading

o a

feeling

f ncreased en-

sion.

The

post-outcome

esponses

nclude:

he

prediction

esponse

which

provides ositive

nd

negative

nducementshat

ncourage

heformationf

accurate

xpectations

nd evokes

feelings

n

relation o whether

ne's

predic-

tionswereborn ut; hereaction esponsewhich ddresses possibleworst-

case situation

y generating

n

immediate

rotective

esponse;

nd the

p-

praisal

response

which

provides

ositive

nd

negative

einforcements

e-

lated

o the

biological

alueofvarious

inal tates.

Fig.

2 The

schematic

ime ourse f

Huron's

xpectancyrocesses

Scott,

Tsou,

Schmuckler Brown

2008),

p.

138].

As is clear from he

TPRA

schema,

n

Huron's

view

expectation

s

a

complex

ognitive rocess

hat

s

characterized

yvery

pecific

moments

p-

erating

n

a continuous

hain f

dependentesponses receding

nd

following

the occurrence f a

particular

vent.

n

order o define

expectation'

n

its

narrowest

ense,

focus

my

ttention

nly

on the

pre-outcome

esponses.

n

particular,propose o consider oth xpectationndanticipations imagi-

nation

esponses

hatmaintain

ifferentunctions.

he

anticipation

magina-

tion

response,

or

example,

s

very mportant

o survival:

n

a

dangerous

Epoch

I

Pre-Expectancy

ealization

1

Post-Expectancy

ealization

i

Reaction

I

Imagination

Appraisal

î î

Prediction

Expectancyenerating

Expectancy

ealization

Event

Event

Time




1 0

Elisa

Negretto

situation

t

s more

mportant

o

anticipate specific

vent hat

ubjects

re

able to

consciously epresent

n

their

mind han o

expect range

f

possible

events f which

hey

ave no

awareness,

s

would

happen

with

he

xpecta-

tion

maginationesponse.

By creating

state f

suspense

ased

on the

unconscious eferenceo a

range

of

probabilities

bout the

future,

xpectation

as the function

f

in-

creasing

he evel

of

attention

boutwhat

will

happen,

nd to

prepare

heor-

ganism

o

respond

dequately hroughpecific

action-readiness'nd

bodily

gestures.

ased on the

bility

o

representhighly xpected

vent,

nticipa-tion llows the

ubjects

o

respond

nd react o theoutcome f an event e-

fore

t

occurs.

It becomes

pparent

hat

xpectation

nd

anticipation

nfluence

n

dif-

ferent

ays

the ension

esponse

nd,

consequently,hey

etermineifferent

post-outcome

esponses.

Applied

o thedomain

f

music,

isteners

ill have

differentmotional

responses

nd

understanding

hatdeterminehe

meaning

heirmusical x-

perience

cquires

n

a

particular

ontextnd situation.

V Influence on theConstitutionof Meaning

Expectation

nd

anticipation

espectively

ontribute

together

ith th-

er

cognitive rocesses)

o thecreation

f structuralnd

meaningful

elation-

ships

between ounds.

Their

ntentionality

s directed oward

uturevents

n

order

o

prepare

he

organism

o

respond ppropriately

r to act before

hey

happen.

oth nfluence

he

rganization

f

experienced

ounds nto tructural

forms,

hich

cquire particular

eaning

or

he

ubject

such

s that

f be-

ing

cadence

n tonal

music).

For

example,

n

thebasis of

segmentation

nd

grouping

nd

creating atterns

f tension nd

relaxation,

xpectation

nd an-

ticipation

eterminehen musical equence r movementinishesnd an-

other

begins.

n this

way they

nfluence he

constitutionf

meaning y

connecting

he vents

hat orm

he

xperienced

bject

n

meaningful ays.

The difference

etween

xpectation

nd

anticipation

s

particularly

is-

ible

in

terms

f the istener's

xperience

f unfamiliar

usic.

suggest

hat

one of

thereasons

isteners

might

ave a

sense of

misunderstanding

n their

encounter

ith nfamiliar

usic

s that

hey

ackthe

bility

o

anticipate.

As

previously

efined,

xpectation

eferso the

ognitive

bility

f

pre-

presenting

uture

vents

which re

not well

defined,

hile

nticipation

s a

'quasi-perception'

f a

highly

xpected

vent.

When isteners

renot

familiar

with hemusic hey rehearing,hey re not bletoanticipatehefuturen-

going

of

the musical

vents

rom ne

moment

o the next.

For this

reason,

they

have

a sense

of

misunderstanding

f

thatmusic.

After ufficient

xpo-

sure,

owever,

nd

thanks o

the

process

f

earning,hey

willcome

o under-




Expectation

nd

Anticipation

s

Key

Elements

or..

161

stand nd

anticipate

he

music

hey

re

istening

o. These

processes,

which

are

essentially

nconscious,

nfluence

he

meaning

hat

isteners'

erceptual

experiencecquires,

s

well as their

esponses

o

music.

Moreover,

he occurrence

f

expectations

r

anticipations

ead to dif-

ferent

odily esponses

nd

cognitive

tates.

ecause of

their ifferentunc-

tions

and

features,

hey

not

only

determine

different

reparation

o

the

event

utcome,

ut lso a differentmotional

esponse

o

it

that

hanges

c-

cording

o the fulfilment

r violation f both

expectation

nd

anticipation.

For

example,

n

case listenersorm

xpectations

ut renot ble to

anticipate,

they xperience

state f

suspense,

which

may

determine

trong

motionsn

cases where

xpectations

re violated r satisfied. uch emotions

orrespond

to

the extra-musical

eaning

he istener'smusical

xperience cquires

be-

cause

they

re

subjectively

etermined.wo

subjects,

or

nstance,

may

have

very

ifferent

esponses

nd emotional tates

n

relation o the ame musical

event ue to their ifferent

xperiences,

usical

knowledge,

nd thecontext

or situation

n

which hemusic s

experienced.

The differenceetween

xpectation

nd

anticipation

hus esults

n dif-

ferent

nterpretations

f a

piece

of

music,

ifferent

nderstandings

nd mean-

ings particular

usical

xperiencemay acquire,

s well as

different

odilyandemotional

esponses

n

istening

omore r ess familiar usic.t

may

lso

explainwhy

omemusic s more ifficulto hear nd

ppreciate

han thers.

VI. Conclusion

In

this rticle

focus

my

ttentionn

anticipation

nd

expectation

n

the

frame f how

isteners

erceptually

onstitute usical

meanings.

he

analy-

sis sheds

new

ights

n the

philosophicalnvestigation

nto hehuman

xperi-

ence

n

the

iving

world nd

n

thehuman

rocesses

f

knowledge.

Determining

he

way

listener

rganizes

musical ounds,he

xpectation

process

ontributeso the

constitutionf

meaningful

ubjective xperiences

andthe ealizationfthe

ntentional ovementhat

llows listenero be con-

scious

f

music nd

of sequence

f

ounds s

having

musical

meanings.

I

define

nticipation

s a

particular

omentn

the

process

f

expecta-

tion: t

s themoment

n

which

he istener

entallyepresents

owthe

music

will

go

on. More

precisely,

t

s the

bility

o have

kind fmental

epresenta-

tion f a

future

vent,

which

nfluenceshe istener's

omprehension

f

music

and

ultimately

ay

define

hedifference

n

their

nderstanding

r

misunder-

standing

f

unfamiliar usic.

Furthermpiricalnvestigationbout he pecificityfexpectationnd

anticipation

what

listener

xpects

r

anticipates

t

any

moment

hen is-

tening

o

music)

s

necessary

n

order o find

more vidence

hat

upports

his

slight

ut

mportant

istinction.would

suggest

hat t

can be better

rasped




1

2 Elisa

Negretto

by examining

hedifferent

odily

nd emotional

esponses

hat

eople

have

while

hey

isten o more

nd ess familiarmusic.These

responsesmight

e

different

n

case listeners

nticipate

r

simply xpect

future oundevents.

Studying

he

way

isteners

ing long

with

hemusic

hey

re

hearing

ould

be another

ay

o find vidence hat

upport

hedistinction

havedrawn.

Department

fPhilosophy

Università

egli

tudi

e Padova

Piazza

Capitaniato

,

35139Padova,

taly

E-mail:elisa.

negr tto@virgilio.

t

References

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M.

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Expectancy,

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