Bibliography 45 Organic symptom. Patients rated by doctors as showing definite "organic" or "confusional" symptoms revealed significantly and consistently greater impairment than did other patients. The significant increases in weight, during treatment, were positively related to organic symptoms, and doctors, nurses, and occupational therapists aU tended to assess greater improvement from depression in patients with manifest organic signs than in others. Experiment VIa. Experiments I and V both showed that learning capacity improves during the first three shocks. Two tests were given to 13 patients, with three intervening shocks, and similarly, but without the intervening shocks, to 15 control patients with similar diagnoses. In general, for the experimental group, relative and direct impairment of learning capacity was already present at this stage, but not as much as found after shock five. Experiment VIb. Changes in expressive movement were also measured by scores of size, area, and variability for reproduced patterns of geometrical shapes, the experimental group, after three shocks, consistently tending to relatively or absolutely increase such scores. Disintegration of functions. Learning tests performed before shock and three weeks after shock, when correlated with parallel tests performed during treatment (Experiments I and V) showed: (1) correlations to be lowest 30 min after shock, increasing with the increase in the interval between test and shock; (2) a sum- mation effect, i.e. coefficients of correlation between learning tests decreasing with the number of shocks; (3) a similar tendency, interpreted as due to deterioration in learning capacity, for relationships between learning capacity and intelligence to disintegrate progressively with number of shocks. Fixation of disintegrated learning behaviour. Correlations of tests during treat- ment with tests outside the course of shocks, disintegrated progressively with the number of shocks, as shown in the previous paragraph. Intercorrelations of tests carried out during treatment revealed, however, a consistent and considerable increase in relationship to number of shocks, interpreted as stabilisation of individual behaviour on an abnormal level. Discussion. A review of the literature showed learning changes in animals under ECT to resemble those found in human beings. Clinical opinions on mode of production of memory impairment were compared, and difficulties in assessment of depressive states were demonstrated. The parallelism of changes in human and animal learning capacity, as well as EEG findings and clinical conditions was pointed out, with a reference to other physiological functions. Some theoretical aspects of the mode of action of electroshock were discussed and some suggestions for future work were made. Bibliogra phy 1. ALTSCHULE, M. D., J. E. CLINE, and K. J. Fall in Plasma Protein Level associated with Rapid Gain in Weight during Course of Electroshock Thcrapy. Arch. Neurol. Psychiat. (Chicago) 59,476--480 (1948). 2. BAEYER, W. v.: Elektrokrampfbehandlung und hirnorganisches Syndrom. Ber. Kongr. Neurol. Tubingen 1949a, 181-192 (1947). 3. - Vergleichende Psychopathologie der Schocktherapien und der prafrontalen Lobotomie Fortschr. Neurol. Psychiat. 17,95-115 (1949b). 4. BAGCHI, B. K., R. W. HOWELL, and H. T. SCHMALE: The Electroencephalographic and Clinical Effects of Electrically Induced Convulsions. Amer. J. Psychiat. 102, 49 (1945).
Transcript
Bibliography 45
Organic symptom. Patients rated by doctors as showing definite "organic" or "confusional" symptoms revealed significantly and consistently greater impairment than did other patients. The significant increases in weight, during treatment, were positively related to organic symptoms, and doctors, nurses, and occupational therapists aU tended to assess greater improvement from depression in patients with manifest organic signs than in others.
Experiment VIa. Experiments I and V both showed that learning capacity improves during the first three shocks. Two tests were given to 13 patients, with three intervening shocks, and similarly, but without the intervening shocks, to 15 control patients with similar diagnoses. In general, for the experimental group, relative and direct impairment of learning capacity was already present at this stage, but not as much as found after shock five.
Experiment VIb. Changes in expressive movement were also measured by scores of size, area, and variability for reproduced patterns of geometrical shapes, the experimental group, after three shocks, consistently tending to relatively or absolutely increase such scores.
Disintegration of functions. Learning tests performed before shock and three weeks after shock, when correlated with parallel tests performed during treatment (Experiments I and V) showed: (1) correlations to be lowest 30 min after shock, increasing with the increase in the interval between test and shock; (2) a summation effect, i.e. coefficients of correlation between learning tests decreasing with the number of shocks; (3) a similar tendency, interpreted as due to deterioration in learning capacity, for relationships between learning capacity and intelligence to disintegrate progressively with number of shocks.
Fixation of disintegrated learning behaviour. Correlations of tests during treatment with tests outside the course of shocks, disintegrated progressively with the number of shocks, as shown in the previous paragraph. Intercorrelations of tests carried out during treatment revealed, however, a consistent and considerable increase in relationship to number of shocks, interpreted as stabilisation of individual behaviour on an abnormal level.
Discussion. A review of the literature showed learning changes in animals under ECT to resemble those found in human beings. Clinical opinions on mode of production of memory impairment were compared, and difficulties in assessment of depressive states were demonstrated. The parallelism of changes in human and animal learning capacity, as well as EEG findings and clinical conditions was pointed out, with a reference to other physiological functions. Some theoretical aspects of the mode of action of electroshock were discussed and some suggestions for future work were made.
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46 Bibliogra ph Y
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43 BRAUN, H. W. 20 BRENGELMANN, J. C. 9, 29,
31-32,34 Brief stimulus technique 8 BROADHURST, P. L. 39
CAHEN, E. R. 43 CALLAGHAN, J. E. 32, 41-42 Central tendency 18 Certainty 34 Colour-form attitude 2, 19 Conditional response 5 Confusion 1-4, 8, 13 Constitution 12 Correlations between learning
scores 13-14, 38 intelligence vs. learning 16-17, 19, 24, 36-37 with learning impairment 20,22 with learning improvement 22 with organic syndrome 27-29
Index
COULONJOU, R. 3 CREMERIUS, J. 7
DAVIES, D_ L. 8 DAVIES, G. 41 DEDICHEN, H. H. 12 DELAY, J. 3, 5, 8, 42 Depression 10-11, 20, 22,
24-25, 28, 40--43 DESHAIES, G. 3 Diagnosis 7, 23 DIETHELM, 0.2 Difficulty of task 9, 17,
20-22,25-28,39 Disintegration effect 35-37 Disorientation I, 2 Distribution, bimodality of
23 -, normality of 14 Drugs 8, 15-16 DUNCAN, C. P. 39
EARLY, D. F. 40 Edison-Swan apparatus 8 Electroencephalogram 6-7,
41--42 EpSTEIN, J. 1 EWALD, G. 3, 12 Expressive movement 31-35,
43 Extraversion 32-34, 43 EYSENCK, H. J. 32, 34,43
FELDMAN, F. 3, 13 Figure Reconstruction Test
9-10,29,34 FISHER, R. A. 26 Fixation effect 37-38, 43 FLECK,S.5 FLEISCHER, G. 2 FORTES, A. 3, 13 FROSCH, J. 3,43
GALLINEK, A. 3, 43 GALLOT, H. M. 3 GANTT, W. H. 5 GARMANY, G. 40 Gerstmann syndrome 2
GOLDMAN, D. 8 GOODWIN, J. S. 7 GORDON, H. L. 42 Grand mall, 8, 12, 22 GUREVITZ, S. 43 GUTMAN, Y. 40
lIADDENBROCK, S.3, 12 HAEFNER, H. 12 Handwriting 31 HARRIS, H. E. 3 HAYES, K. J. 39, 42 HECAEN, H. 3 HELME, W. H. 43 HETHERINGTON, R. 32, 43 HILL, D. 42 HOCH, P. H. 8,40 HOLLAND, C. G. 2, 40 HOLZBERG, J. D. 43 HONCKE, P. 7 HOROWITZ, M. W. 39 HOWE, H. S. 40 HUDDLESON, J. H. 7,8 HUGHES, J. 7 Human Figure Drawing 32 Hysteria-dysthymia 33, 43
Impairment, postshock 1 Intelligence, see also Pro
gressive Matrices 13, 16-19,32,36
JANIS, 1. L. 40 JUBA, A. 1 JUNG, R. 2, 7
KALINOWSKY, L.B. 3, 12-13 KENNARD, M. A. 7 KERMAN, E. 40 KINO, F. F. 12 KLEINSCHMIDT, H. J. 39-40 KORSON, S. M. 3,43
Learning after single shock 4 after repeated shocks 5-6, 20-25 and intelligence 16-19 individual variation 15
4*
52
Learning scores 13, 30 - stimuli 9, 21 LEIBBRAND, W. 3 LEVY, N. A. 12 LEWIS,A.8 LIBERSON, W. T. 8 LINDQUIST, E. F. 35 LOEWENBACH, H. 2, 31,
42--43 LOWINGER,L.7,8 LUNN, V. 2,4
MCGINNIES, E. 39 McNEMAR, Q.41 McPhail-Strauss apparatus 8 MATHER, V. DE 40 MAYER-GROSS, W. 1-2,40 Memory disturbance 2-5,
39--40 - tests 2-6, 9 MERGENER, J. 5 MEYER, D. E. 2-3, 40 M!CHEAux, L. 3 MILLER, H. G. 42 MILLIGAN, W. L. 39 MORIARTY, J. D. 7,42 Motor-coordination 19-20 MYERSON, A. 39
PACELLA, B. L. 7 PATERSON, A. S. 41 PATTON, R. A. 20 PELLIER, S. 3 Perception, abnormal
responses 2 -, postshock impairment
19-20
Index
PINILLOS, J. L. 29 PISETZKY, J. E. 3 PLOOG, D. 3, 40 PORTER, P. B. 39 PROCTOR, L. D. 7 Progressive Matrices 7,
17-18,20,22,24,27-28 Pseudo-shock 15 Psychotic episodes 3, 43 Psychoticism 32, 43 PULLEN, M. S. 43
RABIN, A. J. 5 Recall 2 Recognition 2, 5-6 Recovery, postshock 2, 4--5,
35 - reversal26-27 REGAN, P. F. 2 REMOLD,F.4 Retention 4-6 Rigidity 32, 43 Rorschach test 1, 43 ROTH,M.42 RUSSELL, R. W. 17,20--21,
39,42
SCHEERER,I.40 SCHERRER,J.3 SCHILDGE, E. 2, 19 SCHLOSBERG, H. 39 SELYE, H. 42 SHARP, H. C. 39 SHERMAN, I. 5 Shock, amount of 12, 22, 28 - apparatus 8 -, cumulative effects 1-3 - duration 8, 20 -, effects of repeated 5,
20-21, 27, 29-39 -, - of single 1, 4, 14-15 -, intensive treatment 3 -, number of 12, 22, 26, 28
Shock, spacing of 12, 21-22, 28 - theories 42--43 - voltage 8, 12, 20 SIEGERT, A. 4 SIEMENS, J. C. 7 SIMON, W. 7 Spontaneous drawings 32 STAGNER, R. 43 STAINBROOK, E. J. 2, 31, 39,
TAYLOR, R. M. 7 TERPSTRA, J. J. 3 Therapeutic effects 39--41 THORPE, F. T. 12 Time function 2-5, 12 TROLLE, E. 2, 4
Wechsler Memory Scale 5 Weight 12-13,20,22,28 WElL, A. A. 42 WEITBRECHT, H. D. 40 Wertheimer gestalt figures 2 WILBUR, C. B. 3, 13 WILCOX, P. H. 12, 20 WILLIAMS, M. 2 WILLNER, M. D. 7 WILSON, L. 8 WINDER, C. L. 39 WORCHEL,P.6
YATES, A. J. 43 YATES, F. 26
ZAHLE, V. 7 ZERBINI, E. 3 ZIRKLE, G. A. 4 ZUBIN, J. 2-3, 6, 38, 40
