Extent and Dimensions of Gender Bias in India

Premananda Bharati, Manoranjan Pal and Bholanath Ghosh

Indian Statistical Institute203 BT Road, Kolkata 700108

Introduction Gender disparity refers to inequality between male and female through social, biological or psychological aspects of life.

The Middle East, North Africa, East Asia and South Asia are having the largest gender differences.

Discrimination against specific gender depends on individual or household based factors depending on many hidden or underlying factors. It directly or indirectly has effects on malnutrition, morbidity and even mortality in the society.

Kinds of Gender Bias Considered Here Female

infanticideUnequal

childhood care

Intra-household food distribution

Disproportionate share of child malnutrition

Gender Bias

Education

Objectives

India is a cosmopolitan vast country, so it has a great diversity in every aspects of life. It is not possible to cover gender discrimination in every aspects of life.

The main objectives are to see the gender bias through child health in respect of mortality, morbidity, immunization taken, nutritional status and feeding practices.

MethodologyDescriptive Measures from recent national level data (NSS, Census, NFHS etc. )

-- Special Emphasis Given: weight-for-age, height-for-age, and weight-for-height.

Cut off point: Two standard deviations below the reference population (international reference population as recommended by the World Health Organization).

Children below the cut off point for Weight for Age: UnderweightHeight for Age: Stunting (Chronic under nutrition)Weight for Height: Wasting (too thin)

Sex Ratio at Birth, 2011

Sex Ratio of India (2001 – 2011) Census and its changeIndia/States 2011 Census 2001 Census ChangePunjab 893 874 19Haryana 877 861 16Himachal Pradesh 974 970 4Uttar Pradesh 908 898 10Gujarat 918 921 -3Rajasthan 926 922 4Bihar 916 921 5Maharashtra 946 922 24Kerala 1084 1058 26Madhya Pradesh 930 920 10Andhra Pradesh 992 978 14Tamil Nadu 995 986 9Assam 954 932 22Orissa 978 972 6Karnataka 968 964 4West Bengal 947 934 13India 940 933 7

Source: Census, New Delhi, 2011.

Gender Bias - Sex Ratio

846

978

901

932921

773

990

811709

821

960

921

861

970

900

941

964

1058

947

920

922

978

975

938

909

972

1001

874

922

875

986

950

964

898

934

859

844 965

964

961

964938

845

975

973925

865

933

878

820

897

937

966

949

963

974

929

917

961

506

971

975

950

958

793

909

986

939

975

906

916

963

943

968

Total 0-6 Years

Females per 1,000 males

< 900900-949> 950

Females per 1,000 males

< 900900-949> 950

Infant Mortality Rates by Sex, 2005

India/States Male Female F-M (Gap)Haryana 55 76 21Jharkhand 45 62 17Jammu & Kashmir 49 58 9

Rajasthan 71 79 8Madhya Pradesh 77 84 7Punjab 46 51 5Uttar Pradesh 75 79 4Assam 69 72 3Gujarat 61 64 3Orissa 77 79 2Bihar 61 63 2Andhra Pradesh 62 64 2Maharashtra 40 42 2Tamil Nadu 38 40 2Kerala 15 16 1West Bengal 40 40 0

INDIA 62 66 4Source: Registrar General, India, SRS Bulletin, Oct., 2006, New Delhi, Oct. 2006.

Under Five Death Rates by Sex and Residence, 2002India/States Rural Urban

Male Female Male FemaleMadhya Pradesh 25.7 30.3 16.7 13.5

Uttar Pradesh 23.8 28.0 18.2 15.7Gujarat 19.4 25.0 9.9 9.8Assam 22.7 24.9 9.0 10.9Rajasthan 22.9 23.9 13.3 18.4Orissa 27.8 23.2 12.1 18.0Haryana 16.0 22.2 10.2 14.4Punjab 11.9 21.5 8.0 13.4Bihar 15.6 19.7 14.1 12.9Andhra Pradesh 17.1 18.5 10.0 5.9Karnataka 18.3 17.4 6.9 6.6HP 16.6 13.0 5.1 7.1West Bengal 13.7 12.9 10.2 6.0Maharashtra 11.9 11.3 8.5 7.9Tamil Nadu 12.8 11.3 7.9 6.8Kerala 1.8 2.8 2.5 1.4INDIA 18.8 20.7 10.3 10.2

Source: Registrar General, India, Sample Registration System, Statistical Report 2002, New Delhi 2004.

Percentage distribution of health care taken during morbidity of under-five children in India by gender

Morbidity Pattern: Boys Girls

ARI Symptoms:

Treatment was sought from a health provider 71.7 65.8

Whether received antibiotics 13.2 11.7

Fever:

Treatment was sought from a health provider 72.8 68.4

Whether received anti-malarial drugs 9.4 6.8

Whether received antibiotics 13.9 11.9

Diarrhea:

Treatment was sought from a health provider 61.6 57.7

Whether ORS given 26.2 25.9

Whether received antibiotics 16.8 13.8

Percentage distribution of immunization status of (12-23 months) children in India by gender

Child Immunization Boys Girls

BCG 80.2 75.8

DPT (3 doses) 57.4 53.0

Polio (3 doses) 79.3 77.1

Measles 61.4 55.8

All vaccination 45.3 41.5

Gender disparity in health care and feeding practices in India, 1998-99

State

Percent of children (12-23 months) who received all

vaccinationsMedian duration of

breastfeeding

Percents of children < 3 years who were

Health care disparity

index (HCDI)

HCDI rank

Gender gap in health

careNot taken to a health

facility when sickNot treated for

diarrhea

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male FemaleAndhra Pradesh 54.2 62.8 27.8 23.3 27.9 33.7 20.0 21.5 2.05 2 6.55Assam 22.3 9.2 36.0 26.0 55.6 62.0 35.4 41.9 -11.55 20 11.55Bihar 13.0 9.0 36.0 36.0 37.8 45.9 39.6 38.0 -2 10 2Delhi 71.8 67.2 22.6 19.4 17.2 15.4 21.7 13.9 -3.9 15 3.9Gujarat 53.1 52.9 22.5 21.2 25.4 32.0 28.5 31.1 -0.75 7 0.75Goa 79.9 85.8 24.6 22.2 Nc nc nc nc 1.75 3 4.15Haryana 62.4 63.2 25.8 23.5 12.2 12.0 7.1 6.1 -0.75 6 1.55Himachal Pradesh 87.2 78.9 25.3 23.3 4.3 4.4 4.7 6.4 -5.15 17 5.15Jammu & Kashmir 61.0 50.0 29.4 30.5 18.9 30.4 10.5 9.8 -4.95 16 6.05Karnataka 62.8 57.1 19.9 20.2 Nc nc 18.0 21.5 -2.7 11 3Kerala 77.1 82.6 25.4 24.0 12.7 23.2 nc nc 2.05 1 3.45Madhya Pradesh 27.3 17.9 24.0 25.9 40.1 44.1 27.9 32.9 -3.75 14 5.65Maharashtra 80.8 76.3 24.5 23.2 18.3 11.5 14.0 20.2 -2.9 12 2.9Orissa 44.1 43.3 33.6 36.0 38.3 49.3 33.8 35.2 0.8 4 1.6Punjab 74.5 69.2 26.4 18.9 7.6 4.3 nc nc -6.4 18 6.4Rajasthan 16.9 17.6 26.2 24.7 37.8 41.6 37.7 34.5 -0.4 5 1.1Sikkim 50.5 43.8 31.6 24.8 50.4 67.3 26.5 38.01 -6.75 19 6.75Tamil Nadu 89.5 88.0 17.8 15.7 17.3 16.9 16.9 26.9 -1.8 9 1.8Uttar Pradesh 23.6 18.8 26.4 25.2 35.5 42.9 30.2 30.3 -3 13 3West Bengal 44.2 43.5 36.0 33.5 44.3 52.5 nc nc -1.6 8 1.6India 1998-99 43.1 40.9 26.4 24.6 33.5 39.2 26.8 28.0 -2 2India 1992-93 36.7 34.1 25.3 23.6 17.8* 22.0* 17.8* 21.0* -2.15 2.15

Source: IIPS & ORC MACRO, National Family Health Survey, 1998-99. PRCs and IIPS, Bombay, National Family Health Survey, 1992-93, and State level reports.Notes: nc – not computed because of small sample size. Reference period for fever and diarrhoea is two weeks prior to the survey. * 0 to 4 age group. HCDI = [all vaccine (F–M)+breastfeeding (F–M)]/2, Gender gap in health care = (all vaccine |F–M|+breastfeeding |F–M|)/2.

Disparity in nutritional status of children, 1998-99

State

Percent of children under three years of age who are

Nutrition

disparity index

(NDI)

NDI

rank

Gender gap in

nutrition statusUW Stunted Wasted

Male Female Male Female Male Female

Andhra Pradesh 35.1 40.2 37.4 39.8 9.1 9.0 -2.467 15 2.53

Assam 35.2 37.1 50.5 49.7 14.5 11.8 0.533 7 1.80

Bihar 52.8 56.1 53.0 54.6 21.4 20.5 -1.333 11 1.93

Delhi 36.8 31.9 35.7 38.3 13.4 11.2 1.500 4 3.23

Gujarat 40.3 50.0 42.0 45.3 13.9 18.6 -5.900 20 5.90

Goa 34.5 21.6 23.8 10.7 12.6 13.7 8.300 1 9.03

Haryana 31.8 38.1 47.5 53.1 5.9 4.6 -3.533 18 4.40

Himachal Pradesh 45.2 41.7 46.2 35.7 17.0 16.9 4.700 2 4.70

Jammu & Kashmir 36.2 32.6 39.9 37.5 12.9 10.5 2.800 3 2.80

Karnataka 42.2 45.7 35.1 38.1 21.4 18.5 -1.200 10 3.13

Kerala 26.2 27.6 22.1 21.6 12.5 9.7 0.633 5 1.57

Madhya Pradesh 52.8 57.6 49.2 52.9 19.8 19.9 -2.867 17 2.87

Maharashtra 49.2 50.0 38.8 41.0 20.3 22.3 -1.667 13 1.67

Orissa 54.6 54.3 44.1 43.8 24.8 23.8 0.533 6 0.53

Punjab 27.3 30.3 38.7 39.7 8.4 5.7 -0.433 9 2.23

Rajasthan 49.2 52.2 50.2 54.0 11.8 11.6 -2.200 14 2.33

Sikkim 19.0 22.2 30.9 32.6 5.0 4.6 -1.500 12 1.77

Tamil Nadu 35.8 37.6 29.9 28.9 20.7 19.0 0.300 8 1.50

Uttar Pradesh 49.6 53.9 53.4 57.7 11.4 10.8 -2.667 16 3.07

West Bengal 45.5 52.3 36.6 47.0 14.8 12.3 -4.900 19 6.57

India 98-99 45.3 48.9 44.1 47.0 15.7 15.2 -2.000 2.33

India 92-93* 53.3 53.4 52.3 51.7 18.8 16.1 1.067 1.13

Sources: IIPS & ORC MACRO, National Family Health Survey, 1998-99.PRCs and IIPS, Bombay, National Family Health Survey, 1992-93, State level reports, 1994 and 1995.* Age group 0 to 4 years.NDI = [underweight (M – F) + stunted (M – F) + wasted (M – F)] / 3 Gap in nutritional status = (underweight |M – F| + stunted |M – F| + wasted |M – F|) / 3

Boys

Girls

%

16.2

37.8

46.0

54.0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

WEIGHT FOR AGE

17.0

37.945.1

54.9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

< Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to Median – 2 SD

Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD

< Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to Median – 2 SD

Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD

%

Underweight

Boys

Girls

17.123.1

59.8

40.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

HEIGHT FOR AGE

17.1

24.1

58.8

41.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

< Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to Median – 2 SD

Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD

%

%

< Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to Median – 2 SD

Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD

Stunting

Boys

Girls

WEIGHT FOR HEIGHT

3.0

19.9

77.1

22.9

0

20

40

60

80

100

3.2

18.8

78.0

22.0

0

20

40

60

80

100

< Median – 3 SDMedian – 3 SD to

Median – 2 SD Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD

%

%

< Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to

Median – 2 SD Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD

Wasting

Literacy rate in India: 1951-2011

38.7

63.2

44

72.2

51.554

75.6

59.2

80.1

65.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

19912001

Increase in Literacy

Gender differences are also commonly seen in case of intra-household food distribution in different caste groups, but not in the tribal communities. Study on food distribution among tribal populations in India did not show gender inequality in food distribution at household level while it exists among the caste communities. The study also shows that religion, occupation and rural or urban factors are not related to gender differences in food distribution in the family..

Intra-household Food Distribution

ConclusionThis study reveals that between 1992-93 and 1998-99, India experienced a positive change in social development and levels of living.

However, there exists a substantial difference in the developmental opportunities of male and female children.

Disparity exists in different practices related to childcare as well as opportunities for educational attainment.

Though there is a little decrease in health care disparity and educational disparity, mortality and nutritional disparities have increased slightly in the country.

ConclusionGender disparity exists in varying degrees in all the states and is noticeably high in the larger states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, and Rajasthan.

Increasing social development may help in reducing gender disparity in nutritional status of children.

Although educational disparity is moderately related to social development, level of living and female autonomy, it can be eliminated by government policies towards child education and rigorous implementation of these policies.