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EZIEFULE, ChinyereAdamma
PG/Ph.D/09/54444
EFFECTS OF TECHNOSTRESS ON ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF COMMERCIAL BANKS IN
SOUTHEAST, NIGERIA
FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT
Paul Okeke
Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Webmaster’s name
O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
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EFFECTS OF TECHNOSTRESS ON ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF COMMERCIAL BANKS IN SOUTHEAST,
NIGERIA
EZIEFULE, ChinyereAdamma
PG/Ph.D/09/54444
BEING THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) IN MANAGEMENT
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT,
FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS
SUPERVISOR: PROF. U.J.F EWURUM
MAY, 2015.
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DECLARATION
I, EZIEFULE, ChinyereAdammawith registration number PG/Ph.D/09/54444, a postgraduate student in the Department of Management do declare that the work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or in full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other University.
_________________________
STUDENT
EZIEFULE,ChinyereAdamma
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APPROVAL
This thesis has been approved for the Department of Management.
By
____________________________ ________________________
Supervisor Date
Prof.U.J.F.Ewurum
____________________________ ________________________
Head of Department Date
Dr.C.O. Ugbam
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my heavenly father, the Almighty God. May His name be praised forever, to my dear parents Chief and Lolo B.C. Eziefule (Ebubedike) and to my brother IchieObinnaEziefule (Uzochiwara)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank all those who assisted me with this work and in particular, the people who participated, for spending their time to complete the survey and for the interest, they showed in this research topic.Prof.U.J.F.Ewurum, my supervisor, has been very helpful and supportive and has provided valuable guidance for this research work. I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge his research expertise and valuable feedback provided. My profound gratitude to my lecturers, Dr.C.O.Ugbam,Prof.J.Eloka,Dr.E.K.Agbaeze,Dr.V.Onudugo and Dr.B.I.Chukwu. My thanks go to all the staff in the Department of Management, MrsN.Ofodile, Mrs I. AnigboguMrs.N.O.Okonkwo and Mrs.A.N.Nweke.
I will not fail to thankmy lovely parents Chief and Lolo B.C.Eziefule (IchieEbubedike), my dearest brother,IchieObinnaEziefule(Uzochiwara)Engr.J.I.Nwanekwu, Chief K.E.Amadi (Akudinanwata),Mrs.C.U.Kalu, Mr.J.Ejimmadu, Capt.E.Anyanwu, Hon.E.Inegbu, Mr.I.Iheriohamma, Mr.I.K.Onwuka and Engr.C.Omenifor their financial support. My thanks to my lovely husband, Mr.C.K.Egbunine,mysiblings,Mrs.N.Amadi, Lolo.O.Amadi,Onyi,Odinaka,Ezinne,Nnedimma and Somtochukwu, my cousins, niece, nephews,my late uncle, Mr.C.U.Eziefule and my Spiritual Fathers,Ven.Dr.NNPCGhamzi, Rev.Can.E.W.Ezenwome and familiesfor their relentless prayers,love and support.
My thanks as well goto all the Staff and Management of Access Bank Plc, Citibank Nigeria Limited, Diamond Bank Plc, Eco Bank Nigeria Plc, Enterprise Bank Ltd, First Bank of Nigeria Plc, Fidelity Bank of Nigeria Plc, First City Monument Bank Plc, Guaranty Trust Bank Plc, Keystone Bank Limited, Union Bank of Nigeria Plc, United Bank for Africa Plc and Zenith Bank Plc who assisted me by providing the data for my analysis and findings.
Worthy of acknowledgment are my friends whose encouragement gave my world a meaning. Notable among them areDr.S.Okebaram,Dr.H.Obi-Anike, Dr.C.Agu, Miss.E.Anike andMrs.H.Okwor. I love you all.
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ABSTRACT
Although the evolution of ICTs has brought numerous potential benefits to the banking sector, employees often feel frustrated and distressed when they are not able to cope with the demands of organizational computer usage. Recent literature has named this technology-related stress ‘‘technostress’’. The study is on effects of technostress on organizational performance in money deposit banks in SouthEast Nigeria. This study therefore sought to determine the influence of workoverload on productivity in workers in SouthEast Nigeria,ascertain the extent of burnout stress on growth in commercial banks in SouthEast Nigeria, investigate the effect of computer phobia psychological factors on market shares in commercial banks in SouthEast Nigeria, establish the extent of perception of techno-complexity on creativity in commercial banks in SouthEast Nigeria and verify how techno-invasion could be managed to enhance innovation in commercial banks in SouthEast Nigeria. This study adopted survey research design. Simple random technique was used in selecting the money deposit banks used for the study. The selected money deposits banks are Access Bank Plc, Citi Bank Nigeria Ltd, Diamond Bank Plc, Eco Bank Plc, Enterprise Bank Plc Fidelity Bank of Nigeria Plc, First Bank of Nigeria Plc, First City Monument Bank Plc, Guaranty Trust Bank Plc ,Keystone Bank Ltd, Union Bank of Nigeria Plc, United Bank for Africa Plc and Zenith Bank Plc.A sample of 640 respondents was determined from the population of eight thousand eight hundred and seventy nine (8,879) drawn from the staff of the selected banks using Godden (2004) statistical formula. The sources of data for the study were primary and secondary. The main instrument used for primary data collection was questionnaire and interview. The secondary data were sourced from published journals, textbooks, internet and company’s annual report. The questionnaire was structured in five-point Likert scale in line with the objectives of the study. Content validity approach was used to ensure that the variables measured were all covered. The instrument was checked for reliability using test-re-test method. The result gave reliability co-efficient of 0.98% showing high degree of item consistency. The total number of the questionnaire distributed for this study was six hundred and forty (640) copies, while five hundred and sixty (560) copies representing 93% were completed and returned. The data generated from the field survey were presented and analysed using frequency distribution table and simple percentages. The hypotheses were tested using Pearson chi-square for hypotheses four and five. Simple linear regression was used for hypotheses one, two and three. The findings indicate that there was significant negative influence of workoverload on productivity in commercial banks in SouthEast Nigeria; Significant negative effect of burnout stress on growth in commercial banks in SouthEast Nigeria; Significant negative effect of computer-phobia psychological factors on market shares in commercial banks in SouthEast Nigeria; Great perception of techno-complexity on creativity in commercial banks in SouthEast Nigeria; Relaxation and stress inoculation training could be used to enhance innovation in commercial banks in SouthEast Nigeria. The study concludes that technostress sufferers should be made to adapt freely to their environment by the management of the banking industry as this will enhance efficiency and effectiveness and in-turn will lead to productivity.The study recommends that management should introduce tools that are user-friendly as this will make work easier and more interesting; management should give remuneration packages to their staff as this will enable their staff to have access to good health; enabling environment should be created in the banking industry as this will help their staff to adapt to their new found job as the over-bearing effect of technology usage has beenfoundtocause
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tension,fatigue,burnoutstress,technooverload,technocomplexity,technophobiaand technomania.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration ii
Approval iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgments v
Abstract vi
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xii
Chapter One: Introduction 1
1.1 Background to the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study 5
1.4 Research Questions 5
1.5 Research Hypotheses 6
1.6 Significance of the Study 6
1.7 Scope of the Study 7
1.8 Delimitations of the Study 7
1.9 Operational Definition of Terms 8
1.10 Profile of Selected Banks 9
References 27
Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature 30
2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 Conceptual Framework 30
2.2.1 Causes and Symptoms of Technostress in Banking Industry 47
2.3. Theoretical Framework 55
2.4 Empirical Review 61
2.4.1 Empirical Studies on the Influence of Work overload on Productivity in
Banking Industry 61
2.5 Empirical Studies on the Extent of Burnout Stress on Growth in
Banking Industry 66
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2.6 Empirical Studies on the Effect of Computer Phobia on Market Shares in
Banking Industry 69
2.7Empirical Studies on the Extent of Perception of Techno-Complexity on
Creativity in Banking Industry 75
2.8Empirical Studies on the Management of Techno-Invasion to Enhance
Innovation in Banking Industry 81
2.9 Summary of the Reviewed of Related Literature 93
References 95
Chapter Three: Methodology 114
3.1 Introduction 114
3.2 Research Design 114
3.3 Sources of Data 114
3.4 Population of the Study 114
3.5 Sample Size Determination 115
3.6 Description of the Research Instrument 118
3.7 Validity of the Instrument 118
3.8 Reliability of the Instrument 118
3.9 Methods of Data Analysis 119
References 120
Chapter Four : Data Presentation and Analyses 121
4.1 Introduction 121
4.2. Data Presentation 121
4.3 Research Findings 122
4.4 Test of Hypotheses one to five 152
4.4.1 Test of Hypotheses One 152
4.4.2 Test of Hypotheses Two 155
4.4.3 Test of Hypotheses Three 158
4.4.4 Test of Hypotheses Four 160
4.4.5 Test of Hypotheses Five 161
4.5 Discussion of Results 162
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Chapter Five : Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations 166
5.1 Introduction 166
5.2 Summary of Findings 166
5.3 Conclusion 166
5.4 Recommendations 168
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge 168
5.6 Suggestions for Further Research 170
Bibliography 171
Appendix 1 Questionnaire 191
Appendix 2 Interview Schedule 195
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3:1 Staff Strength of the Selected Banks 115
Table 3.2: Breakdown of the Sample Size 117
Table 3.3 Cronbach Alpha Validity and Reliability Test 118
Table 4.1 Presents the Response rate of Questionnaire Distributed to the staff of Money Deposit
Banks in SouthEast, Nigeria 121
Table 4.2Reponses as to whether Work Overload affects Morals, Productivity,
Organizational Efficiency, Absentees and Profitability for both Individuals and Organizations 122
Table 4.3 Work Over load Accelerate Job Burnout Syndrome, Emotional Extraction and
Cynicism 123
Table 4.4 Work Over load Lead Role Conflict Multitasking and Hypertension 124
Table 4.5: Multitasking Deteriorate Quality of Work Life, enable IncreaseMonitoring and
Surveillance Specially Real Time Monitoring versusafter the fact Monitoring Results to
under Staff, loss of Control, Depression and undue Burden on the availability of
Resources 126
Table 4.6: Work Overload create Psychosomatic Issue (anxiety hypertension Heart Attack,
Headache, Pains and Sleeping Disorder) for the Workers which can Lead to Inefficiencies at Work 127
Table 4.7 Work Overload increase Catecholamine levels, as part of Sympathetic Nervous
Responses, which also Increase Heart Rate and Blood Pressure 128
Table 4.8: Work Relationship affects Growth in Money Deposit Banks 130
Table 4.9 Work Over load affects Growth in Money Deposit Banks131
Table 4.10 Technical Support affects Growth in Money Deposit Banks132
Table 4.11 Role Ambiguity affects Growth in Money Deposit Banks133
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Table 4.12: Job Security affects Growth in Money Deposit Banks 135
Table 4.13: Psychological Capital affects Market Shares 136
Table 4.14: Role Anxiety and Job Insecurity affect Market Share 137
Table 4.15 Interpersonal Conflict affects Market Shares 138
Table 4.16 Cognitive Processing affectsMarket Shares 139
Table 4.17 Work –family Conflict and Imbalance affects Market Shares 140
Table 4.18 Techno –Complexity is perceived as Computer Anxiety, Internet Anxiety and Mobile
–anxiety 141
Table 4.19: Techno –Complexity is perceived to affect Job Satisfaction, Organizational
Component and Continuance Commitment when Addicted by Employee 142
Table 4.20Its Generic use Leads to Techno Overload,Techno –Invasion, Techno Insecurity and
Techno-Uncertainty 144
Table 4.21 Techno Complexity is perceived as Usefulness of Technology, Ease of use of
Technology, Techno Accessibility of Technology and Normality of Technology to
Maximize Productivity 145
Table 4.22 Techno Complexity Predomination affects Psych –physiological Activation and
System Mechanism 146
Table 4:23: Set Realistic Goals Manage Time and Develop a Positive Attitude147
Table 4:24: Relaxation Response and Meditation 148
Table 4:25: Environment Lifestyle (Time Management Proper Nutrition) 149
Table 4:26: Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) 150
Table 4:27: Taking Evacuation Exercise and Work Life Balance 151
Table 4:28 Descriptive Statistics 152
Table 4:29 Correlations 152
Table 4:30 ANOVAb 153
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Table 4:31 Coefficientsa 153
Table 4.32 Descriptive Statistics 155
Table 4.33 Correlations 155
Table 4:34 Model Summaryb 155
Table 4.35 ANOVAb 156
Table 4.36 Coefficientsa 156
Table 4.37 Descriptive Statistics 158
Table 4.38 Correlations 158
Table 4.39 ModelSummaryb 158
Table 4.40 ANOVAb 159
Table 4.41 Coefficientsa 159
Table 4.42 Chi-Square Tests 160
Table 4.43 Chi-Square Tests 161
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LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 5.1 Technostress Model 169
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ICT = Information and Communication Technology
CBN = Central Bank of Nigeria
GAS = General Adaptation Syndrome
ERP = Enterprise Resource Planning
SIT = Stress Inoculation Training
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
In today’s organizations, information and communication technologies (ICTs) pervade
organizational and individual life style. With increasing use of ICTs, how individuals interact
with technology and its related consequences has gained importance. Consequently, research in
the field of information systems (IS) or management information system (MIS) has extensively
studied the adoption, acceptance, self-efficacy and other related issues with respect to ICTs
(Agarwal, 2000). Although this research stream has concentrated on how individuals can better
utilize ICTs, there is also considerable interest about technology induced anxiety, stress etc. as
these reduce the productivity of individuals (Brod, 1994; Weil and Rosen, 1997). Though the use
of ICTs (information super-highways) has also produced a perpetual urgency as it facilitates ease
in generating and transporting data/information and creates the expectations that people need, or
are obligated to use, the data/information faster (Hind, 1998).
The pervasiveness of ICTs and new work structures may contribute to ‘technostress’ (Weil and
Rosen, 1997). Technostress refers to stress induced by information and communication
technologies. In the present technological age, it is important to understand the antecedents to
technostress, since stress in the work place is recognized as contributing to lower employee
productivity and higher health costs for companies especially banking industry (Cooper et al.,
1996; Sutherland and Cooper, 1990; Tennant, 2001). This argument is consistent with a special
report in InformationWeek which argues that advances in technologies (i.e. virtual office
technologies, internet, interbanking, e-banking and ICTs interface) contribute to increased
burnout (McGee, 1996). In the US, it is estimated that stress-related ailments, including burnout
cost as much as $300 billion a year (McGee, 1996), and by some estimates, as much as five to
ten per cent of Gross National Product (GNP) (Vernon, 1998).
In lieu of these arguments, technostress is a modern ailment of adaptation caused by defect of
use of new technologies in a healthy manner to achieve result. It manifests itself in two distinct
but related ways; in the struggle to accept computer technology, and in the more specialized form
of over identification with computer technology (Brod, 1984). (Fine,1986) turn Broad’s classic
definition upside-down by describing technostress as a clinical symptoms of phobia displayed by
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computer users as a new learned form of resistance. In other words, Brod (1984) sees
technostress as an illness caused by an inability to cope or adapt, while Fine sees technostress as
an adaptation to an unhealthy organization situation. Technostress is considered a psychosomatic
illness that involves either anxiety over using technological equipment, or over identification
with the computer. In Brod's (1984) definition of technostress he mentioned not only the inability
to cope but over identification with the computer as another aspect of technostress. This occurs
when a person is technocentered, becoming more and more computer-like. The person who
"overidentifies" with the computer becomes less emotional and more impatient with people.
There is loss of capacity to feel and to relate to others (Brod, 1984). Exhaustion is often coupled
with this, and factual thinking, while not necessarily a harmful thing, becomes the person's
mindset. As such, technostress can be divided further into four distinct but related components:
performance anxiety, information overload, role conflicts and organizational factors
(Kupersmith, 1992).
Meanwhile any change in a person’s life, whether positive or negative, can produce stress.
Information technology may have revolutionized modern day life, but it has also brought with it
new problems (technostress). Technostress brings with it a feeling of insecurity, the fear of not
being able to keep up (cope) with this technology fatigue and its debilitating effect of rightsizing
the number of employable workforce. It is an undeniable fact that technology has become an
integral part in today’s society. While technological revolution in organization has not only
improved efficiency but also help reduced the problem of boredom in the workplace (Vieitez,
Carcia, and Rodriquez, 2001). The advancement of technology has also been a dominant force in
improving and enhancing public services particularly commercial banking industry. The
application of organization automation has immensely improved the effectiveness of
organizations activities such as transaction, transfer, forex trading and transitions (Bichteler,
1986; Murthy and Cholin, 2003). The ability of organizations to offer access to digital
information regardless of location and time has given birth to the term “online banking”,
“electronic banking”, internet banking or “digital banking”, e-business, e-commerce, e-library, e-
book, e-shopping and e-conferencing (Gorman, 2001; Saunders, 1999).
Basically, technostress is the general feeling of anxiety and the negative impact on thoughts,
behaviours, attitudes, and body when a person is expected to deal with technology (Kupersmith,
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1992; Weil and Rosen, 1997). The use of computer integrated system, CD-ROMs and multiple
databases, the Internet and World Wide Web, fax, facsimile, smart phone and the rapid change of
information technology has also caused an enormous amount of strain on organization and
workers (Bichteler, 1987; Davis-Millis, 1998; Kupersmith, 2006).
Technostress is a modern ailment of adaptation caused by defect with the new computer
technologies in an unhealthy manner. This ailment may manifest itself in the struggle to accept
computer technology, and by over identification with computer technology. Those who struggle
to accept computer technology often feel pressured to accept and use computers. The symptoms
of this state include a high degree of factual thinking, poor access to feelings, an insistence on
efficiency and speed. These people are known as techno-centered; their desire to conquer the
system becomes greater than the desire for human relationships and human pleasures (Brod,
1984). Brod's model includes symptoms of ambivalence, reluctance and fear of computers,
which all translate into anxiety. Anxiety manifests itself in other ways: irritability, headaches,
nightmares and insomnia, technological resistance, or technological rejection, and an assortment
of other symptoms. It affects "those who feel pressured by employers, peers, or general culture to
accept and use computers. Other symptoms have been observed, such as isolation and frustration,
negative attitudes toward computers, self-negativity, and using statements like "I don't do that"
when referring to CD-ROMs, either searching or servicing. Also, there is an inability to cope,
and a general feeling of panic when confronted with a task that must be done on the computer
(Kupersmith, 1992).
As the banking industry adopts technological innovations for competitiveness in the knowledge
based cum competitive-based economy, the need to maintain an optimal balance between the
utilization of the attractive features of ICT and ensuring human needs for safe and efficient
working conditions have become a phenomenon in modern public and business organizations.
Making the work easier and more interesting by introducing tools that are user-friendly and
capable of increasing productivity are not without attendant risks and problems. Having access to
these devices enables work to be done regardless of time and location but unfortunately intrude
into the privacy of banking staff and may eventually lead to stress, health challenge and low
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level of performance. The adoption of ICT to make work more interesting and increase
productivity has thus been marked with attendant risks and problems (Agboola, 2013).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
There has been a long ongoing argument which posits that evolution of information and
communication technology has positive and negative effects because they reflect and affect
social attitudes towards ICT. This creates the discursive context for the introduction of IT into
organizations. Information and communication technology that has revolutionized modern day
life, has also brought with it new problems in the organization known as technostress. However,
today commercial banking industry has increased in complexity their activities and use of
technology virtually in every facets of their transactions had shown that technology infiltration
generate a lot of stress to their employees and customers in day-to-day task. This growing
anxiety on the use of ICTs and its devastating effects are seen in terms of multitasking,
workaholism, occupational stress, need achievement orientedness, technology-obedient
organization, introvertism(poor social worker), and smart phone techno-mindedness. Also these
effects cut across the physiological, psychological, neurological aspect of human life on the
course to achieving high productivity and performance. The overbearing effect of technology
usage has caused tension/anxiety, fatigue, burnout/stress, unhealthy condition of worker emotion
and relationships, techno-anxiety, techno-overload, techno-complexity, technophobia,
technomania/technofreaks, technogeek, computerphobia etc. The chains of these effects have
diminished the degree or undermined the margin of outcome expected in the usage of
information technology over time. Though, this problem occurs in a long run or addiction of
ICTs implementation.
Among other things, technostress is an ailment as a result of plight of ICTs usage that cause role
overload, role conflict, job-insecurity, making less use of workers’ skills (rightsizing),
intensifying work pressures, techno-invasion, reducing workers power, work imbalance and
health hazard. Technology-induced stress may also exhibit itself psychologically, through
negative self-image, negative thoughts about work or other computer users, and in some cases
even psychosomatic illnesses. Brillhart lists memory issues, sleep disorder, an inability to focus
on recreational activities or Down syndrome, and a preoccupation with work and technology-
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related tasks as further symptoms of technostress. These symptoms, both physical and
psychological, cause technostress sufferers to experience poor health, negative self-image,
depression, and may ultimately result in technological avoidance, a behaviour which can have
negative effects on information seeking habits. This in itself affects performance at work as the
employees can become underproductive and isolated as they communicate less and suffer under
the burden of being overwhelmed. Against this background, it becomes pertinent to investigate
how to manage the effects of technostress on organizational performance particularly in
commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The broad objective of this study focuses on the effects of technostress on organizational
performance of commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. The specific objectives are: To
i. Determine the influence of work overload on productivity in commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria.
ii. Ascertain the extent of burnout stress on growth in commercial banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria.
iii. Investigate the effect of computer phobia psychological factors on market shares in
commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
iv. Establish the extent of perception of techno-complexity on creativity in commercial
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
v. Verify how techno-invasion could be managed to enhance innovation in commercial
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
1.4 Research Questions
The following research questions will guide this study.
i. To what extent does work overload affect productivity in commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria?
ii. To what extent does burnout stress affect growth in commercial banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria?
iii. How and to what extent does computer phobia psychological factors affect market shares
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in commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria?
iv. How does the perception of techno complexity affect creativity in commercial banks
in SouthEast, Nigeria?
v. How could techno-invasion be managed to enhance innovation in commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria?
1.5 Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses served as aids in finding answers to the research questions and in
fulfilling the objectives of the study.
i. There is significant negative influence of workoverload on productivity in commercial
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
ii. There is significant negative effect of burnout stress on growth in commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria.
iii. There is significant negative effect of computer phobia psychological factors on
market shares in commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
iv. There is great perception of techno-complexity on creativity in
commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
v. Relaxation and stress inoculation training could be used to enhance innovation in
commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
1.6 Significance of the Study
The study will be of immense significance to the management and shareholders of the banks, the
general public or customers and researchers/students.
Management/Shareholders: It is expected that the study will inform the management of banks
and other organizations to increase productivity; there is the need to have and implement
appropriate strategies to manage technology stress. It will also help management develop and
maintain a quality work-life balance, which will provide an opportunity for their real-time and
relaxation or satisfaction. Finally, it will aid shareholders of the banks to measure and monitor
the progress trend that will sustain and strengthen their confidence against the changing future.
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General Public or Customer: The act of effective technostress management techniques
adoption will restore public confidence and maximum satisfaction. Thus, the quality of
workforce well-being or wellness is a reflection of the employee competence or skill as well will
stabilize and improve the performance of the banks and strengthen their competitive advantage.
Researcher and Student: This study will serve as a reference point for future researchers and
students.
1.7 Scope of the Study
The study focuses on the effects of technostress on organizational performance of Money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. The study concentrated on SouthEast states as the area scope
respectively. The study also emphasizes on the issues of influence of work overload on
productivity, extent of burnout stress on growth, effect of computer-phobia psychological factors
on market shares, extent of perception of techno-complexity on creativity and how techno-
invasion could be managed to enhance innovation. In the study, thirteen (13) Money deposit
banks were selected viz: Access Bank Plc, Citibank Plc, Diamond Bank Plc, Ecobank Nigeria
Plc, Enterprise Bank Ltd, Fidelity Bank of Nigeria Plc, First Bank Plc, First City Monument
Bank Plc, Guaranty Trust Bank Plc, Keystone Bank Ltd, United Bank of Africa Plc, Union Bank
Plc and Zenith bank Plc. These banks were chosen because they have strong assets based. The
study will cover the period from 2004-2015.
1.8 Delimitations of the Study
The study was constrained among other things viz;
Uncompromised Attitude of Respondents: The unwillingness of the management to divulage strategic
information in the name of confidentiality is a limitation to this study. In amidst of uncompromising
attitude of respondents, the researcher assurance of confidence and resilient, helped her to get assistance
from some members of staff of these banks.
Methodological: The study was also limited by the use of a probability and stratified sampling method.
The sample of banking employees for the study was chosen for convinence-based criteria and may not be
representative of the entire population of banking employees. Care should be taken when generalizing
these findings to the entire population. Finally, the use of statistical package for social science (SPPS)
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version 15.0 or 17.0 techinques may introduce an element of subjectivity into the interpretation and
analysis of the data. All attempts have been made to minimize the effects of these limitations of the study.
Subject Matter: The study only examined a specific banking industry and targeted specific
users in this area. Findings from other industries and other specific areas could yield different
results. Obtaining survey data would also add a quantitative component that could strengthen
relationship between management factors and technostress.
Spatial Scope: The interviwees used in the study are both from an organization’s finance group.
If a different set of interviewees were used, a different view point or perceptive would be
observed.
1.9 Operational Definition of Terms
The following definitions were adopted for the study:
Burnout: This refers to a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and loss of a
sense of personal accomplishment. (Cooper, C.L.; Dewe, P.J.; and O’Driscoll, M.P. 2001)
Computer phobia: This refers to fear of using computers.
Junior Staff: These refer to employees who have low rank in an organization or a profession.
Senior Staff: These refer to employees who have high rank in an organization or a profession.
Organizational Factors: These factors include insufficient staff, particularly because of the
misconception that technology has made the job easier; not enough terminals, printers, etc., for
users; lack of management, either in training, or providing information about systems (Tu, Q.,
Wang, K., and Shu, Q. 2005).
Performance Anxiety: This refers to debilitative thoughts and statements, negative self
evaluation, expectations of failure or distracting thoughts (Kupersmith, 1992).
Role ambiguity: This refers to as the unpredictability of the consequences of one’s role
performance and lack of information required to perform the role (Cooper et al., 2001). Role
ambiguity captures unpredictability of consequences and information deficiency regarding
expected role behaviors (Pearce, 1981).
Role Conflicts: When roles are no longer clearly defined. For example, an expert rsearcher is
reduced to the role of CD ROM attendant, fiddling with paper jams and spent ink cartridges.
(Kupersmith, 1992)
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Role Overload: This refers to the number of different roles a person has to fulfill (Cooper,
1987).
Techno Complexity: This is described as the inability to learn or deal with the complexity of
new technology (Tu et al. 2005).
Techno Insecurity: This exhibits itself as the fear of losing one’s job to individuals with higher
technological competence (Tu et al. 2005).
Techno Overload: This is implied as greater workload, faster work speed, or change of work
habit caused by new technology (Tu et al. 2005).
Techno-invasion: This can be identified by a lessening of time spent on personal relationships in
favour of learning about new technology and intruding of new equipment or machine (Tu et al.
2005).
Technostress: Technostress is a modern disease of adaptation caused by an inability to cope
with the new technologies in a healthy manner. It manifests itself in two distinct but related
ways: in the struggle to accept computer technology, and in the more specialized form of over
identification with computer technologies (Brod, 1984).
Techno-uncertainty: This is described as the constant changes, upgrades and bug fixes in ICT
hardware and software imposing stress on the end-users or stems from the constant changes in
technology and lack of confidence that these changes may inspire in technology users (Wang,
Shu, and Tu, 2008).
1.10 Profile of Selected Organizations
1. First Bank of Nigeria Plc
First Bank of Nigeria PLC is a Nigeria-based bank that offers a range of financial services. First
Bank traces its ancestry back to the first major financial institution founded in Nigeria; hence the
name. The current chairman is Prince Ajibola Afonja. The bank is the largest retail lender in the
nation, while most banks gather funds from consumers and loan it out to large corporations and
multinationals, First Bank has created small markets for some of its retail clients. At the end of
September 2011, the bank had assets totaling approximately US$18.6 billion (NGN: 2.9 trillion).
The bank's profit after tax, for the nine months ending 30 September 2011 was approximately
US$270.2 million (NGN: 42.2 billion). First Bank of Nigeria maintains a subsidiary in the
United Kingdom, FBN Bank (UK), which has a branch in Paris. The bank also has representative
26
offices in South Africa and China. In October 2011, the bank acquired Banque International de
Credit (BIC), a leading bank in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
The company was named the best bank in Nigeria by Global Finance magazine in September
2006. The firm's auditors are PricewaterhouseCoopers (Chartered Accountants). The firm has
solid short and long term ratings from Fitch and the Global Credit Rating Company partly due to
its low exposure to non-performing loans. The firm's compliance with financial laws has also
strengthened with the Economic Financial Crimes Commission giving it a strong rating. In June
2009, Stephen Olabisi Onasanya was appointed Group Managing Director (CEO), replacing
Sanusi Lamido Sanusi, who had been appointed governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria
(http://www.First_Bank_of_Nigeria).
2. United Bank for Africa Plc:
United Bank for Africa Plc (UBA) is a public limited liability company incorporated in Nigeria.
UBA is a large financial services provider in Nigeria with subsidiaries in 20 sub-Saharan
countries, with representative offices in France, the United Kingdom and the United States of
America. It offers universal banking services to more than 7 million customers across 750
branches. Formed by the merger of the commercially focused UBA and the retail focused
Standard Trust Bank in 2005, the Bank purports to have a clear ambition to be the dominant and
leading financial services provider in Africa. Listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange in 1970,
UBA claims to be rapidly evolving into a pan-African full service financial institution. The
Group adopted the holding company model in July 2011. As of December 2011, the valuation of
UBA Group's total assets was approximately US$12.3 billion (NGN: 1.94 trillion), with
shareholders' equity of about US$1.07 billion (NGN: 170 billion).
UBA’s history dates back to 1949 when the British and French Bank Limited (“BFB”)
commenced business in Nigeria. Following Nigeria’s independence from Britain, UBA was
incorporated in 1961 to take over the business of BFB. Today’s United Bank for Africa Plc
(UBA) is the product of the merger of Nigeria’s third and fifth largest banks, namely the old
UBA and the former Standard Trust Bank Plc, and a subsequent acquisition of the erstwhile
Continental Trust Bank Limited (CTB).
27
The stock of UBA and its subsidiaries (the UBA Group), is listed on the Nigerian Stock
Exchange, where it is publicly traded under the symbol: UBA. The detailed shareholding in the
stock of the company is not publicly known at this time. Since its historical emergence from the
merger of former Standard Trust Bank and UBA Plc, the UBA Group has positioned itself to be
Nigeria’s dominant bank and a leading player on the African continent. In 2000, Europe’s
frontline Finance and Economy magazine, Euromoney named UBA the Best Domestic Bank in
Nigeria, in recognition of the bank's exponential growth in the past couple of years and the
comparatively higher inflow of investment from global finance players. In 2007, Pan-African
Newsmagazine awarded UBA the Emerging Global Bank Award indicative of the international
bank which has most positively influenced the African continent.
UBA has consistently positioned itself as the bank to beat in Nigeria's financially strong banking
industry. It has grown its total assets by over 345 percent in the last five years, up from NGN
198.68 billion ($1.656 billion) in 2002 to NGN 884.14 billion ($7.368 billion) in 2006. More
recently, at the end of the 2008 financial year, it recorded gross earnings of NGN 169.6 billion,
profit before tax and exceptional items of NGN 56.8 billion, profit after tax of NGN 40.8 billion
and total assets of NGN 2.2 trillion. UBA has the largest distribution network in Nigeria with
over 6.5 million customers in personal, commercial and corporate market segments. As of 30
September 2008, it had over 650 business offices, 296 deployed POS and 1332 ATMs and
pioneered cheque acceptance ATMs in Nigeria. Its over 14,000 staff globally are also referred to
as “lions and lionesses”. Regionally, the Group has a presence in 18 African countries and in all
major financial centers. The bank currently operates in Nigeria, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Cameroon,
Sierra Leone, Liberia, Uganda, Benin, Burkina Faso and Senegal, and has unfolded plans to
expand its banking operations to 15 additional countries in Africa come 2009. Records indicate
that UBA is the only sub-Saharan bank with dual presence in the U.S. and the UK with a US
regulated branch presence in New York since 1984, UBA Capital (Europe) in London which was
established as a UK regulated investment banking operation in January 2008 and a representative
office in Paris, France.
UBA Group’s operating structure is organized around seven Strategic Business Units(SBUs) and
four Strategic Support Units(SSUs), informed by the need to reinforce its leadership in service
delivery, relationship management and the execution of its strategy. In addition, the GMD/CEO
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is supported by the Group Executive Office consisting of the Strategy Office, the Corporate
Transformation Office, the Chief of Staff and Advisers to the GMD/CEO. The subsidiaries of
UBA in Nigeria include the following;
• UBA PLC – (the Bank) - The flagship operation of the Group consisting of UBA PLC
Nigeria-North and UBA PLC Nigeria-South.
• UBA Capital Africa – This is the investment banking arm covering the African market. The
principal activities include Debt & Equity Capital Markets; Sales & Trading; Corporate Finance
and Research.
• UBA Trustees Limited – Nigeria's premier trustee company, established in 1964, with
aggregate value of transactions in excess of NGN500 billion. UBA Trustees Limited (“UBAT”)
is an off shoot of UBA Asset Management Limited (“UAML”), formally UBA Capital & Trust
Limited (‘UCAT”), a wholly owned subsidiary of United Bank for Africa Plc (“UBA”). UAML
commenced business over 4 decades ago as UBAT before its subsequent change of name and
eventual reorganization which led to the re-incorporation of the new UBA Trustees Limited.
Over the years, UBAT has established its dominance as a Corporate Trustee in the Nigerian
Money & Capital Markets.
• UBA Global Investor Services- UBA Global Investor Services is a division of UBA Plc
providing core and value added domestic custody services to Global Custodians and Institutional
Investors in respect of investments in securities across Africa. Their services include:
• UBA Pensions Custodian Limited – UBA Pensions Custodian Limited (UBA Pensions) was
incorporated in September 2005 in line with the Pension Reform Act 2004, and is a wholly
owned subsidiary of UBA Plc with paid-up share capital of NGN:2 billion. One of the licensed
pension funds custodians, it aims to provide a custodial haven for the savings of Nigerian
workers, with a rapidly growing portfolio of assets in custody in excess of NGN 150 billion.
• UBA Asset Management Limited – UBA Asset Management Ltd (UAML), incorporated in
1964, is a wholly owned subsidiary of United Bank for Africa Plc (UBA). It is licensed by the
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to act as Investment Advisers, Portfolio and Asset
29
Managers. UBA Asset Management Limited offers specialized services in the areas of wealth
generation and investment management. Products and services include Mutual Funds,
Guaranteed Return Investment, Discretionary Portfolio Management, Employee Savings Plan,
Personal Portfolio Plan, Sinking Funds, and Management of Special Funds. With over NGN 30
billion in funds under management, UBA Asset Management is Manager and Administrator to
four mutual funds and Wealth Manager to the High net worth.
• UBA Capital Infrastructure & Principal Investment s – This specialist business unit provides infrastructure development and funding solutions across Africa. This includes strategic alliances, private public partnerships, project finance and principle investments and corporate finance advisory services to infrastructure projects.
• UBA Stockbrokers Limited– The secondary market trading arm of the Group that deals in equities and other fixed income securities in the capital market. With a balance sheet size in excess of One Trillion Naira ($8B), over six million active customer accounts, operating out of the 2 most vibrant economies in the sub-region - Nigeria and Ghana. UBA Stockbrokers Limited has over seven hundred retail distribution outlets as well as presence in New York and Cayman Island.
• UBA Registrars Limited - With over 30 years’ experience in Share Register administration services in Nigeria, UBA Registrars Limited emerged from the former UBA Global Markets Limited then engaged in the business of share registration, stock broking and issuing house. It was incorporated in March 2006 as a wholly owned subsidiary of UBA Plc.
• UBA Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Limited– Formally launched in April 2008 as a
joint venture between UBA and Metropolitan Holdings Limited (“Metropolitan”) of South
Africa, UBA Metropolitan Life operates in Nigeria with over 100 years Experience in Life
Insurance business, Access to over 40 resident full time Actuaries, Strong African Brand, Risk
Management expertise, High Corporate governance standards, Large Distribution Network(over
600 branches) and knowledge of the local Nigerian Market.
• Consumer Banking - Consumer Banking provides customized products & services for
individuals and organizations. The services offered include:
• Account Services: Savings and Checking (local & domiciliary)
• Cards: Debit, Credit and Prepaid
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• Local & Foreign Money Transfer
• Consumer Credit
• E-Banking Services (Internet, SMS banking solutions as well as Corporate e-payments)
(http://www.United_Bank_for_Africa).
3. Ecobank Nigeria Plc
Ecobank Nigeria Plc is a Nigeria-based Bank. It is engaged in providing personal, business and
wholesale banking services and products. Its customers include governments, financial
institutions, local and international organizations, medium, small and micro businesses, as well
as individuals. The Bank’s portfolio includes current and savings accounts, internet banking,
treasury solutions, as well as short and long term loans, among others. It also delivers financial
advisory and consultancy services
Ecobank, whose official name is Ecobank Transnational Inc. (ETI), but is also known as
Ecobank Transnational, is a pan-African banking conglomerate, with banking operations in 30
African countries. It is the leading independent regional banking group in West Africa and
Central Africa, serving wholesale and retail customers. It also maintains subsidiaries in Eastern
Africa, as well as in Southern Africa. ETI has representative offices in Angola, China, Dubai,
France, South Africa and the United Kingdom. ETI is a large financial services provider with
offices in 35 countries around the world, and presence in 32 sub-Saharan countries. As of
December 2011, ETI's customer base was estimated at 8.4 million, with 5.9 million (70.2%),
located in Nigeria, the continent's most populous nation. At that time, the group's total assets
were valued at US$17.2 billion, with shareholders' equity of US$1.459 billion. ETI's branch
network numbered 1,151, with 1,487 networked ATMs. The bank had 23,355 employees, in 35
countries, in Africa, Asia and Europe, at the end of 2011. As of December 2011, Ecobank
Transnational had banking operations in thirty countries in Africa, with representative offices in
Angola, Beijing, Dubai, France, South Africa and the United Kingdom: ETI, a public limited
liability company, was established as a bank holding company in 1985 under a private sector
initiative spearheaded by the Federation of West African Chambers of Commerce and Industry,
31
with the support of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The
Specialized subsidiary companies of Ecobank include the following:
• Ecobank Development Corporation (EDC) - Lomé, Togo
• EDC Investment Corporation - Abidjan, Ivory Coast
• EDC Investment Corporation - Douala, Cameroon
• EDC Securities Limited - Lagos, Nigeria
• EDC Stockbrokers Limited - Accra, Ghana
• Ecobank Asset Management - Abidjan, Ivory Coast
• e-Process International SA - Lomé, Togo
• ECV Servicios - Praia, Cape Verde
( http://www.Ecobank)
4. Diamond Bank Plc
Diamond Bank Plc began as a private limited liability company on March 21, 1991 (the company
was incorporated on December 20, 1990). Ten years later, in February 2001, it became a
universal bank. In January 2005, following a highly successful Private Placement share offer
which substantially raised the Bank's equity base, Diamond Bank became a public limited
company. In May 2005, the Bank was listed on The Nigerian Stock Exchange. Moreover, in
January 2008, Diamond Bank's Global Depositary Reciepts (GDR) was listed on the Professional
Securities Market of the London Stock Exchange, being the first bank in Africa to record that
feat.
Today, Diamond Bank is one of the leading banks in Nigeria* - respected for its excellent
service delivery, driven by innovation and operating on the most advanced banking technology
platform in the market. Diamond Bank has over the years leveraged on its underlying resilience
to grow its asset base and to successfully retain its key business relationships. And like a
diamond, our strength makes us even more valued and valuable. Diamond Bank has won several
awards including the prestigious "Nigerian Bank of the Year, 2009", the "Most Improved Bank
of the Year, 2007" and "Best Bank in Mergers & Acquisition, 2006" all by the ThisDay Annual
Awards.
32
We have retained excellent banking relationships with a number of well-known international
banks, allowing us to provide a bouquet of world class banking services to suit the business
needs of our clients. These international banking partners include Citibank; HSBC Bank; ANZ
Banking Group; ING BHF Bank AG; Standard Chartered Bank; Belgolaise Bank S.A; Deutsche
Bank; Commerzbank; and Nordea Bank Plc. In 2008, and to ensure we grow with the needs of
our customers, we streamlined our operations into three distinct strategic business segments:
Retail banking, Corporate Banking, and Public sector.
Diamond Bank continues to develop and to build on its core competencies. By continually
cutting from the rough, we have improved our services and our banking facilities. Like cutting
from a rough gem to create a diamond of the finest quality, we are proud to have become a gem
of a bank. Diamond Bank's A rating by Fitch Ratings, Agusto & Co , and AA- rating by GCR,
reflects the bank's sustainable liquidity, sound and professional practices and good standing as a
high investment grade institution. Diamond Bank Plc began as a private limited liability
company on March 21, 1991 (the company was incorporated on December 20, 1990).
Our Vision
To be a leading financial institution, with the best people, providing unequalled customer
experience and delivering superior shareholder value.
The bank vision stands they will consistently exceed customer expectation by providing value-
adding solutions through professional and highly motivated people, delivering excellent financial
performance in all markets where we operate.
Shared Values
• We are a customer-oriented service institution.
• Our people, our community and the physical environment are the core constituents of our
value system.
• We seek to carve the image of a strong stakeholder and player in the national and global
wealth creation process.
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• Our goal is to build a culture of excellence in collaboration with like-minded institutions
and organizations in Nigeria and around the world
(https://www.diamondbank.com/index.php/company-profile/shared-values).
5. Access Bank Plc
Access Bank Plc is a remarkable story of the transformation of a small obscure Nigerian Bank
into an African financial institution of note; with emerging footprints on the international
banking landscape. Access Bank today is one of the top 10 largest banks in Nigeria in terms of
asset base. The Beginning (1988 – 2002) December 19, 1988: Access Bank was issued a banking
license February 8, 1989: Access Bank incorporated as a privately owned commercial bank
May 11, 1989: Access Bank commenced operations at its Burma Road, Apapa Head Office.
March 24, 1998: Access Bank became a Public Limited Liability Company. November 18, 1998:
Access Bank listed on the Nigeria Stock Exchange. February 5, 2001: Access Bank obtained a
Universal Banking License from the Central Bank of Nigeria.
The Rebirth: The Board of Directors appointed Aigboje Aig-Imoukhuede as MD/CEO and
Herbert Wigwe as Deputy Managing Director. The mandate was clear: “Reposition the bank to
one of Nigeria’s leading financial institutions within a five - year period (March 2002 – March
2007)” This task was perceived by many as audacious, given the realities of the Bank at the time.
Also appointed to the Board was Mr. Gbenga Oyebode who brought commendable board
experience gathered from some of Nigeria’s leading companies, such as MTN Nigeria, Okomu
Oil Palm Plc. The new management then articulated a transformation agenda for Access Bank
Plc. This agenda represented a complete departure from all that characterized the bank in the past
and became the road map for the transformation of the bank into a world class financial
institution. The focus was to:
• Assemble a credible and high caliber management team
• Introduce a culture of excellence founded on professionalism and integrity
• Ensure Human Capital Development
• Enlarge Shareholder Base
• Introduce strong procedures and processes to drive day-to-day activities of the Bank
• Instill a passion for customers in all members of staff
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• Establish a low cost liability generation strategy
• Expand branch network to cover all clearing zones within Nigeria
• Create a world class Brand Image
The impact of the transformation agenda was reflected in the first year. The bank grew its
balance sheet by 100% and posted an impressive N1 billion profit before tax. The profit before
tax figure was more than the cumulative profit made by the bank in the previous 12 years. This
also marked the beginning of what would be a 6 year record triple digit growth trend. Similarly,
earnings per share had rebounded to 21 kobo from a negative 2 kobo position, leading to a
declaration of a 5 kobo dividend to shareholders for the first time in 3 years. Access Bank Plc is
a full service commercial Bank operating through a network of over 310 branches and service
outlets located in major centers across Nigeria, Sub Saharan Africa and the United Kingdom.
Listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange in 1998, the Bank serves its various markets through 5
business segments: Institutional, Commercial, Retail Banking, Transaction Services.
The Bank has over 800,000 shareholders including several Nigerian and International
Institutional Investors and has enjoyed what is arguably Africa's most successful banking growth
trajectory in the last ten years ranking amongst Africa's top 20 banks by total assets and capital in
2012. As part of its continued growth strategy, Access Bank is focused on mainstreaming
sustainable business practices into its operations. The Bank strives to deliver sustainable
economic growth that is profitable, environmentally responsible and socially relevant
(http://www.accessbankplc.com/pages/Page.aspx).
6. Citibank Nigeria Limited
Citibank Nigeria Limited provides various banking services to corporate and individual
customers in Nigeria. The company provides deposit products, including demand, term, and
savings accounts, as well as loan products. It also offers various services comprising global
transaction services, sales and trading, corporate finance, and investment banking services to
corporate and commercial customers, financial institutions, and public sector organizations. In
addition, the company provides direct custody (http://business.highbeam.com/company-
profiles/info/503053/citibank-nigeria-ltd).
35
7. Enterprise Bank Plc
Enterprise Bank is a locally owned and managed full-service commercial bank that is highly
responsive to the needs of individuals, professionals, non-profits and growing businesses. Our
employees are highly motivated, actively involved in the community and extremely comfortable
working in an entrepreneurial environment. Enterprise Bank Limited (EBL) received a license to
operate as a commercial bank from the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) on August 5, 2011. The
bank has a capital base of N29.8 billion and an asset base of about N280billion. This
immediately gives the new bank a strong competitive edge among the comity of strong banks in
the country.
With a vision to be the preferred bank for value creation and a mission to delight our
stakeholders through a highly motivated workforce using innovative solutions, EBL is set for
rapid growth and eventual emergence as one of the most efficient banks within the shortest
possible time. The bank’s Board is currently chaired by Sir (Dr) Ogala Osoka MFR and Mallam
Ahmed Kuru leads the Management team as Managing Director/Chief Executive Officer. The
Management team has in-depth knowledge in banking and is deeply passionate about upholding
the high tenets of corporate governance and best practices. The Executive Management team
includes Mrs. Louisa Olaloku (Executive Director, Enterprise Risk Management), Mrs. Nneka
Onyeali-Ikpe (Executive Director, Lagos and South West Banks), Mr. Aminu Ismail (Executive
Director Service and Corporate Banks), Mr. Niyi Adebayo (South Banks) and Mr. Audu Kazir
(Executive Director Abuja and North Banks).
Accordingly, EBL will further focus on such time honoured values as service excellence,
professionalism, integrity and respect for the individual, innovation and team work in ensuring
that all stakeholders derive satisfaction in their various dealings with the bank. Enterprise Bank
Limited (EBL) received a license to operate as a commercial bank from the Central Bank of
Nigeria (CBN) on August 5, 2011 under the new shareholding of the Asset Management
Corporation of Nigeria (AMCON), which fully recapitalized the bank with a cash injection of
N120 billion. In addition to an asset base of about N280billion, this immediately gives the new
bank a strong competitive edge among the comity of strong banks in the country.
36
With a vision to be the preferred bank for value creation and a mission to delight our
stakeholders through a highly motivated workforce using innovative solutions, EBL is set for
rapid growth and eventual emergence as one of the most profitable banks within the shortest
possible time. The bank is led by a Board and Management that have in-depth knowledge in
banking and are deeply passionate about upholding high tenets of corporate governance and best
practices. The bank has a dedicated and resilient workforce of over 3,000 staff that ranks among
the best in the industry. Aware of this huge critical element, the management will invest heavily
in the development of the bank’s human capital - the catalyst for realizing the set goal of making
EBL the preferred bank, especially, with its strong financial capacity, which allows an active
participation in critical sectors of the economy.
EBL’s strategy is to build a strong brand and a highly visible, virile and profitable financial
institution, which leverages the best available technology and highly committed staff while
providing a wide range of products with great emphasis on efficient and exceptional services to
customers. The collection of products and services that span retail, corporate, commercial,
investment, public sector and electronic banking services, delivered through a network of over
160 branches nationwide have been carefully designed to delight all our customers
(http://web.entbankng.com/Enterprise/AboutUs.aspx?Value).
8. Guaranty Trust Bank Plc
Registered on January 17, 1990 by Central Bank of Nigeria, GTB Plc was incorporated in July
1990, as a private limited liability company wholly owned by Nigeria individuals and
institutions. The approval as Commercial Bank followed in August 1990 and operations were
started in February 1991. In September 1996: IPO on NSE Licensed as a universal bank in 2002
and GTB Plc certificate after ISO 9001: 2000 in 2006. On July 26, 2007 the bank was, as very
first sub-Saharan bank and first Nigeria joint stock Company, listed on London Stock Exchange
and Deutsche Borse. The IPO raised US $750,000.00. GTB Plc is a partner of Morgan Stanley
and BNP Paribas. The long-term debts of Guaranty Trust Bank Plc are rated BB- by standard &
poor’s and AA-by Fitch Ratings, which are the highest rating for a Nigerian bank.
As one of the New generation banks, they introduced online banking and SMS banking and as
very first mobile branches. On March 12, 2008, GTB was given a banking licence for the United
37
Kingdom by the Financial Service Authority. GTB is a partner of EKO Atlantic City a new made
Island (820 ha) in the Atlantic ocean, adjacent to Victoria Island Lagos. It will be the home of
new Financial District. The building of Eko Atlantic City started in 2009 and is expected to be
finished in 2016.
9. Keystone Bank Limited
On 5 August 2011, Keystone Bank Limited (Keystone Bank or the bank) assumed the deposit
liabilities, certain other liabilities and assets of Bank PHB Plc following the revocation of Bank
PHB's operating License by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN). Keystone Bank is a technology
and service-driven bank with subsidiaries in the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Uganda, and
a vibrant and professional workforce, the bank operates with best practices and offers leading
solutions and services to its clients and associates. A leading financial services institution located
in Nigeria, Bank PHB is strongly positioned as Africa’s fast emerging centre of innovative
financial solutions to a growing and diverse global customer base. The bank strategic intent is to
build a diversified franchise, creating superior value for all stakeholders through unrivalled
customer service experience, superior shareholder value, a conducive work environment, and
commitment to corporate citizenship. Bank PHB has emerged as one of Africa's fastest.
Keystone Bank drives its current and future successes from a very solid vision and mission
statements:
Vision:
To set the pace in financial services delivery, creating utmost value for our stakeholders
Mission:
To deliver consistent superior performance and be the preferred partner.
Core Values - S. P. I. R. I. T.
Service | Passion | Innovation | Resilience | Integrity | Team Work
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10. Fidelity Bank Plc
Fidelity Bank Plc began operations in 1988 as Fidelity Union Merchant Bank Limited. By 1990,
it had distinguished itself as the fastest growing merchant bank in the country. However, to
leverage the emerging opportunities in the commercial and consumer end of financial services in
Nigeria, in 1999, it converted to commercial banking and changed its name to Fidelity Bank Plc.
It became a universal bank in February 2001, with a license to offer the entire spectrum of
commercial, consumer, corporate and investment banking services.
Fidelity Bank is today ranked amongst the top 10 in the Nigerian banking industry, with presence
in the major cities and commercial centres of Nigeria. Over the years, the bank has been reputed
for integrity and professionalism. It is also respected for the quality and stability of its
management. Fidelity staff are also respected in the Nigerian banking industry for the quality of
training they receive on the job, as well as in good business schools both in Nigeria and
Overseas. The Management is particular about the quality of people that join the system. To
qualify as a member of Team Fidelity, a candidate is expected to possess three vital statistics,
with the acronym TAC:
• Talent (an innate mental aptitude)
• Ambition (a desire to succeed) and
• Character (a total quality of integrity which will guide the talent and ambition to
productive ends).
The Management is focused on building and maintaining a virile and well-respected brand that
caters to the needs of its growing corporate, commercial and consumer banking clientele. For this
purpose, the bank is leveraging its pedigree in investment banking (Fidelity was a merchant bank
for 11years) and its structures and service offerings for a retail populace.
Fidelity Bank also enjoys the respect and partnership of a network of off-shore institutions with
which it has correspondent banking, confirmation lines, credit and other relationships. These
include, ANZ London, Afr-eximbank, Cairo, Egypt, ABSA South Africa, Commerce Bank,
Frankfurt, Citibank, N.A. London and New York, FBN Bank, UK Ltd, SCB, London, HSBC, US
Ex-im Bank, USAID, etc (http://www.fidelitybankplc.com/index.php/about-us/our-history).
39
11. First City Monument Bank Plc
First City Monument Bank (FCMB) Ltd is a full service banking group, headquartered in Lagos,
Nigeria, with the vision ‘to be the premier financial services group of African origin’. FCMB is a
large financial services provider in Nigeria, offering retail banking, corporate banking and
investment banking services to large corporations, small and medium enterprises, as well as
individuals. As of December 2011, the bank's total assets were valued at US$$3.65 billion
(NGN593.3 billion), with shareholders' equity of approximately US$772.2 million (NGN:117.4
billion).
The entity from which the bank was founded City Securities Limited, was established in 1977.
First City Monument Bank Ltd. was incorporated as a private limited liability company on 20
April 1982 and granted a banking licence on 11 August 1983. It was the first bank to be
established in Nigeria without government or foreign support. On 15 July 2004, FCMB changed
its status from a private limited liability company to a public limited liability company and was
listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) by introduction on 21 December 2004. In
November 2010, both FinBank and First City Monument Bank (FCMB) announced that FCMB
has expressed interest in acquiring shareholding and become the strategic investor in FinBank,
another Nigerian commercial bank that was undercapitalized. In February 2012, following
regulatory approval, FCMB acquired 100% shareholding and began integration of Finbank in its
existing operations.
First City Monument Bank has a number of active non-bank subsidiaries, which together with
the bank, form the First City Group . Members of the group include the following companies:
1. FCMB Capital Markets Limited - Investment banking & Advisory services - Lagos,
Nigeria
2. FCMB (United Kingdom) Limited - Investment banking - London, United Kingdom
3. CSL Stockbrokers Limited - Stock brokerage services - Lagos, Nigeria
4. Legacy Pension Fund Administrators - Pension Fund Administrators - Abuja, Nigeria
5. Credit Direct Limited - Microfinance lending - Lagos, Nigeria
(http://www.First_City_Monument_Bank).
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12. Union Bank Plc
Union Bank of Nigeria's rich history can be traced to 1917 when it was first established as
Colonial Bank. In 1925 the bank became known as Barclays Bank DCO (Dominion, Colonial
and Overseas) resulting from its acquisition by Barclays Bank. Following Nigeria’s
independence and the enactment of the Companies Act of 1968, the bank was incorporated as
Barclays Bank of Nigeria Limited (BBNL, est. 1969). Between 1971 and 1979, the bank went
through a series of changes including its listing on the NSE and share acquisitions/transfers
driven by the Nigerian Enterprises Promotion Acts (1972 and 1977); this resulted in its evolution
into a new wholly Nigerian-owned entity. To reflect the new ownership structure, and in
compliance with the Companies and Allied Matters Act of 1990, it assumed the name Union
Bank of Nigeria Plc. (UBN “the Bank” or “Union Bank”) In 1993, in line with its
privatization/commercialization drive, the Federal Government divested by selling its controlling
shares (51.67%) to private investors. Thus, Union Bank became fully owned by Nigerian
citizens and organizations all within the private sector. During the Central Bank of Nigeria's
banking sector consolidation policy, Union Bank of Nigeria Plc acquired the former Universal
Trust Bank Plc and Broad Bank Ltd. and absorbed its one-time subsidiary, Union Merchant Bank
Ltd. On the 14th of August, 2009, the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) intervened in the
management of the Bank by replacing the Executive Management Team with a five-man Interim
Management Team to stabilize and recapitalize the Bank. Full recapitalization of the Bank was
achieved in December 2011 with the injection of $500million into Union Bank by Union Global
Partners Limited (UGPL) after the Asset Management Company of Nigeria (AMCON) had
provided capital in the sum of N46.93bn to bring the Bank’s Net Assets Value to zero. Currently,
the Bank is primarily owned by UGPL (65%) and AMCON (20%) and a diverse group of
shareholders that account for the balance (15%). UGPL, a consortium of strategically aligned
group of investors, is the Bank’s core investor group and consists of:
• African Capital Alliance
• ADC African Development Corporation
• Corsair Capital
• FMO (the Netherlands Development Finance Company)
• Chandler Corporation
41
• Standard Chartered Private Equity
Union Bank of Nigeria Plc. has an asset base of over N826.7 Billion Naira and shareholders’
funds in excess of N183.1 Billion Naira. The bank's impressive track record over the years has
secured its position as Nigeria's most dependable bank. Union Bank is primarily focused on
commercial and retail banking in the Real /Agriculture/Public Financing sectors. Among the
bank's markets are retail, small and medium sized enterprises, real estate, corporate/commercial,
correspondent, and trade finance. The bank also offers investment and financial management,
trust services, private banking, insurance services, and pension services. The bank's commercial
clients include communications, agriculture, energy, public utilities, retailing, and other specialty
industries
Union Bank has subsidiaries and affiliate companies in Nigeria and across West Africa,
providing a range of financial services and products through the following major business
segments: Retail & Corporate Banking, Mortgage and Real Estate Services, Insurance, Pension,
Stock Brokerage and Asset Management Services. The Group operates an interlocking
organizational structure- one that ensures effective oversight and participation in the decision-
making process of subsidiaries or associated companies, thereby helping to safe guard the Bank’s
investment (http://www.unionbankng.com/index.php/about-us/history).
13. Zenith Bank Plc
Zenith Bank Plc was established in May 1990, and commenced operations in July of the same
year as a commercial bank. The Bank became a public limited company on June 17, 2004 and
was listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) on October 21, 2004 following a highly
successful Initial Public Offering (IPO). Zenith Bank Plc currently has a shareholder base of
about one million and is Nigeria’s biggest bank by tier-1 capital. In 2013, the Bank listed $850
million worth of its shares at $6.80 each on the London Stock Exchange (LSE).
Headquartered in Lagos, Nigeria, Zenith Bank Plc has over 500 branches and business offices in
prime commercial centres in all states of the federation and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT).
In March 2007, Zenith Bank was licensed by the Financial Services Authority (FSA) of the
United Kingdom to establish Zenith Bank (UK) Limited as the United Kingdom subsidiary of
42
Zenith Bank Plc. Zenith Bank also has subsidiaries in: Ghana, Zenith Bank (Ghana) Limited;
Sierra Leone, Zenith Bank (Sierra Leone) Limited; Gambia, Zenith Bank (Gambia) Limited. The
bank also has representative offices in South Africa and The People’s Republic of China. The
Bank plans to take the Zenith brand to other African countries as well as the European and Asian
markets.
Zenith Bank Plc blazed the trail in digital banking in Nigeria; scoring several firsts in the
deployment of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure to create
innovative products that meet the needs of its teeming customers. The bank is verifiably a leader
in the deployment of various channels of banking technology, and the Zenith brand has become
synonymous with the deployment of state-of-the-art technologies in banking.
Driven by a culture of excellence and strict adherence to global best practices, the Bank has
combined vision, skillful banking expertise, and cutting-edge technology to create products and
services that anticipate and meet customers' expectations; enable businesses to thrive and grow
wealth for customers. Zenith Bank Plc, founded by Jim Ovia in 1990, has, since grown
astronomically to become one of the leading financial institutions in Africa. Zenith Bank Plc
currently ranks as the 6th biggest bank in the continent. The Bank grew its shareholder’s fund of
N20million in 1990 to N509.25billion as at year end 2013. Today, the Bank continues to thrive
on the strong values, brand equity, corporate culture of professionalism and service excellence
which are the foundations upon which the bank was built
(http://www.zenithbank.com/CorporateInfo.aspx).
43
REFERENCES
Agarwal, R. and Karahanna, E. (2000), “Time flies when you’re having Fun: Cognitive
Absorption and Aeliefs about Information Technology Usage”, MIS Quarterly, Vol.
24(4).
Agboola, A. A. (2013) “Towards Reducing Common Ergonomic Hazards and Alleviating
Technostress Associated with the Adoption of Information and Communication
Technology”, http://www.igi-global.com/chapter/towards-reducing-common-ergonomic-
hazards/74150
Bicheler, J. (1986) “Human Aspects of High tech in Special Libraries”, Special, Library 9, (3).
Brod, C. (1984) Technostress: The Human Cost of the Computer Revolution. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Cooper, C. (1987) The Experience and Management of Stress: Job and Organizational
Determinants, in: Occupational Stress and Organizational Effectiveness, A.W. Riley and
S.J. Zaccaro (eds.), New York: Praeger.
Cooper, C. L.; Dewe, P. J.; and O'Driscoll, M. P. (2001) Organizational Stress: A Review and
Critique of Theory, Research, and Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fine, S. F. (1986) “Terminal Paralysis or Showdown at the Interface In Human Aspect of Library
Automation: Helping Staff and Patrons Cope”, Paper Presented at the 1985 Clinic on
Library Application of Data Processing. Graduate School of Library and Information
Science, university of Illinois, April 14 th – 16th.
Gorman, M. (2001) “Technostress and Library Values; We need to see clearly the Real Needs of
our Patrons, rather than solely through the Lens of Technology” Library Journal, Vol.
48.
Hind, P., (1998), “Captured by Technology”, CIO Magazine, September.
http://sneiderhauser.typepad.com/blog/Technostress.pdf
44
Kupersmith, J. (2006) “Library Technostress Survey Result”, Retrieved Feb 7, 2013 from
http://www.jkup.net/tstress-survey-2003.html
McGee, M. K. ( 1996) "Burnout!," in: InformationWeek.
Murthy, T. A. V., and Cholin, V. S. (2003) “ Library Automation” Retrieved December 19, 2013,
from http://dspace.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/1994/170/3/03cali_1.pdf.
Pearce, J. (1981) "Bringing some Clarity to Role Ambiguity Research," Academy of
Management Review (6).
Saunders, L. M. (1999) “The Human Element in the Virtual Library”, Library Trends,47 (4).
Tennant, C. (2001) “Work-Related Stress and Depressive Disorders”, Journal of Psychosomatic
Research, (51).
Tu, Q., Wang, K., and Shu, Q. (2005) “Computer-related Technostress in China”,
Communications of the ACM, 48 (4).
Vernon, M. (1998) "Directors Buckle Under Work Pressures," in: Computer Weekly.
Vieitez, J. C., Carcia, A. D. L. T., and Rodriguez, M. T. V. (2001) “Perception of Job Security in
a Process of Technological Change: Its Influence on Psychological Well-being”,
Behaviour & Information Technology, 20 (3).
Wang, K., Shu, Q. and Tu, Q. (2008) “Technostress under different Organizational
Environments: An Empirical Investigation”, Computers in Human Behavior, 24(6).
Weil, M.M., and Rosen, L.D. (1997) Technostress: Coping with Technology at work, home, play.
New York: John Wiley.
Websites
http://www.First_Bank_of_Nigeria
http://www.United_Bank_for_Africa
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia or http://www.Ecobank
https://www.diamondbank.com/index.php/company-profile/shared-values
45
http://www.accessbankplc.com/pages/Page.aspx
http://www.citibank-nigeria-ltd
http://www.entbankng.com/Enterprise/AboutUs.aspx?Value
http://www.guaranty trust bank.com
http://www.keystone bank.com
http://www.fidelitybankplc.com/index.php/about-us/our-history
http://www.First_City_Monument_Bank
http://www.unionbankng.com/index.php/about-us/history
http://www.zenithbank.com/CorporateInfo.aspx
46
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
Technostress is the negative psychological link between people and the introduction of new
technologies. Whereas ergonomics is the study of how humans react and physically fit with
machines in their environment, technostress is, in many ways, the resistance of change that
accompanies newly introduced machines to work, home, and leisure situations. With the
objectives of this study as our guide, the review begins with an overview of definition of the
various concepts relevant to the research; technostress, the components are traced from its
evolution/origin, stress (the burnout, the stressor, the technostress and technostressor).
Subsequently, this chapter is subdivided into three sections. These are conceptual framework,
theoretical framework, empirical framework and summary of the literature reviewed.
2.2 Conceptual Framework
Stress and Technostress
Stress
A natural result of research on stress in different fields indicated inconsistency in which related
concepts of stress addressed. Although they are shown to be conceptually distinct, there is still
considerable ambiguity in the way different aspects of stress (i.e. stress, stressors, and strain) are
described (Bussing and Glaser, 2000; O’Driscoll and Cooper, 1996). The main dissonance comes
from how terms ‘stress’ and ‘strain’ are addressed. For example, in some studies ‘stress’ means
the process and ‘strain’ is the outcome. In others, ‘stress’ is referred to as either a response or
stimuli (Beehr and Newman, 1998). In other words, the problems of ‘synonym’ and ‘homonym’
exist in stress literature. By ‘synonym’, it is meant that same stress concept is referred to as
‘stress’ and ‘strain’ in different studies; and by ‘homonym’ it is meant that same term (i.e. stress,
for example) is referred to mean different stress concepts. A recent review suggests that stress-
related concepts have been used interchangeably (Rees and Redfern, 2000).
Previous researchers like (Cooper 2001) and (Aamodt 1999) have shown concern over the vast
number of definitions and descriptions for stress-related concepts. In a review of 51 stress
47
studies, Jex, S., and Gudanowski, D. (1992) reported that 41% used stimulus based definitions
for stress, 22% used response based definitions for stress, 25% used stimulus-response
definitions, and in 14% the usage was unclear. Further, as Nelson and Quick (1994) put it that
“stress is one of the creatively ambiguous words in the English language, with as many
interpretations as there are people who use the word. Concerning how related terms are used
interchangeably, Beehr and Newman (1998) point out that “Job stress is an area with the
potential to be plagued by confusion, at least partly because of the general, non technical,
popular usage of the word stress. Even among researchers, stress had sometimes been used to
mean an environmental "stressor" stimulus and sometimes to mean an individual's strain or
distress reactions ... this is probably still true in the 1990s ... Aamodt (1999) states that “stress
can be defined as the psychological and physical reaction to certain events or situations (called
stressors) in your life. As defined here, stress overlaps with the concept of ‘strain’ as a response
to stressors.
Earnshaw and Cooper (1996) see stress as any force that puts a psychological or physical factor
beyond its range of stability, producing strain within the individual. As defined here, stress is
referred to as a cause – similar to the concept of ‘stressor’.
Greenberg and Baron (2000) define stress as a complex pattern of emotional states, physiological
reactions, and related thoughts in response to external demands. These external demands are
referred to as stressors. As defined here, stress overlaps with the concept of ‘strain’ – as a
response to stressors. Hellriegel, D., Slocum, J. W. and Woodman, R. W. (1992) see stress as a
consequence of or a general response to an action or situation that places special physical or
psychological demands, or both, on a person. As defined here, stress over laps with the concept
of ‘strain’. Given these various interpretations, it is important to clarify the meanings of different
terms in this study. Consistent with the ‘transaction view’ of stress discussed, the overall
transaction process is referred to as ‘Stress’. ‘Stressors’ are referred to as the stimuli encountered
by the individuals and ‘strain’ as the responses to these ‘stressors’. The consequences of ‘strain’,
for example, in terms of individuals’ well-being or job performance are referred to as
‘outcomes’. Stress research is a major stream that is rooted in various research domains such as
psychology, organizational management and ergonomics. Stress has a broad definition that can
refer to the stimuli, process, as well as outcomes.
48
As an outcome variable, stress is divided into sub-scales such as state of mind (measuring
anxiety-depression), confidence level (measuring worry) and energy level (measuring
exhaustion). As a stimulus, it is measured with different sub-scales such as workload,
relationship, recognition and personal responsibility (Cooper et al., 2001). For clarity, the stress-
strain relationship is used, referring to stressors, moderating factors and stress outcomes in order
to theoretically decompose the overall concept. Here it focuses on the stimuli of stress and uses
the term stressors to particularly refer to “the events or properties of events (stimuli) encountered
by individuals” (Ayyagari, R., Grover, V., and Purvis, R. 2011). In sum, there is considerable
ambiguity among stress related terms. Further, stress has been defined in numerous ways.
However, there is growing consensus on viewing stress as a transaction.
Approaches to Stress
Stress has been studied in many fields; studies related or similar to technostress appear in the
psychology and organizational behavior literatures. Psychology studies focus on understanding
the relationship between individual (within person) factors (i.e., dispositional traits and states,
personality) and stress variables. Organizational behavior studies yield insight into the
relationship among job characteristics, organizational factors, job related roles and other stress
variables. In this study, insights from both streams of research are gleaned to understand
technostress with a well-rounded perspective. The broad application of the stress concept in
multiple fields – medical, behavioral, and social science research or management science has
lead to numerous definitions. An analysis of articles published in six eminent journals in the field
of organizational behavior has concluded that ‘stress’ is defined from different perspectives: 1)
as a stimulus (stress as the independent variable), 2) a response (as a dependent variable) and, 3)
as a transaction (stress as a process) (Cooper et al., 2001; Jex et al., 1992; Rees and Redfern,
2000). There is a growing consensus that stress results from a transaction between the individual
and the environment (Lazarus, 1990). From the transactional viewpoint, no one component (i.e.,
stimulus or response) can be attributed as stress, because each must be understood within the
context of the process.
49
1. Response-based Definition of Stress
The response-based view identifies stress as a response to threatening stimuli. In this
conceptualization, stress is viewed as a dependent variable and the focus is on the response. This
view evolved from the early layman representations of stress – which typically involved the use
of the phrase like “being-under-stress”. This implies that it may not be possible to identify stress,
only its consequences. Therefore, the main conceptual definition in the response-based approach
is the manifestation of stress (Sutherland and Cooper, 1990). This view has its roots in medicine,
a discipline typically dealing with symptoms but not necessarily their causes. Due to the
emphasis on manifestation of stress, early studies in the 20th century typically studied bodily
reactions of individuals to life events and life experiences. This has lead to research typically
referred to as ‘psychosomatic medicine’. Examples of works include changes in stomach
activity, increase in gastric secretion and acidity, changes in blood flow etc. in response to stress
conditions (McLean, 1979).
Early works of Hans Selye marks the beginning of using response-based approach to study stress
in the medical field. The emphasis in this view is on the outcomes or consequences rather than
the nature of stress (i.e. whatever the ailment, all patients looked and felt sick). Because of its
application in the medical field this view takes a physiological approach. Selye introduced the
notion of stress-related illness in terms of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). In this view,
stress is viewed as a nonspecific response of the body to any demands made upon it (Selye,
1956). Responses to stress are considered invariant, and thought to follow a universal pattern.
GAS can be described in terms of three stages of response. In the presence of stimuli, the first
stage consists of an alarm reaction. Here, the defense mechanisms are activated, forming the
emergency reaction known as ‘fight or flight’ response. In this stage, typical physiological
responses are increased heart rate and blood pressure in preparing the body for action. The
second stage is resistance to the continued stimuli in which the alarm reaction is replaced by an
adaptation response or return to equilibrium. However, because of the limited resources, if an
alarm reaction occurs intensely or frequently over an extended period of time, the resources
needed for adaptation become depleted, and exhaustion, collapse, or death could occur in the
third stage (Selye, 1983).
50
This view is often criticized for its over-compassing definition in that stress is considered as a
generic term that subsumes a large variety of manifestations (Pearlin et al., 1981). Also, medical
research shows that responses to stimuli do not always follow the same pattern and could
depend, for example, on hormonal secretion. Further, by ignoring the stimulus dimension of
stress experiences, this view does not consider environmental factors in the stress process
(Cooper et al., 2001).
2. Stimulus-based Definition of Stress
This approach traces back to fifth century BC physicist Hippocrates and is based on the belief
that characteristics of health and disease are conditioned by the external environment (Goodell et
al., 1986). This approach views stress as an independent variable that elicits some response from
the person. This view has roots in physics and engineering, comparing stress to force, which
when present could lead to distortion (Cooper et al., 2001). It is assumed that both organic and
inorganic substances have tolerance levels, and if these levels are exceeded, temporary or
permanent damage occurs. In this view, the focus is on the stimulus side. Since stress is viewed
as an independent variable eliciting some response in an individual, this view typically identifies
various sources of stress in the work environment and is the principal idea of stimulus-based
view of stress (Goodell et al., 1986).
Research related to this view is mainly involved in understanding the impact of industrialization
on blue-collar workers. Different sources of stress are identified in order to provide optimal
working conditions. In general, sources related to physical characteristics of the work
environment e.g. heat, cold, noise, etc. are identified as sources of stress, and offer ways to
improve the working conditions of blue-collar workers (Cooper and Smith, 1985). Typically,
objective measures of work environment are identified as sources of stress. Therefore, this view
does not explain why two individuals exposed to the same stimuli (i.e. sources of stress in terms
of heat, noise, etc.) might respond differently. The inability to explain individual differences
when exposed to the same situation is a drawback of this view. Notwithstanding this limitation,
this view is useful in identifying common patterns of work environment that might affect the
majority of the workforce.
51
3. Stress as a Transaction
The transaction view takes into account individual and environmental factors. The emphasis is
on understanding the nature or the process of stress. The transactional approach explores
psychological mechanisms of appraisal and coping that highlight a stressful encounter. The
transaction process discusses two types of appraisal – primary and secondary (Lazarus, 1966;
1991). Primary appraisal involves individuals’ realization that something is at stake. In this
process, the individual gives meaning to an encounter in terms of harm, the threat of harm, or
challenge. Secondary appraisal begins after an encounter is appraised in some way as threat. This
deals with identification and availability of coping resources to deal with the threat, harm, or
challenge (Lazarus, 1991).
Therefore, stress is viewed as embedded in an ongoing process that involves individuals
interacting with their environments, making appraisals of those interactions, and trying to cope
with the situations that arise. As is evident in the name transaction, in this view, stress is neither
viewed as a result of the individual or the environment, but in the relationship between the two
(Lazarus, 1990). Stress arises when an individual appraises the demands placed by the
environment to exceed the individuals’ resources, thereby threatening individuals’ well-being
(Cooper et al., 2001; Lazarus, 1991). As will be discussed later, the transactional definition
provides a framework for modeling stress. The appraisal process places emphasis on the
subjective experience (i.e. contingent upon the perception of the situation) rather than the
objective situation. This view also acknowledges interpersonal influence that is the potential
source of strain is not perceived in social vacuum. The presence of others could be a source of
distraction, or they can provide support mechanisms, help to increase self-efficacy etc. This
alludes to the use of support and self-efficacy variables as potential moderators.
Types of Stress
Stress could then include research and theory on group or individual disasters, physiological
assault on tissues and the effects of this assault, disturbances or facilitation of adaptive
functioning produced by conditions of deprivation, thwarting or the prospect of this, and the field
of negatively toned emotions such as fear, anger, depression, despair, hopelessness, and guilt.
52
Stress is not any one of these things; nor is it stimulus, response, or intervening variable, but
rather a collective term for an area of study (Lazarus, 1966). With this in mind, let us look at the
physiological and psychological aspects of stress.
• Physiological aspect of stress:
Hans Selye first introduced the term stress to medicine in 1926, as a result of conducting medical
research to develop a new ovarian hormone. He and his colleagues noted that the research
animals used (rats) in the study experienced changes to various glands and the stomach that was
not related to effects of the hormone injections received. Similar changes in glands and the
stomach resulted when other animals were exposed to various stimuli (cold, heat, infection,
trauma, hemorrhage, nervous irritation, etc.). He induced the "syndrome of just being sick"
which resulted in adrenal enlargement, gastrointestinal ulcers, shrinkage of the thymus and
lymph nodes. He termed this the "general adaptation syndrome or biologic stress syndrome".
According to Selye "stress is the nonspecific (common) response of the body to any demand
made upon it". This definition views stress as a physiological response and stressor as the
demand that evokes the response. Selye was primarily concerned with what is going on inside
the skin when a person is stressed.
Research has shown that persons experience higher levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline during
work periods with computers (Arnetz and Berg, 1993). Adrenaline and noradrenaline are
catecholamines secreted by the adrenal gland. Increased excretion rates of adrenaline and
noradrenaline are associated with both underload and overload (stress) stimulation and emotional
arousal (Frankenhaeuser, 1978). Other effects of the increased catecholamines levels, as part of
sympathetic nervous responses, are increased heart rate and blood pressure. Increased heart rate
and blood pressure have been observed in persons performing a computer task and research has
shown that there is increased skin conductance level (SCL) while performing a computer task
(Muter, et al., 1993). Skin conductance level is an indicator of increased sympathetic nervous
reaction (the more you sweat the better the conductance). Another indirect indicator of being
"stressed" by computer use, is an increased jaw muscle electromyograph (like clenching your
teeth an index of the user's 'anger') while performing a computer task (Emurian, 1993). This brief
53
account suggests that using computers and dealing with computer technology may in principle
cause stress reactions in individuals as evidenced by physiological changes.
• Psychological stress:
Although many can identify possible physical stress reactions, stress for many persons is a "state
of mind". Next we will consider psychological stress perspectives. Lazarus (1966) in his book
Psychological Stress and the Coping Process has focused on the cognitive processes of
evaluation of stimuli (stressors) from the environment and the selection of appropriate responses
(coping) based on this evaluation. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) have defined psychological
stress as "a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by
the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well being."
Lazarus points out that people go through primary and secondary appraisal processes. The
primary appraisal process determines whether the environment is perceived as psychologically
threatening, harmful, or challenging. This primary process will determine whether the
environment is perceived as a stressor. The secondary appraisal process is a complex evaluative
process in which a person considers resources available to cope with the primarily appraised
stressor. The secondary appraisal process allows the person to select coping strategies to cope
with the stressor. During the secondary appraisal process a person may not have the resources to
cope, which would result in stress reactions such as somatization (physical/body complaints),
and negative emotions (such as anger, fright, anxiety, shame, guilt, sadness, envy, jealousy and
disgust).
Technostress
As broader as the concept of stress, ‘technostress’ has also been used in many different ways.
Technostress refers to the state of mental and physiological arousal, and consequent pressure,
observed in employees who are dependent on technology in their work (Arntez and Wihlom,
1997). The term technostress was coined in 1984 by a clinical psychologist Brod (1984) sees
“technostress” as a modern disease of adaptation caused by an inability to cope with the new
computer technologies in a healthy manner. It manifests itself in two distinct but related ways: in
the struggle to accept computer technology, and in the more specialized form of over
identification with computer technology. Although Brod (1984) looked at technostress as a
54
disease, other researchers considered it more as an inability to adapt to changes brought by
technology. Davis-Milis (1998) identified technostress as a condition whereby a person has to
adapt to new technology especially when there is inadequacy of the equipment, support, or the
technology itself. Apart from that, according to Clark and Kalin (1996), the real definition of
technostress is “resistance to change”. They claimed that technology is not the culprit because
computer and technologies are just tools and stress is a natural reaction. Thus, they suggested
that in order to manage techno stress, it is the change that has to be managed not the technology.
Their view was supported by Champion (1988) who stated that the information age was all about
change, or to be more specific, response to “techno change”, not about technical components
such as machines, programs, network, or fibre optics.
Tarafdar, Tu, Ragu-Nathan, and Ragu-Nathan (2007) describe technostress as a problem of
adaptation as a result of a person’s inability to cope with or to get used to information and
communication technologies (ICT). Additionally, they have identified five components of
technostress, also known as technostress creators, which are:
1. Techno-overload: A situation where ICT users are forced to work faster and longer.
2. Techno-invasion: A situation where ICT users felt that they can be reached anytime or
constantly “connected” which caused a blurring between work related and personal contexts.
3. Techno-complexity: A situation where ICT users feel that their skills are inadequate due to
the complexity related to ICT. As a consequence, they are forced to spend time and effort to
learn and understand the various aspects of ICT.
4. Techno-insecurity: A situation where ICT users feel threatened that they will lose their job,
either being replaced by the new ICT or by other people who are better in ICT compared to
them.
5. Techno-uncertainty: A situation where ICT users feel uncertain and unsettled since ICT is
continuously changing and need upgrading.
Other terms that were synonymous with technostress used by other researchers include
technophobia, computerphobia, computer anxiety, and computer stress (Chua, Chen, and Wong,
1999; Durndell and Haag, 2002; Mustaffa, Yusof, and Saad, 2007). In addition, the term digital
depression has also been used to identify the feeling of an employee when being overwhelmed
55
by technology ("'Digital depression' identified as new form of stress"). Rosen, and Weil, (1997)
define "technostress" as any negative impact on attitudes, thoughts, behaviors, or body
physiology that is caused either directly or indirectly by technology. One well-documented form
of technostress is the escalating problem of information overload, colloquially called "data
smog." But in the mid-20th century, the introduction of computers, television, satellites, and
internet have created a condition of hyper-production and hyper-distribution that has surpassed
human processing ability, leaving us with a permanent processing deficit. The impact of
information overload (technostress) is particularly apparent in the workplace as more and more
people spend their time at work sorting through e-mail, voice messages, and web pages while
their day is interrupted by ringing phones, dinging e-mails, and squealing fax machines.
As computers and technology become more ubiquitous throughout modern society, the physical
and psychological effects of technology become more apparent in its users. The negative effects
of computer and technology use have been studied in many fields, including ergonomics,
computer science, business, and library science, and have resulted in the identification of
technostress as a documented human reaction to continued interaction with technology. The
concept of technostress has been given several definitions in the years since the term was first
coined by Wang et al. (2008) outline the definitions given by Brod and by Weil and Rosen,
adapting them into one definition which encompasses the major aspects of its predecessors: “. In
this vein technostress is seen as a reflection of one’s discomposure, fear, tenseness, and anxiety
when one is learning and using computer technology directly or indirectly, that ultimately ends
in psychological and emotional repulsion and prevents one from further learning or using
computer technology. A large and increasing amount of research materials are available in
electronic format, reference services are offered online, the Internet has resulted in uncertainty
and loss of information control, and new technological advances are made every day.
Nawe (1995) states that “there are dramatic and liberating benefits of information technology’ on
the one hand, and the ‘new time demands, knowledge/skills deficiencies, and psychological
pressure’ on the other.” The combination of positive and negative aspects of technology works
to create uncertainty in both organization workers and customers, which often results in stress.
This stress may manifest itself in both physical and psychological symptoms, as has been
56
demonstrated by researchers in the health, computer science, and accounting fields. Stress has
been documented to have a variety of physical manifestations stemming from an increase in
levels of adrenaline and nor-adrenaline in the system (Sami and Pangannaiah, 2006). This
increase can result in an elevated heart rate and blood pressure level, and may be accompanied
by muscle tension, such as a clenched jaw, and increased skin conductance level, which is an
indicator of a sympathetic nervous reaction.
Brillhart (2004) has further identified physical maladies such as “. . . headaches, irritability,
stomach or intestinal problems, and heart related issues such as heart attack or high blood
pressure”. The variety of these symptoms demonstrates the range of physical reactions that may
be experienced by technology users, the presence of which can signal the existence of techno
stress. Technology-induced stress may also exhibit itself psychologically, through negative self-
image, negative thoughts about work or other computer users, and in some cases even
psychosomatic illnesses. Brillhart lists memory issues, sleep difficulties, an inability to focus on
recreational activities, and a preoccupation with work and technology-related tasks as further
symptoms of technostress. These symptoms, both physical and psychological, cause techno
stress sufferers to experience poor health, negative self-image, depression, and may ultimately
result in technological avoidance, a behavior which can have negative effects on information
seeking habits and is thus of primary concern to managers.
Although technostress exhibits a certain amount of consistency in that, by definition, some form
of technology is always involved; several different aspects of technology have been identified in
the literature. Wang et al. (2008) identify the aspects of work overload, individual life invasion,
high complexity of technology, and occupational crisis, all of which are particularly relevant to
workers. As levels of technology increase in banks, accountants and paraprofessionals are often
expected to perform job-related tasks faster and therefore to be able to perform new tasks in
addition to previous duties. Simultaneously, these information workers must take time, either
through individual experimentation or training, to become familiar with increasingly complex
and constantly changing technology. This often results in an increase in time spent on job-
related activities, which might interfere with the employee’s personal life.
57
Knibbe-Haanstra (2008) cites other technostress factors, taken from Kupersmith’s research,
including performance anxiety, information overload, role conflicts of professional identity, and
burnout. Performance anxiety may relate to several situations in computer use: the user may be
concerned about damaging the machine, may worry about appearing incompetent or unintelligent
if he or she does not understand the technology, or may be unsure of his or her ability to
correctly perform technology related tasks. This anxiety may also be relevant for library
workers, who often feel pressure to be knowledgeable and proficient in all subjects and with all
technologies. Information overload refers to the overwhelming, and constantly growing, amount
of information available over the internet. Another technostress aspect, role conflicts of
professional identity, is of particular interest to accountants and banks staff. As Nawe (1995)
cites:
Whatever its undoubted benefits in daily practice, the expansion of end-user searching
tends to further erode the perception of expertise. It gives the librarian (workers) less
control over events, and in many cases less prestige, than the reference-expert or
mediated-search models. At those moments when the person who once functioned as an
expert searcher is reduced to the role of CD-ROM attendant, fiddling with paper jams
and spent ink cartridges, the question becomes one of dignity.
Nawe (1995) found that there are dramatic and liberating benefits of information technology’ on
the one hand, and the ‘new time demands, knowledge/skills deficiencies, and psychological
pressure’ on the other. The combination of positive and negative aspects of technology works to
create uncertainty in both organization workers and customers, which often results in stress. This
perception by accounting staff of lost professional identity in the face of technology may
contribute greatly to the experience of techno stress, which when combined with other aspects of
techno stress can result in burnout. In their book technostress: coping with technology at work,
at home and at play, technostress is defined as any negative impact on attitudes, thoughts,
behaviours, or body physiology that is caused either directly or indirectly by technology.
Similarly to the above, technostress is related to illness since the impact technology has taken
over our lives including work, through the invasion of e-mails, mobiles, microwaves, television,
VCR, hand-held pocker games and calculators, to mention just a few examples (Salanova et al.,
1999).
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Finally, Salanova et al. (1999) propose a practical and more comprehensive definition of
technostress as a negative psychological state associated to the use of ICT of anticipatory threat
of its future use. This state is based on a mismatch between demands and resources related to
ICT use, which leads to a high level of unpleasant psycho-physiological activation and to the
development of negative attitudes towards ICT. According to this definition, technostress is not
produced as a consequence of the negative impact of technology per se, but by a relationship
between demands and available resources. Moreover, it establishes two main dimensions within
technostress: (1) affective symptoms or anxiety related to the high psycho-physiological
activation of the organism and (2) the development of negative attitudes towards ICT (Salanova,
2004). Because of its ease of comprehension and operationalization, this will be the definition on
which we focus the present thesis. Research on the consequences of the technostress
phenomenon has shown mixed results (Hamborg, and Greif, 2003 and Salanova, 2004). In fact,
the use of ICT can influence psychosocial wellbeing both negatively and positively. Thus,
exposure to ICT can generate anxiety, dissatisfaction and burnout over time (Prieto, Zornoza,
Orengo, and Peir, 1996; Salanova and Schaufeli, 2000), but also enthusiasm, optimal experiences
and engagement (Chen et al., 1999; Cifre et al., 2000).
Several scholars have proposed that technology per se is neutral. That is, it is not the mere
exposure to ICT that is responsible for employee well-being, but rather the quality of the effects
depends on other variables intervening in the process such as job demands (e.g., quantitative
overload), job resources (e.g., job control) and personal resources (e.g., efficacy beliefs) (Chua,
Chen, and Wong, 1999; Salanova et al., 2001; Salanova and Schaufeli, 2000). If ICT users have
the available job resources and personal resources to cope with the demands associated with ICT
use, positive consequences will be shown (e.g., engagement and organizational commitment)
(Baumeister and Leary, 1995; Meyer and Allen, 1991). On the other hand, if ICT demands
exceed job resources and go beyond the users beliefs in one’s own competence, negative effects
may be shown (e.g., burnout and low levels of commitment) (Bakker et al, 2003a).
59
Job Burnout
Burnout is defined as a consequence of the exposure to chronic occupational stress because of a
low sense of efficacy in managing job demands and enlisting social support in times of
difficulties (Leiter, 1992). It refers to the draining of energy, smothering of a fire, extinguishing
of a candle or exhaustion of a battery. Burnout is a multidimensional response and is
characterized by a breakdown in adaptation. Burnout symptoms are work-related and are shown
in "normal" people with no history of psychopathological suffering. Finally, a decrease in
effectiveness and work performance occur because of negative attitudes and behaviours
(Maslach and Schaufeli, 1993; Schaufeli and Buunk, 2003). Burnout has become a key subject
with an important interest for researchers. This interest is shown by the increase in the number of
articles published on burnout from 2,500 articles in 1990 when the First European Conference
about Burnout was held in Poland to 5,500 articles in 1998 (Schaufeli and Enzmann, 1998). An
analysis of the Psycinfo Data Base reveals 819 articles about burnout from 1999 to the first week
of 2004. Different factors are responsible for the interest, development, prevention and treatment
of the syndrome (Gil-Monte and Peir, 1997; Schaufeli and Enzmann, 1998). Firstly, the high
pace of life in western society has increased stress levels and absenteeism rates. Secondly, the
transformation in the socio-economic and labour market as well as changes in the economic
sector structure (i.e., increment of the service sector, new types of work, introduction of
technology at work). The third reason lies in the costs to the company of mitigating problems
caused by burnout at individual and organizational levels. Specifically, at an individual level
burnout may produce poor levels of physical health, emotional tension, inability to work well,
lack of motivation and job satisfaction.
On the other hand, at an organizational level, burnout syndrome is characterized by high job
turnover, absenteeism, delays, low productivity and low quality. Finally, another reason behind
the interest in burnout is found in current legislation that sets out to improve health and the
quality of life at work. The study of burnout has developed in different phases (for a revision see
Maslach et al 2001 and Schaufeli and Buunk, 2003). The pioneering phase (mid way 1970 to
early 1980) was exploratory. Its main contribution was to describe and to identify the basic
phenomenon of burnout based on the experience of human service and health care employees. In
this phase, the study of burnout focused on care-giving and service occupations (Freudenberger,
60
1975; Maslach, 1976). Secondly, in the empirical phase (1980-1990) more quantitative analyses
were conducted using questionnaires and survey methodology. The most important instrument
developed in this phase was the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services (MBI-HSS)
(Maslach and Jackson, 1981) which was designed exclusively for human service occupations.
Originally, burnout was defined as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and
reduced personal accomplishment than can occur among individuals who do people work of
some kind (Maslach and Jackson, 1986).
Emotional exhaustion refers to the depletion or draining of emotional resources caused by
interpersonal demands. Depersonalization is identified through the development of negative,
callous and cynical attitudes toward the recipients of one’s services. Finally, lack of personal
accomplishment is the tendency to evaluate ones work with recipients negatively. In the 1990s
burnout research took on new directions, and was broaden out and extended to all occupations,
including ICT workers (Bakker et al, 2002; Salanova and Schaufeli, 2000; Salanova et al, 2002).
Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) found that "general" job demands (e.g., workload, role conflicts)
correlated higher with burnout than recipient-related stressors such as interactions with difficult
clients and frequency of contact with chronically ill patients. Moreover, meta-analyses (Cordes
and Dougerthy, 1993; Lee and Ashforth, 1996) have identified many correlates of burnout,
including lack of social support, lack of autonomy and poor performance feedback. Outside
human service work, burnout was defined as a persistent, negative, work-related state of mind in
normal individuals that is primarily characterized by exhaustion, which is accompanied by
distress, a sense of reduced effectiveness, decreased motivation, and the development of
dysfunctional attitudes and behaviours at work. This psychological condition develops gradually
but may remain unnoticed for a long time by the individual involved. It results from a misfit
between intentions and reality at work. Often burnout is self-perpetuating because of inadequate
coping strategies that are associated with the syndrome (Schaufeli and Enzmann, 1998).
In the same way as the original MBI-HSS, composed of three dimensions: exhaustion (i.e., the
basic individual stress dimension), cynicism (i.e., the attitudinal dimension) and a sense of
ineffectiveness (i.e., self-evaluation dimension) (Maslach et al., 2001; Schaufeli, Maslach, and
Marek, 1993). Exhaustion is measured by items tapping fatigue but without any explicit
61
reference to others as a source of these negative emotions (i.e., the draining of energy due to
excessive efforts at work). Cynicism reflects indifference, detached and distant attitudes towards
work in general but not necessarily towards other people. Finally, lack of professional efficacy
has a broader focus compared to the parallel original MBI-HSS scale, encompassing both social
and non-social aspects of occupational accomplishments. It is the tendency to evaluate ones work
negatively and a reduction in feelings of job competence and work performance. High levels of
exhaustion and cynicism and low levels of professional efficacy are indicative of burnout.
However, there is evidence that exhaustion and cynicism form the core of burnout (Green et al
1991). Thus, professional efficacy has been criticized as the third dimension of burnout, since it
may be considered nearer to a variable of personality (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993; Shirom,
1989). Empirical research shows the independent role of professional efficacy compared to the
dimensions of exhaustion and cynicism (Leiter, 1992; Maslach et al., 2001).
Recent meta-analyses confirm this independent role of professional efficacy (Lee and Ashforth,
1996). In fact, some models on the development process of burnout provide evidence in favor
that a crisis of efficacy as being responsible for burnout. In the same vein, Leiter (1992)
considers that burnout is a consequence of a crisis in efficacy. The relevance of burnout and the
use of the MBI instruments to evaluate burnout is nowadays evident. The study of burnout has
been generalized in different countries around the world as well as in different occupations, such
as clerical workers, technical staff and managers (Leiter and Schaufeli, 1996), engineers,
university staff (Taris, Schreus, and Schaufeli, 1999), blue and white collar workers (Schutte et
al 2000), managers, technicians and software developers (Bakker et al., 2002) and in ICT
workers (Salanova and Schaufeli, 2000). Since burnout was originally studied in the human
services, only a few studies have been carried out into the relationship between techno-stress and
burnout in ICT workers. Despite this, previous research shows that ICT users are vulnerable to
burnout as a consequence of a chronic process of technostress (Salanova et al., 2000a; Salanova
and Schaufeli, 2000; Schaufeli et al., 1995a). Thus, ICT workers can suffer long-term burnout,
feel exhausted and show cynical attitudes towards the use of technology at work. They may feel
also their level of competence in their use of ICT is low. Schaufeli et al. (1995a) found a positive
relationship between burnout and technology use (specifically, complex mechanical ventilation
62
equipment) among intensive care nurses. In this case, results show that the higher the use of
technology, the greater the levels of burnout.
Salanova and Schaufeli (2000) also found an effect of technology use on burnout. However, in
this case this relationship was not direct but mediated by the experience or appraisal with ICT.
Furthermore, Salanova et al. (2000a) found a relationship between ICT experience (i.e.,
computer training) and cynicism through the impact of efficacy beliefs. These results may
suggest that burnout is related to feelings of personal, professional and collective incompetence
(Grau, Salanova, and Peir, 2001; Salanova, Cifre, Grau, Llorens, and Martnez, 2003; Salanova et
al, 2002b).
Technostressors
The technostressors are carefully identified and selected in organization especially banking
industry. The major stressors that have been generally investigated are: work overload, role
ambiguity, work/home balance, organizational climate, personal responsibility, job insecurity,
interpersonal relationship and daily hassles etc. To focus on the technostressors related to the
banking industry communication technology characteristics, we adopt the theoretical lens of the
challenge-hindrance occupational stress model (Cavanaugh et al., 2000) to select the appropriate
stressors representing challenge stressors and hindrance stressors. Hindrance stressors, such as
role ambiguity and role conflict, are factors that are more likely to interfere with the
accomplishment of work. Therefore, work overload and role ambiguity represent major
technostressors in the banking sector.
Work overload refers to the perception that “assigned work exceeds an individual’s capability or
skill level” (Ayyagari et al., 2011). Previous studies show that adapting to new technologies is
time-consuming for doctors and leads to negative views on technology innovations (Johnston et
al., 2001; Miller and Sim, 2004). Unintended outcomes from usability and collaboration features
brought about by telecommunication technology can lead to work overload, which refers to the
perception that assigned work exceeds an individual’s capability or skill level. Role ambiguity
means “unpredictability of the consequences of one’s role performance and lack of information
needed to perform the role.” Adaptation to new ways of information communication technology
takes time which can confuse users as to whether they are dealing with work itself or with
63
computers. Role ambiguity captures this negative cognition that is caused by intervention of
technology in routine work.
2.2.1 Causes and Symptoms of Technostress in Banking Industry
Technostress is particularly susceptible to bankers who are working in banks starting from the
automation process of the 1990s and 2000s. Many managers did not allow sufficient training
time when technologies were first introduced to banks. However, the major error of many
managers during the automation process was not to include their employee in the decision
making process surrounding these new technologies. What workers want most is to become
masters of their immediate environment (Deskshinamurit, 1985).
Clute (1998) study give the following reasons as causes of technostress, which include,
inexperience with computers, performance anxiety, lack of training/insufficient training,
organizational factors, overwork/insufficient staffing, information overload, fast pace of change,
language/jargon intimidation, multiple interfaces among others. Clute goes further to explain that
the organizational factors, reflects poor management and management staff communication.
When grouped with “lack of insufficient training” she suggests that employers can do much to
reduce the impact of technostress on staff. Miller (2002) describes how technology in banks
contributes to technostress for reference libraries technostress, helps improve reference services
immeasurably, but they have feelings of being overwhelmed, finding it hard to keep up with the
many varied tools now available with more reliance on new technologies creates an environment
that never seems to nest.
Champion (1988) Gorman (2001), Poole (2001), Venfleet and Wallace (2003) all include rapid
rate of change in technology as a factor of technostress in banks, other include resources
challenges, insufficient training, changing role in banks, ergonomics, reliability of hardware or
software, excessive workloads, outdated computers skill or software. This technostress may have
effected ones skills as a database (de-skilled) (Kupersmith, 1992). The introduction of the CD-
ROM database present a new problem in that each system has different interfaces (e.g. Dos
Windows, proprietary) and may employ different search protocols (Stone, 1993). The new CD-
ROM system comes with little or no documentation except internally based documentation like
an F1 help screen or hypertext help menu. There is an increment of speed with each new
hardware upgrade computers users seem to want computers to run faster and faster. Meanwhile
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institutions are slow to discard old computers will run and run (Hudiburge, 1996). The internet is
probably becoming the major causes of technostress due to the fact that many of new
information site with no standard to how they are designed, maintained and updated. Dealing
with the information overload is a real problem (Kupersmith, 1992). Moreso, users have to learn
what to download and save to these floppies due to limitation of hard disk, space and the cost of
paper, not to mention what they can/cannot email to themselves and other (Hudiburge, 1996).
Planning for change is a common technostress portrayed by the advent of new online system,
that will be implemented but which one is not known. When the system is installed and working,
you are expected to know how to use and teach all about the new technology already (Moreland,
1993).
The sign and symptoms of technostress include a wide variety of physiological, psychological
and behavioural changes that are commonly recognized as part of the human condition. These
changes are manifested in the form of physical and emotional exhaustion that involves a negative
self concept and negative attitudes as well as loss of concern and feeling for others, especially
those who are considered as stressors. Long-term stress may cause psychosomatic illness (Nawe,
1995). Brod (1984) study highlights the technostress symptoms such as exhaustion, sore muscles
in back/shoulder, an inability to relax after work and difficulty in sleeping. The most common
symptom given for technostress as reported by Clute (1998) was panic, and anxiety, this was
followed by feeling of isolation/frustration. Negative attitude towards computers was listed as
third. Other includes irritability, anger, exhaustion, increased errors, absenteeism, illness, low
morale/confidence.
Weil, Rosen and Sears (1987) opined that symptom of technostress is broadly divided into three
different categories; (a) Anxious technophobe: exhibits the classic signs of an anxiety reaction
when using technology; sweaty palm, heart palpitations and headaches, (b) Cognitive
technophobe: on the surface is calm and relaxed, but internally seethes with negative messages,
everybody but knows how to do this. (c) Uncomfortable user: may be slightly anxious or use
some negative statement, but generally not in need of one on one counseling. Several other
studies also summarized the various causes of technostress. Bloom (1985) study opines that the
poor computer ability and experience are the major causes of computer-related stress. For
example, computer training is often impeded by such fears as breaking the machine, looking
65
foolish or losing control. This is because managers are required to be in tune with computer
technologies and are expected to constantly adjust to new ones in order to successfully carry out
their duties. Adapting to technology is not simple. Some people tend to embrace change while
others resist change (Wolski and Jackson, 1999). Thus, the rapid introduction of technology in
the workplace may cause individuals in organizations to suffer from a combination of technology
fatigue and aversion and this can lead to technostress.
Doronina (1995) study identified several types of computer anxiety: the fear of breaking the
computer in some way makes feeling of ignorance or ineptitude, anxiety of new technology and
mathematics, and various health threats. Furthermore, there is either a general mistrust of, or too
much trust in. So, we can classify the causes of Technostress into 3 categories:
• Fast changes in technologies
• Lack of sufficient training
• Increasing job pressure
Technostress can make people feel their memory is not as good as it used to be as they lose track
of what they wanted to do or say. Getting a peaceful night's sleep becomes difficult as their over
stimulated minds buzz and chatter, and enjoying laid back recreational activities is disrupted by
preoccupation with to do lists, calls, errands, memos, etc. Headaches, irritability, GI discomfort,
heart problems, and hypertension can also be related to technostress ( Deskshinamurit, 1985).
Gene Chief psychologist at the Scripps Memorial Center for Executive Health, and other guests
describe a similar concept they call "urgency addiction": the impact of having life be
technologically-driven by devices that operate without need for sleeping, eating or socializing.
They see the potential for cell phones, e-mail and the Internet to make "urgency addicts" out of
all of us. Technostress cannot be easily explained; many factors have contributed to its
development among organization. Particularly susceptible are accountants who were working in
banks during the automation process of the 1970s and 1980s. This was a time of great change for
all accountants. Perhaps, the biggest factor at play in the levels of techno stress felt by employees
or techno-users. Many managers did not allow sufficient training time when technologies were
first introduced to libraries. However, the major error of many managers during the automation
process was not to include them in the decision making process surrounding these new
66
technologies. “What workers want most is to become masters of their immediate environment”
(Deskshinamurit, 1985).
Moreso, users have to learn what to download and save to these floppies due to limitation of hard
disk, space and the cost of paper, not to mention what they can/cannot email to themselves and
other (Hudiburge, 1996). Planning for change is a common techno stress portrayed by the advent
of new online system will be implemented but which one is not known. When the system is
installed and working, you are expected to know how to use and tech all about the new
technology already (Moreland, 1993). When a person confronts new technologies, in the first
steps and accustoming the new technology, he would have stress. These feelings are mental but
they have physical symptoms. The most significant symptom is chaos that has these physical
signs: headache, distempering, mental exhaustion, depression, nightmare, anxiety and need of
help. The sign and symptoms of technostress include a wide variety of physiological
psychological and behavioural changes that are commonly recognized as part of the human
condition. These changes are manifested in the form of physical and emotional exhaustion that
involves a negative self concept and negative attitudes as well as loss of concern and feeling for
others, especially those who are considered as stressors. Long-term stress may cause
psychosomatic illness (Nawe, 1995).
There is an increment of speed with each new hardware upgrade computers users seem to want
computers to run faster and faster. Planning for change is a common technostress portrayed by
the advent of new online system will be implemented but which one is not known. When the
system is installed and working, you are expected to know how to use and tech all about the new
technology already (Moreland, 1993). The sign and symptoms of technostress include a wide
variety of physiological psychological and behavioural changes that are commonly recognized as
part of the human condition. Weil and Rosen (1999) going by the definition of technostress as
any negative impact on attitude, thoughts, behaviors or psychology caused directly or indirectly
by technology”. It is also known as by the terms technophobia, cyberphobia, computerphobia,
computer anxiety and computer stress. Stress symptoms can be manifested in both physically and
psychologically. Physical symptoms include increased cardiovascular stress, weakened vision,
neck/back pain and headaches. Psychological symptoms of can include anxiety, denial,
confusion, resistance, panic, conflict, mental fatigue and anger. These symptoms are associated
67
with fear of losing autonomy, losing promotional opportunities, losing control over one’s work
environment, feeling isolated, intimidation of new technology and inability to keep up with new
technologies.
An additional list of technostress causative components was developed by Tu et al. (2005) as an
instrument in assessing the techno stress levels of Chinese employees. The instrument created
for the Chinese survey, which was developed using data from the United States, is uniquely
useful for an initial exploration of techno stress as it not only delineates the components of
technostress, but also identifies the characteristics of each component. The first component
identified by Tu et al. (2005), techno-overload, is characterized by “greater workload, faster
work speed, or change of work habit caused by new technology.” The second component,
techno-invasion, can be identified by a lessening of time spent on personal relationships in favor
of learning about new technology. The third component, techno-complexity, is described as “the
inability to learn or deal with the complexity of new technology.” The fourth component,
techno-insecurity, exhibits itself as the fear of losing one’s job to individuals with higher
technological competence. The fifth and final component identified by Tu et al., techno-
uncertainty, stems from the constant changes in technology and the lack of confidence that these
changes may inspire in technology users.
The negative impact of technostress on both staff and organization users has been documented in
the research; demonstrating that repeated exposure to and use of technology may result in
decreased health and wellness, both physical and psychological. Users may experience such
diverse symptoms as increased heart rate and blood pressure, muscle tension, negative self-
image, depression, and burnout. These symptoms not only negatively impact the quality of life
for technology users, but may also negatively impact the ability of the banks to serve its
community or customers. It is, therefore, a vital task of administrators and staff to develop the
ability to identify techno stress symptoms, to maintain an awareness of those symptoms in both
users and staff, to learn effective coping strategies and techniques, and as much as possible to
manage techno stress levels in the organization.
Weil and Rosen (1999) have also noticed a more subtle impact on feelings due to technology.
These include feelings of inadequacy due to not being able to work as fast as a machine, the idea
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that we do not have enough time to complete tasks and the feeling that our children are better
able to work on a computer. Also technostress can be caused by:
The latest improvements: Everything is being upgraded and improved. It is difficult to keep up
and just when you master one device, another hits the market. Now they are obsolete. The
DVD’s have taken their place, along with internet downloads for the computer.
Multitasking: Although not planned, often with different technological devices operating
simultaneously, this try to attend to many tasks at once. We expect ourselves to handle more
things because the devices allow us to produce work at a more efficient pace. This pace may start
to put pressure on us to increase our work output which results in us experiencing technostress.
This is when you need to practice effective time management strategies.
Little standardization among different technological devices: These gadgets often have
different operating systems and different parts that only work with that particular device. New
technologies were introduced as beneficial tools that could make lives operate more smoothly
while increasing productivity, with no intentions toward causing stress to users. Banks have
certainly been impacted by new technologies, which have made it easier for people to access
collections. Users have become accustomed to retrieving information rapidly and using their
accountants as a “change agent” to guide them in the process. Patrons expect free, online and full
text resources immediately. When these resources are not easily accessible, the effects of
technostress can be seen in patrons’ frustration and/or anger at not having these resources readily
accessible. There are several published studies that examine the effects of technostress on
patrons. From the literature, there are four primary causes shown: environment, pace of change,
lack of training, lack of standardization of hardware/software and reliability of technology.
People in today’s society are living in a world full of demands. With many work and personal
demands it is easy for people in general to feel overwhelmed (Weil and Rosen, 1999).
Technology was introduced as a timesaver, but the convenience of technology has also raised
expectations about what people can accomplish at home, school and work. Overall, people are
expected to constantly renew their technical skills while keeping up with a constantly changing
environment, all while maintaining a higher level of productivity. Unfortunately, technostress
has in some cases caused users to become counterproductive. Individuals may feel inadequate
69
because they have been unable to keep up with new a technology, which leads to feelings of
frustration and sometimes anger. Users may also encounter feelings of helplessness, isolation,
and loss of freedom and privacy. There are also issues related to the extended hours of sitting
behind a computer. Both patrons and staff have noticed increased physical problems due to
intensive computer use. Common physical ailments include neck and back pain, eye strain and
repetitive strain injuries due to long hours using a computer. Ergonomics is a field of study that
examines job performance in relation to the work, equipment and the environment. It is a field
that has developed out of necessity to help manage the effects of technology in a fast paced
world.
The last cause of technostress mentioned was lack of standardization of hardware or software.
Fortunately, computer programs are now becoming more standardized. Graphical interfaces are
making it easier for patrons with less computer experience to use programs. Making a computer
easier to use can help alleviate the fear keeping some patrons from using the computer. Some
patrons will not use a computer or new technology due to the risk of appearing foolish or
inexperienced. These feelings of uncertainty may, in some cases, be related to a user’s
experience, background, and previous access to technology. There are several articles in the
literature that address the perceived gap among those who have access to technology and those
who don’t. This topic is generally referred to as the digital divide. These studies show how
different populations in this case, low-income populations and minorities, are more likely to
experience that digital divide. It is important to look into the reasons why these populations
appear to be more affected by the digital divide so that banks can address the issues and find
solutions (Weil and Rosen, 1999).
Stanley (2003) study explored the factors that may discourage low-income clients from gaining
computer literacy. Results suggest that there are three psychosocial reasons deterring low-income
adults from increasing computer literacy: relevance, fear (leaving their comfort zone), and self-
concept. A parallel can be drawn among techno stress and the fear mentioned in Stanley’s
research. Stanley (2003) states that many non-computer users are deterred by high social costs,
such as difficulty of use, presume lack of technical competence and computer-related anxiety.
Meanwhile, others feared that they would never be able to gain computer literacy due to their
70
educational or social background. Stanley suggests that non-computer users would be more
willing to acquire computer literacy if their assumptions, fears and pre-conceived notions about
computers were addressed.
Undoubtedly, many other studies identify that technostress in some instances is associated with
work environment which can only be addressed by the organization. Ennis, (2005) study
suggested the rate of change of the technology, lack of standardization, lack of training
individuals on the equipment, lack of reliability of the technology and increased workload placed
on each individual as measures that measure stressors. In a separate study, (Brillhart, 2004) states
that technostress is caused by technologically focused tasks such as planning meetings, business
plans, and anxiety over work deadlines. Other stressors were identified by defining technostress
as a condition whereby a person has to adapt to new technology especially when there is
inadequacy of equipment, support, or the technology itself (Davis-Millis, 2011). Further,
research has also looked into the relationship between supervisors and supervised as a source of
strain. Explicitly, authoritarian and autocratic leadership styles of supervision are deemed
unhealthy to organizations and a very good source of strain (Ashour, 1982). Other researchers
conceived TNS as employees‟ inability to cope with or be familiar with information and
communication technologies (ICT), thereby complicating actual technology adoption (Gerr et al
2006). In the same research, five stressors were outline -- 1. Techno-overload: A situation where
ICT users are induced to work extensively. 2. Techno-invasion: A situation that undermines
work life quality by mixing work-related and personal contexts. 3. Techno-complexity: A
situation relating technology features and users‟ competence. 4. Techno-insecurity: A situation
where ICT users feel threatened job insecurity and fear of been substituted by better hands. 5.
Techno-uncertainty: A situation where ICT users feel hesitant and disconcerted due to
continuous changing and upgrading.
However, the sign and symptoms of technostress cut across a wide range of physiological,
psychological and behavioral issues that have been empirically identified as unhealthy human
conditions. These issues are manifested in the form of physical and emotional exhaustion that
involve a negative self concept and negative attitudes as well as loss of concern and feeling for
others. Long-term stress may cause psychosomatic illness (Nawe, 1995). A lot of write-ups have
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been dedicated to finding out the manifestations of technological stress in workers. Extant study
includes a high degree of factual thinking, poor access to feelings, an insistence on efficiency
and speed, and a lack of empathy for other people. People with these are known as
technocentered; their desire to triumph over the applications is more pronounced than the desire
for human relationships and human pleasures. Prior descriptive findings on technostress have
been largely consistent in their resolve to prove that stressful impact can be felt at all levels of an
organization, as Stress related health costs are increasing exponentially and productivity in
stressed individuals diminished drastically (Ayyagari, Grover and Purvis, 2011) (Chisholm et al
1983). So, organizations have incentives to better understand symptoms at work place both from
workers well being and associated expenditures. A review of some findings revealed some
dominant symptoms as panic, anxiety, feeling of isolation/frustration, negative attitude towards
computers, irritability, anger, exhaustion, increased errors, absenteeism, illness, low
morale/confidence, depression, turnover intentions, bad attitude, lack of motivation and work
exhaustion (Moore, 2000, Longenecker et al 1999, and Sethi et al 2004).
2.3 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical approach has two broad theoretical paradigms that shed light on stress
phenomenon. The first paradigm could be labeled as an epidemiological perspective (Fox et al.,
1993). Researchers using this view typically link occupational conditions such as workload,
vibration etc., to actual disease manifestations like coronary heart disease. In this view, how
stressors are appraised by individuals has not received attention. The advocates of this view
argue for the use of objective measures for measuring stressors and their outcomes. The other
paradigm could be labeled as a cognitive perspective (Fox et al., 1993). The main emphasis of
this view is that stressful outcomes are determined by how people cognitively interpret or
appraise environmental demands. In accordance with the central tenet of subjective assessment,
the outcomes studied in this perspective are mainly psychological. The advocates of this view
argue for the use of subjective measures, for example individual perceptions of occupational
demands.
Consistent with the transaction view of stress, the cognitive perspective is used in reviewing the
theoretical models. The emphasis on undertaking both person and environment factors in
understanding the stress phenomenon makes the selection of person environment (P-E) fit model
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appropriate. The person-environment fit model is the most contemporary view on stress and it
acknowledges the transaction nature of stress i.e. it considers both the individual and
environment factors.
Stress Theory
Stress is commonly defined as the result of an interaction between an individual and the
environment, which includes stressful situations referred to as “stressors” (Lazarus and Folkman
1984). These stressors comprise a variety of concepts including, for instance, failure to cope with
new technologies (Cooper, Dewe and O’Driscoll, 2001), high workloads or lack of autonomy
(Ahuja and Thatcher, 2005; Moore, 2000). Stressors can either be associated with negative
connotations and be regarded as threats or they can be attributed positively and be seen as
challenges (Lepine, Podsakoff and Lepine, 2005). In this context, several opinions exist on the
relationship between stressor and performance. While some authors see the relationship as
strictly negative (Gilboa et al 2008), others speak of an inverted-U shaped relationship between
the two constructs (McGrath, 1976). This means that a moderate stress level is associate merely
positively as it is both stimulating and challenging. In contrast, very low and very high stress
levels negatively impact performance as they trigger boredom and anxiety (Zivnuska et al 2002).
Kahn and Byosiere (1992) claim that research on organizational stress often concentrates “on the
consequences of stressful situations and has neglected the causes of those situations”. Moreover,
current IS research has mainly focused on the causes and effects of stress with regard to end
users.
Person-Environment (PE) Fit Theory
The notion of P-E fit can be traced back to Kaplan (1950). Since then, the theory has been further
developed by a great number of studies in psychology (Edwards et al., 2006; Edwards and Parry,
1993; Kristof-Brown, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). The core concept of P-E fit is the
degree to which the individual and environmental characteristics match (Kristof-Brown et al.,
2005). Personal or individual characteristics include abilities and preferences. Environmental
characteristics are operationalized to a set of characteristics such as demand or norms. P-E fit
theory predicts that positive outcomes occur when a specific match is generated through
interactions between the corresponding individual and environmental dimensions (Kristof-Brown
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et al., 2005; Ostroff and Schulte, 2007). In contrast, a misfit will lead to negative attitudes and
dysfunctional behaviors.
P-E fit has been conceptualized in two dimensions: complementary fit and supplementary fit.
Complementary fit occurs when personal abilities are sufficient to meet demands imposed by the
environment (Kristof-Brown, 1996); supplementary fit occurs when individuals’ values and
norms match (i.e. are similar to) (Kristof-Brown, 1996). Unlike the rich field of stress research,
technostress has not been extensively studied as yet (Moore, 2000; Tarafdar et al., 2007; Tu et
al., 2008). Further, prior research in technostress mainly focuses on the stressor to strain
relationship and the moderating factors that lie between them (Ragu-Nathan et al., 2008;
Tarafdar et al., 2007). However, there is a scarcity of research into the antecedents of
technostress. On the other hand, a recent study by Ayyagari et al. (2011) proposed the P-T model
which introduces a new theoretical angle that investigates the technology characteristic as
antecedents of technostress stressors.In the P-T model, technology characteristics are categorized
into three sub-groups, namely: usability features, dynamic features and intrusive features. The
cognitive approach paradigm in psychology argues that it is not possible to fully separate an
individual’s perception of, and response to, a demand or stressor from the demand or stressor
itself. Drawn from the IS and stress literature, the P-T model lays the logical foundation between
technology characteristics and technostress. Technology is treated as a generic concept, without
any particular feature specification.
However, different kinds of technologies often have distinguishing features and perform with
varying functionalities. Therefore, the “one-size-fit-all” model needs to be further articulated to
reflect features in specific contexts. In the P-T model, the hypotheses are drawn directly from
technology features to technostressors, and thus the misfit process between users and
technologies is reflected and assessed inexplicitly. Going a step further, we investigate the misfit
process, i.e. the essence underlying the P-E model, and aim to bring additional understanding to
assessing technology through its influence on stressors. Broadly, speaking the concept of person-
environment fit theory is used to explain technostress phenomenon (Ayyagari et al., 2011;
Tarafdar et al., 2007). In essence, it is argued that there is equilibrium between an individual and
individual’s work environment. Any imbalance in this equilibrium leads to strain (Cooper, Dewe
and O’Driscoll, 2001; Edwards 1996). In our context, we are dealing with individual’s
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interaction with technology in work settings. Therefore, if individual faces imbalance in
interaction with technology then it would lead to ‘stress due to technology’ (technostress). The
imbalance or misfit could occur in two ways (Edwards, 1996). First, the misfit could occur
between the demands placed by the environment and the individual’s ability to address the
demands. For example, the task demands placed by the work environment might exceed
individual’s abilities to deal with it. This results in a stressful situation. Second misfit could
occur if the individual’s values do not suit the work environment.
Complementary fit
Complementary fit occurs when individuals’ needs and desires are satisfied by their
organizations (Kristof-Brown, 1996). Complementary fit has also been referred to as “needs-
supplies fit” (Kristof-Brown, 1996) and “psychological needs fulfillment. More specifically, the
complementary fit is reflected by the compatibility between tasks and media channels. Thus, we
adopt media synchronicity theory (MST) of (Dennis et al., 2008) to conceptualize and measure
the complementary fit. Media synchronicity is defined as a “state in which individuals are
working together at the same time with a common focus.” In MST, Dennis et al. (2008) identify
five media capacities: symbol sets, transmission velocity, parallelism, rehearsability and
reprocessability. Transmission velocity refers to “the speed at which a medium can deliver a
message to intended recipients.” High transmission velocity supports real-time communication;
however, communication can also be hindered due to the low pixel of the video camera, in-
consistent voice delivery or the inability to capture the physical gestures. Therefore, inadequate
speed of transmission can lead to users’ inability to fulfill the work and ultimately cause work
overload. Symbols sets concern the “number of ways in which a medium allows information to
be encoded for communication.” In face-to-face communication, natural symbol sets such as
physical, verbal and visual means can be used. These richer-innature symbol sets (physical,
verbal and visual) can facilitate real-time communication.
Otherwise, users require extra effort which leads to work overload. Parallelism describes how
many simultaneous transmissions a certain media can support at the same time. Rehearsability
and reprocessability refer to the extent to which the media enables a message to be encoded or
decoded, respectively. Two fundamental processes have been identified: conveyance and
convergence (Dennis et al., 2008). The conveyance process is the “transmission of new
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information and the processing of that information by the receiver so he/she can create and/or
modify his/her mental model of the situation,” while the convergence process is the “process of
mutually agreeing on the meaning of the information.” The conveyance process suits
communications with lower synchronicity due, in part, to high cognitive information process
requests, whereas convergence process fits with higher synchronicity because it focuses on the
negotiating process with existing mutual understanding in the participants’ mental models.
Correspondingly, there are two service modes in general: the synchronous mode and
asynchronous mode. The synchronous service generally refers to real-time video conferencing
between specialists and general practitioners. The asynchronous service includes medical files
exchange with store-and-forward technology. An individual’s perception that assigned work
exceeds an individual’s capability or skill level Role ambiguity Unpredictability of the
consequences of one’s role performance and lack of information needed to perform the role
communication support and information support to measure the complementary fit.
Communication support is defined as the degree to which the individual perceived that
transmission velocity, symbol sets, and parallelism can support banking industry communication;
information support refers to the degree to which the individual perceived support for the process
of encoding and decoding information. As inferred by the P-E theory, sufficient transmission
velocity, rich symbol sets and multi-channels are needed in this convergence process.
Supplementary Fit
Supplementary fit occurs when individuals’ values and norms match (i.e. are similar to) those of
their organizations (Kristof-Brown, 1996). Values and norms refer to beliefs about desirable
behaviors or end states. They guide the selection of behavior and transcend specific events or
objects. In this dimension, we adopt social presence theory and social support theory to
understand the psychological impression of individuals and social norms of external environment
(Maruping and Agarwal, 2004). The degree to which an individual perceives transmission
velocity Information support The degree to which an individual perceives support for the process
of encoding and decoding information complementary fit. Social presence refers to the degree to
which the banking industry system allows participants to feel psychologically close or present.
Social presence theory argues that technologies vary in terms of their ability to provide
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psychological impression of user involvement (Brown et al., 2010). Telecommunication
technologies with high social presence provide more cues verbally or non-verbally, allowing
participants to feel psychologically close to each other, which can further enhance the users’
satisfaction. In other words, the lack of social presence can cause uncertainty on users’
perception of whether the effort is made on adapting technology issues or the consultation work
itself (Fulk and Boyd, 1991).
Social support is another construct that is investigated by a handful of prior studies in the
psychology and organizational behavior domain. It can be referred to as instrumental,
informational and/or emotional assistance provided by family members, friends and co-workers
(Cooper et al., 2001). By nature, social support is a complex concept and can be interpreted from
different perspectives. Particular caution should be exercised for defining and measuring the
concept. Inconsistent results in terms of the moderating effect of social support are reported in
prior research (House, 1981; LaRocco et al., 1980; Thoits, 1995). One reason is that the
constructing manner of social support does not satisfy the assumption of the “match between
coping requirement and available support” (Cooper et al., 2001). Lack of theoretical and
methodological rigor is also considered to be an important reason (Frese, 1999). Particularly, the
measurements of social support are not interchangeable and different measures are related to
some mechanisms and outcomes but not to others. Thus, in order to test the impact of perceived
social support on technostressors, the measurement should be congruent with the theoretical
foundation.
Social support can have various sources, such as families, friends, colleagues, communities and
so on. Prior studies show that support from work places is more likely to be related to work
outcomes (Tardy, 1985). To match the potential coping requirement of health care workers in
terms of using telemedicine service, we constrain the scope of social support to that received
from co-workers in this study. The perceived social support measurement is widely accepted as a
better predictor of psychological status than are objective measures (House and Robert, 1985;
Lee, 2002; Zimet et al., 1988). We adapt the measurement based on the Berlin social support
scale (Schulz and Schwarzer, 2003) to our research context and formulate the measurement for
our research. Stress and coping social support theory (Cohen and Wills, 1985) argues that
perceived social support shows direct effect for mental health outcomes, which has been
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supported by accumulated evidence in previous research as well as anecdotal papers support
(Lakey and Cronin, 2008).
Based on the following theories reviewed, the study anchored on the theory of cognitive. The
main emphasis of this view is that stressful outcomes are determined by how people cognitively
interpret or appraise environmental demands.
2.4 Empirical Framework
2.4.1 Empirical Studies on the Influence of Work Overload on Productivity in Money
Deposit Banks
Nawe (1995) in a survey study carried out in Singapore found that “there are dramatic and
liberating benefits of information technology’ on the one hand, and the ‘new time demands,
knowledge/skills deficiencies, and psychological pressure’ on the other.” The combination of
positive and negative aspects of technology works to create uncertainty in both organization
workers and customers, which often results in stress. This stress may manifest itself in both
physical and psychological symptoms, as has been demonstrated by researchers in the health,
computer science, and accounting fields, etc. Stress has been documented to have a variety of
physical manifestations stemming from an increase in levels of adrenaline and nor-adrenaline in
the system (Sami and Pangannaiah, 2006). This increase can result in an elevated heart rate and
blood pressure level, and may be accompanied by muscle tension, such as a clenched jaw, and
increased skin conductance level, which is an indicator of a sympathetic nervous reaction.
Brillhart (2004) survey study carried out in America further identified that physical malady such
as “. . . headaches, irritability, stomach or intestinal problems and heart related issues such as
heart attack or high blood pressure”. The variety of these symptoms demonstrates the range of
physical reactions that may be experienced by technology users, the presence of which can signal
the existence of technostress. Technology-induced stress may also exhibit itself psychologically,
through negative self-image, negative thoughts about work or other computer users, and in some
cases even psychosomatic illnesses. Brillhart lists memory issues, sleep difficulties, an inability
to focus on recreational activities, and a preoccupation with work and technology-related tasks as
further symptoms of technostress. These symptoms, both physical and psychological, cause
technostress sufferers to experience poor health, negative self-image, depression and may
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ultimately result in technological avoidance, a behavior which can have negative effects on
information seeking habits and is thus of primary concern to organization. Applications of new
technologies in the workplace are implemented in order to create a competitive advantage and
reduce operating cost. The use of the technology initiates re-engineering of business processes
that were more manually-intensive and replace them with more automated processes. This
creates a new framework within an organization that removes the decision-making and power
from the workers and places the authority into the hands of newly-automated processes which is
usually controlled by management. Not only does the application of technology can alter an
organization's function groups, but it can also alter the individual’s roles in an organization
which in turn can create stress (Tarafdar et al., 2007).
Among other studies are those carried out by Champion (1988), Kupersmith (1992), Gorman
(2001) Poole and Emmelt (2001), Miller (2002) Van Fleet and Wallace (2003) scientific study in
U.S identified feelings of fear, headaches, mental fatigue, panic, nightmares, intimidation,
exhaustion, isolation, frustration, irritation, inadequacy and dislike as common symptoms of
technostress among the bankers. These anxiety symptoms can increase errors in judgement and
poor job performance if not addressed. In a survey conducted by Kupersmith (2003), in U.K
discovered that out of the 92 bankers surveyed, 59% reported that they experienced technostress
while rendering banks services to users in the past 5 years, 34% felt it has not changed much in
them and only 4% believed it has decreased in their respective banks. The investigation also
revealed that 65% of the respondents reported that technostress is a serious problem for them,
8% said it is very serious, while 27% felt it is not at all serious. Respondents identified
information overload, networking problems, security issues, computer hardware and software,
ergonomics and vendor-produced databases as leading causes of technostress for them. Common
symptoms of technostress are likely to vary among different university library staff, but may
include: feelings of isolation and frustration; negative attitudes toward new computer based
sources and systems; indifference to users’ computer-related needs; self depreciating thoughts or
statement about one’s ability to cope; an apologetic attitudes toward users; and a definition of
self as not a computer person. All these may result in the poor job performance by the banks and
information science professionals which would in turn lead to low banks users’ satisfaction.
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Barden (2001) his work shown that stress is becoming a major illness in the work environment,
and it can debilitate employees and be costly to employers. Managers need to identify those
suffering from negative stress and implement programs as a defense against stress. Foster (2002),
a professional speaker on stress-management, surveyed mid-level managers and found stress to
be a major determinant in worker productivity. In the view of the study, the primary areas
affected by stress are employee morale, absenteeism, and decision making abilities. By
recognizing that a problem exists and by addressing the issue, managers can reduce stressful
activities and increase worker performance in the business organization.
Harrold and Wayland (2002) reported that increasing stress affects morale, productivity,
organizational efficiency, absenteeism, and profitability for both individuals and the
organization. The problem for businesses today knows how to determine stressful areas in their
organizations and how to use constructive confrontation methods to reduce stress and improve
efficiency. In the words of the authors, organizations that make a positive effort to deal with
stress not only help build trust among their employees, but also increase the productivity of their
employees and the organization as a whole. Maurer (2002) study stated that stress-induced
illnesses are prevalent in the workplace today, and stress is the problem of the sufferer and the
employer. Stress causes absenteeism and can lead to other problems such as drug addiction,
alcoholism, depression, and poor job performance. Maurer, the annual Barlow Corporation
Forum on Human Resource Issues and Trends reported that large numbers of companies noticed
severe levels of stress exhibited by employees (2002). The forum's panelists agreed that more
needed to be done in the workplace to help employees manage stress. Some of the suggestions
were to expand wellness programs, offer stress-management seminars, and teach staff how to
balance work and family life. Maurer also noted that Olympic TeamTech, a computer
management company, has dealt with employee stress by providing training programs,
monitoring employee concerns, and meeting once a month to be proactive instead of reactive.
Olympic TeamTech's turnover is less than the industry average.
Empirical evidence revealed that technostress has negative influence on the users of technology,
which in turn has an adverse effect on productivity and job satisfaction (Tarafdar et al., 2011).
Also, studies suggested that technostress is higher among professionals that use technology to
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accomplish their tasks (Agbu and Simeon, 2011; Ayyagari, 2007, Ayyagari, 2012, Schuldt and
Totten, (2008) and it has impacted on their task performance in the organization. In spite of the
effects of technostress on both individuals and organizational performance, technostress
inhibitors are discovered by Tarafdar, et al. (2007) to help alleviate its effects, which their studies
have identified to be the provision of training, technical support, user involvement among others.
Therefore, the negative impact of technostress on the professionals using AIS in the workplace
cannot be overemphasized especially on the related issues of job satisfaction and job
performance which culminates into organizational performance. Charlesworth and Nathan
(1984), survey study in New York found that up to 75% of all visits to physicians are the result
of stress related disorders. Their study concluded that hypertension; coronary heart disease,
headaches, asthma, gastrointestinal disorders, and many skin disorders are all related to stress.
Cobb and Rose (1973) found a relationship between high workloads and elevated blood pressure
among air-traffic controllers.
Stress has been a major issue for organizations, and employers must deal with it in order to be
productive at work. In the past decade, technology has grown tremendously, and many new job-
related stresses have arisen. A portion of this job stress can be attributed to technology use.
Stress induced by technology has been denoted as technostress and has become a major issue for
organizations. The use of technology can create tension and anxiety for workers. This anxiety
manifests itself when individuals become overwhelmed about using technology. If they do not
understand the technology, it can frighten them and can lead to work tension. The anxiety and
tension can also come from the inability to use the technology that leads to a disadvantage over
other workers who do use the technology effectively. The non-users become less competitive
compared to their counterparts (Brillhart, 2004; Tarafdar et al., 2007).
Applications of new technologies in the workplace are implemented in order to create a
competitive advantage and reduce operating cost. The use of the technology initiates re-
engineering of business processes that were more manually-intensive and replace them with
more automated processes. This creates a new framework within an organization that removes
the decision-making and power from the workers and places the authority into the hands of
newly-automated processes which is usually controlled by management. Not only does the
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application of technology can alter an organization's function groups, but it can also alter the
individual’s roles in an organization which in turn can create stress (Tarafdar et al., 2007). In the
21st century, most jobs require some type of technological interaction whether in an office or in
the field. Interaction with computer systems is inevitable and can create technostress that can
lead to ineffectiveness in the workplace as well as health problems. These health problems lead
to missed work, absents and loss in productivity. Organizations need to understand these issues
and implement solutions (Arnetz and Wiholm, 1997; Thomee et al., 2007).
Technostress has been observed in many different financial industries. The most common
industry is the informational technology field. Within this field, technology is constantly being
implemented, integrated, and used by its workers. Businesses are continually reengineering their
work processes in order to be more productive and efficient especially with the downturn of the
economy. IT professionals in the informational technology field are not immune to technostress.
These workers are both implementers as well as sufferers of the technology they create and are
impacted similarly as other workers in other industries. These IT professional learn how to cope
with the technostress by identifying the root cause of the stress and implementing coping
strategies such as learning the functionalities and increasing training on the technology to help
mitigate the technostress (Scott and Timmerman, 2005). With so much information on the
Internet, it is inevitable that the information must be sorted and organized. The organization
created a work culture of technology integration. This allowed the employees’ time to assimilate
and use the technology in all of their daily work tasks. The banking industry also has shared in
the increase in technostress. With the increase of online banking, e-transact, mobile banks, e-
banking and e-shopping are accessing this information over the Internet. Because of this,
information overload can occur which is a component of technostress. Although all this
information can be useful, there comes a point where the volume of information can become
detrimental to the users. Researchers have learned to use technology to filter and consolidate the
most important articles related to their field of interest. But even with the filtering, an enormous
amount of information is obtained, and users become anxious they cannot assimilate all of it
(Hall and Walton, 2004
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2.5 Empirical Studies on the Extent of Burnout Stress on Growth in Banking Industry
The longitudinal study by Murray and Rostis (2007), Sethi and Barrier (1999), and Moore
(2000), survey study carried out in England found that workers can become overwhelmed and
experience burnout because of technology. With the constant usage and technology interaction
within an organization, individuals can become inundated. This engulfing of technology can
make users "tired" and "exhausted". The technological "burnout" makes workers ineffective.
Coping with technostress can be challenging for an organization. One last area on how
technostress affects organizations is implementation or acceptance of technology. Based on
these, Popovich (1994) study and Abdul-Gader and Kozar (1995), descriptive survey study
carried out in Pakistan found that implementing and maintaining technology in an organization
can be difficult if the level of technostress is too high. The organization's worker needs to accept
the new technology in order for it to work. Major ICT adoption has been purported in the
literature to have a range of important impacts on the quality of work life. This occurs through a
number of means, some direct and some indirect (Tarafdar et al., 2007).
It is very important to note that job burnout may be caused by technostress and excessive
workloads among bank personnels working in automated banking environment. Diverse
definitions of burnout abound in literature from the time of the first definition by Freudenberger
who in 1974 that defined the concept as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, disillusionment
and withdrawal in voluntary health workers (Amoo et al 2008). Affleck (1996) defines burnout
as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and loss of a sense of personal
accomplishment. Burnout has also been viewed by Saduwa (2012) as a state of emotional,
mental and physical exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged stress. It occurs when one
feels overwhelmed and unable to meet constant demands, problems seem insurmountable,
everything looks bleak and it is difficult to muster up the energy to care. The helplessness and
detachment burnout causes can threaten one’s job, relationship and health. All these reduce
individual productivity and sap energy, leaving one’s feeling increasing helpless, cynical and
resentful about one’s legitimate obligations and condition. Thus, burnout can be described as loss
of all interest and motivation to a cause, way of life or a job that one has hitherto been highly
committed to. It usually manifests in highly committed, passionate, hard working and successful
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people and it therefore holds a special fear for those who are passionate about their careers and
about the work they do.
Moreso, studies conducted by authorities such as Lee and Akhtar (2007) Brookings; Bolton,
Brown and McEvoy (2007); in U.S and Nwabuoku and Adebayo (2010) in Nigeria have
identified the following as some of the causative factors of burnout among helping professionals
such as nurses, teachers and bankers: excessive workload, low acknowledgement and
appreciation of type of job performed, lack of therapeutic success, lack of observable progress
with clients, poorly designed job, too many emotional demands from co-workers, ungrateful and
difficult clients, etc. The symptoms of burnout are manifested in the physical and emotional
wellbeing of the sufferers. The physical symptoms include physical fatigue, frequent illness and
sleep problems, while emotional symptoms include disillusionment with the job, loss of a sense
of meaning and cynicism towards one’s organization and clients, feelings of helplessness,
frustration of efforts, strong anger against the people held responsible for one’s situation and
feelings of depression and isolation. All these can lead to behavioural symptoms of increasing
detachment from co-workers, increasing absenteeism, an increased harshness in dealing with
one’s team, marked reduction in job commitment, etc. These may in turn result in poor job
performance and unsatisfactory service delivery to users.
Providing insight of the physiology of stress, research in New York scientific study indicated
that persons experience higher levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline during work periods with
computers (Arnetz and Berg, 1993). Adrenaline and noradrenaline are catecholamines secreted
by the adrenal gland. Increased excretion rates of adrenaline and noradrenaline are associated
with both underload and overload (stress) stimulation and emotional arousal. Other effects of the
increased catecholamines levels, as part of sympathetic nervous responses, are increased heart
rate and blood pressure. Increased heart rate and blood pressure have been observed in persons
performing a computer task (Muter et al, 1993).
A survey study by Masey and Stedman (1995) in U.K. showed that the increase in demands for
technology was among the main attributing factors to added job stress. They pointed out three
ways how stress is inherent in technology: through (a) client expectation; (b) aggressive
marketing schemes from software manufacturers; and (c) desire to always be on the cutting edge
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of technology. They further conducted a survey of information-technology professionals
concerning feelings about stress in their work environments. The researchers stated that 86% of
surveyed technology workers indicated that their jobs were more stressful now than they were 5
years ago. They attributed the added stress to being understaffed and having additional
responsibilities. The authors went on to say that employee stress was related to a "feeling of high
responsibility and loss of control." They further stated that it is generally the most "conscientious
workers who are inclined to develop job stress." They concluded that the nature of information
technology "demands a high degree of meticulousness and attracts the type of individuals who
are already prone to stress’ like Type A personality individuals (Agbu, 2010). It was also noted
by Massey and Stedman (1995) that organizational politics, dwindling resources, hiring freezes,
and a desire to be on the "cutting edge of technology places an undue burden on the availability
of resources to implement and manage new technology." In addition to that, results of a 49
months study of business attitudes by Rosen and Weil (2000) revealed that over a period of three
years, clerical workers, managers, and executives became more resistant and hesitant to use new
technology. A vast majority (80%) of the respondent reported that technology had brought
additional stress to their lives. Some of the ways technology has made their work more stressful
are system problems errors, steep learning curve, requirement for more work, and rapid change
in technology.
Ragu-Nathan, T. S. Monideepa Tarafdar, Bhanu S. Ragu- Nathan, (2008) survey study in
Pakistan agreed that it is the characteristics of information communication technologies that are
creating stress in technology end-users. Shepard (1971) indicates that organizational employees
can suffer from three aspects of work alienation resulting from the introduction of new
technology: 1.) fear of a loss of control over the work environment, 2.) the implication that
employees have been reduced to machine attendants, and 3.) fear that the technology will get the
credit for a job well done. Most persons might experience mild forms of technostress but for
those who experience extreme levels of technostress there may be some dire negative effects.
Extreme stress may result in health related problems, like cardiac problems, hypertension,
migraine headaches e.t.c. A possible negative outcome is "job burnout". Based on the literature,
another major concern with technostress is health and psychological issues. The study by
Thomee et al. (2007) revealed that technostress can cause depression and sleeping issues. This in
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turn can affect many other aspects of life such as work and family. Technostress can also affect
work performance. Arnetz and Wiholm study (2007), technostress can create psychosomatic
issues for the workers which can lead to inefficiencies at work. One area that is a main concern
with organizations is productivity. With the use of technology, organizations are expecting an
increase in productivity. But if technostress also increased because of the technology,
productivity could be adversely affected. Koellinger (2006) study concluded that the use of
technology can affect business processes as well as productivity.
2.6 Empirical Studies on the Effects of Computer Phobia Psychological Factors on Market
Shares.
Technostress deals with stress due to information and communication technologies. However,
an individual‘s work situation could be stressful for several reasons (in addition to technostress).
In brief, technostress is driven by a range of psycho-social factors: Psychological Capital,
Work Overload, Interpersonal Conflict, Role Ambiguity, Work-Family conflict, Role
Anxiety and Insecurity, Cognitive Processing, Role Conflict, Role-overload and Invasion
of Privacy. It is suggested that some of the well-known stressors may be more
pronounced with the use of information and communication technologies at work (Frese,
1987). For example, the work overload stressor might have a component due to the use
of information and communication technologies and other components due to the nature of the
job. Since the focus of this study is on technostress, it is important to only consider stressors due
to information and communication technologies. Consequently, future references to stressors
(i.e. work overload, role ambiguity, invasion of privacy, job insecurity, work–home conflict
etc) refer to the components of these stressors due to information and communication
technologies (e.g., work overload refers to work overload due to information and
communication technologies). The psychological factors include;
Psychological Capital
Taking a new approach, this study in U.S draws from both positive psychology and the
emerging study of positive organizational behavior to investigate whether the recently identified
core construct of psychological capital may be a key factor in better understanding not
only how employees perceive stress symptoms, but also the impact of stress on work-
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related behaviors. The core construct of positive psychological capital (Luthans et al., 2007;
Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007) has been defined as ―an individual‘s positive psychological state
of development and is characterized by: (1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put
in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution
(optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals and,
when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by
problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resilience) to attain
success (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007).
This operational definition differentiates the core construct of PsyCap (efficacy, optimism, hope,
and resilience) from the widely recognized aspects of human capital (what you know in terms of
knowledge, skills, abilities, and experience) and social capital (whom you know, including your
network of relationships). Recent research in U.S has empirically supported PsyCap as a higher –
order core factor (Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007) that is open to development (Luthans, Avey,
Avolio, Norman, and Combs, 2006; Luthans, Avey, and Patera, 2008) is associated with higher
performance (Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007) and may affect employee stress levels.
Role Anxiety and Insecurity
Further, information and communication technologies have been known to induce anxiety
and tension in users (Marcoulides, 1989). Depending on an individual‘s disposition toward
information and communication technologies, his or her interaction with computers can
be fraught with nervousness and apprehension. This can create psychological effects such as
insecurity about information and communication technologies, and can decrease confidence and
overall comfort about their use. A few studies in U.S (Brillhart, 2004) have discussed individual
attempts to deal with feelings of anxiety and stress in their efforts to reorganize familiar work
habits and deal with increased possibilities for remote supervision, multitasking, and pervasive
connectivity. Such conditions could lead to feelings of helplessness and of being hassled, and can
result in aversion to (Abdul-Gader, and Kozar, 1995) and phobia about (Hudiburg, and
Necessary, 1996) the use of computers.
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Interpersonal Conflict
Stress research is shifting from its traditional focus on role stress and workload to stress
that originates from interpersonal interactions at work (Diefendorff and Ellington 2008;
Schieman and Reid 2008; Young and Corsun 2010). Because humans are social beings, their
attitudes and behaviors are significantly influenced by the quality of interpersonal relationships
(Frone 2000). Interpersonal problems are a universal human phenomenon that often ranks as a
primary source of unhappiness in people‘s lives (Frone, 2000). A construct that measures the
quality of interpersonal relationships at work is interpersonal conflict. In the workplace,
interpersonal conflict can range from minor disagreements with coworkers to heated arguments
and physical violence. Interpersonal conflict involves both overt (e.g., rudeness) and covert
(e.g., spreading rumors) behaviors that lead to psychological strain. Despite the potential
importance of this construct, research investigating the effect of interpersonal conflict in
sales settings is limited. Interpersonal conflict has been associated with employees‘
divergence of interests (Bluen and Barling, 1988) and often occurs in selling, where
salespeople compete for resources and customers (Narayanan, Menon, and Spector 1999).
A high degree of interpersonal conflict occurs when employees have different and
conflicting views about job issues (De Dreu and Weingart, 2003). Because role conflict
measures employees‘ beliefs that job demands are incompatible (Chen and Spector, 1992), a
strong association between interpersonal conflict and role conflict should be expected. In brief,
Interpersonal conflict represents the extent to which an employee has negatively charged social
interactions with coworkers (Spector, 1987). Interpersonal conflict is one of the most important
stressors at work due to its pervasive effect on employee emotions and team work (Liu,
Spector, and Shi 2007). Interpersonal conflict is of particular concern in boundary spanning
positions where collaborative work is expected (Mulki et al 2008).
Works-Family Conflict
Work-family conflict is generally defined as a form of inter-role conflict in which the
role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible or incongruous in
some respect, whereby participation in one role is made more difficult by virtue of participation
in the other (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985). Work-family conflict has been neglected in previous
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stress research because work and family are often viewed as separate life domains. However,
recent studies suggest that the interface of work and family produces stresses and strains for
employees (Cooper et al. 2001). Evidence in U.K also indicated that work-family conflict is
associated with a lower level of job satisfaction and a higher propensity to leave the organization
(Burke, 1988). Some job-related factors such as work involvement, hours of work, and job
flexibility were found to affect the level of work-family conflict (Ngo and Lau, 1998). Because
of heavy job involvement, as well as long and inflexible working hours, it seems that clergy
experience a higher level of work-family conflict than other workers. In brief, work–home
conflict is the perceived conflict between the demands of work and family (Cooper et al., 2001).
Cognitive Processing
Information and Communication Technology users are regularly inundated with
information from many different sources. Such information is frequently more than they can
effectively procesed. This, combined with increasing levels of complexity in the ever changing
information and communication technologies, creates feelingsof being unable to cope and
leads to stress. Technostress, therefore, is one of the fallouts of an individual‘s attempts and
struggles to deal with constantly evolving information and communication technologies
and the changing cognitive and social requirements related to their use. Its effects have
become increasingly apparent over the past few years with the rapid proliferation of information
and communication technologies in the workplace. There have also been studies in U.K. on the
stress experienced by information systems personnel (Ivancevich et. al. 1983; Li, and Shani,
1991; Sethi et. al. 2004). However, there is little systematic research that tries to understand the
stress -creating aspects of information and communication technologies and their effects on
the users of information and communication technologies in organizations. Given the rapid
and ever changing developments in information and communication technologies in recent
years, there have been dramatic and irreversible changes in the workplace, and new concerns
have emerged with regard to managing these changes (Markus, 2004).
For the most part, the use of information and communication technologies in the
workplace is not optional. It is therefore important to understand the stress-creating effects
of information and communication technologies. Although these studies establish the
importance of technostress, it is not clear which characteristics of technology create stress.
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This conceptualization essentially black boxes the technostress phenomenon, making the
boundaries and relationship between technology characteristics and stress ambiguous. For
example, one of the dimensions used to capture technostress is techno-overload, which
asserts that there is greater workload and this is caused by technology. However, it is not
clear what characteristics of technology are causing this increase in workload.
Role Overload
Role overload refers to the sheer amount of work required and the time frame in which
work must be completed (Cooper et al, 2001), it occurs when work roles require more time and
effort than an individual has for them so that the roles cannot be performed adequately and
comfortably (Markham and Bonjean, 1996). Previous research in America has shown that role
overload is related to higher levels of strain, anxiety and depression, as well as poor job
performance (Cooper et al, 2001). Role overload is an issue for clergy since they work an
irregular schedule that involves unpaid overtime. They are expected to have high
involvement in multiple work roles (Beck, 1998) and, thus, they are likely to suffer from role
overload. In brief, work overload reflects the degree to which work requirements
(environmental demands) exceed the individual‘s abilities.
Role Conflict
Role conflict is a feeling of being torn in multiple directions, unable to find a way to make every
role partner satisfied. It occurs when, for example, a manager believes that the expectations and
demands of his or her boss and customer are incompatible. In other words, Role conflict refers to
the incompatibility in communicated expectations that impinge on perceived role
performance (Rizzo et al 1970). It exists when an employee faces incompatible
expectations such that compliance with one expectation would make it difficult or
impossible to effectively comply with the other expectations (Kahn et al ., 1964). Similar to
role ambiguity, role conflict was found to be associated with numerous undesirable
consequences, including lower job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job
performance, and higher turnover intentions (Jackson and Schuler, 1985). Role conflict is
a problem for managers because they need to interact with different groups of people,
including stakeholders with diverse backgrounds, who make different expectations and demands
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on their time. They also need to perform a multiplicity of roles (Kay, 2000). When these role
expectations are incongruent and conflicting, and managers do not have sufficient time and
resources to fulfill these role expectations, they are likely to experience role conflict.
Work Overload
Work overload is the perception that assigned work exceeds an individual‘s capability or skill
level (Cooper et al. 2001). Role overload happens when the requirements from an individual‘s
role exceed his or her capacity in terms of the level of difficulty or the amount of work (Kahn et.
al. 1964). Quantitative role overload describes situations where there is simply too much to do.
Qualitative role overload relates to instances where the job that is required to be done is
too difficult for the individual to accomplish (Katz and Kahn, 1978). Work overload can also
happen when a person has to fulfill a number of different roles, more than what he or she can
effectively manage (Kahn et al, 1964). In such a situation, the individual is exposed to too
many requirements from different roles and simply becomes overwhelmed.
Role Ambiguity
Role ambiguity is the perception that one lacks information necessary to perform a job or task,
leading the perceiver to feel helpless. It is a manager‘s uncertainty about the expectations
of different members in his or her role set (e.g., boss, customers). In other words, role
ambiguity occurs when an individual does not have clear information about the expectations of
his or her role in the job or organization (Rizzo et al , 1970). As shown by previous studies,
higher levels of role ambiguity are related to lower job satisfaction, more job-related tension and
anxiety, lower work commitment and involvement, lower job performance, and a greater
propensity to leave the organization (Jackson and Schuler, 1985). Managers are likely to
experience role ambiguity when their work role is not clearly defined and they need to
perform diverse tasks and duties (Kuhne and Donaldson, 1995). As they work independently,
managers may not receive clear and sufficient information about their work role requirements
and expected performance from the organization. Monahan (1999) survey studies in Kenya
examined the antecedents of role ambiguity and suggested that unclear boundaries between
employees and lay people, and among those employed in different locations, were the main
sources of role ambiguity. She further found that the employee task load, job description
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and background characteristics, such as specialized training and tenure, were associated
with role ambiguity. In brief, Role ambiguity is the unpredictability of the consequences
of one‘s role performance and lack of information needed to perform the role (Cooper et
al. 2001).
Invasion of Privacy
Invasion of privacy involves the perception that an individual‘s privacy has been compromised
(Alge 2001). The use of information and communication technologies creates stress in users and
is caused by an inability to adapt or cope with new information and communication technologies
in a healthy manner (Brod, 1984; Weil and Rosen 1997). For instance, the pervasiveness of
modern information and communication technologies often results in almost constant
connectivity through e-mail, the Internet, and the phone. Individuals feel that because they are
always connected, they are on call. This leads them to believe that they have lost control over
their time and space, which creates feelings of being stressed out.
2.7 Empirical Studies on the Perception of Techno-Complexity on Creativity in Money
Deposit Banks.
In recent years, while the rapid development of IT has brought convenience, it has also caused
four commons negative effects. The first is computer anxiety, Harrington, Elroy, and Morrow
(1990) survey study in U.S termed the negative psychological status when people have aversion
or rejection towards the use of computers as computer anxiety or computer phobia. Cambre and
Cook (1985) defined computer anxiety as the feelings of worries, fear, or incompetence
experienced by users when they use or even anticipate using computer technologies. Computer
anxiety is found to be a source of negative impact on organizational performance (Desai and
Richards, 1998).
The second is Internet anxiety; one major reason for causing Internet anxiety is that users need
to learn new languages and applications in a short period of time (Macaulay, 2003). Another is
the fear of dealing with unforeseen circumstances, contacting strangers, or being involved in a
variety of risks (e.g. viruses and spyware). Presno (1998) clarified four types of Internet anxiety:
Internet terminology anxiety, net search anxiety, Internet time delay anxiety, and general fear of
Internet failure.
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The third is Technostress. Brod (1984) defined technostress as “a modern disease of adaptation
caused by an inability to cope with new computer technologies in a healthy manner”. Weil and
Rosen (1997) further defined the notion as the negative influence of attitudes, cognition,
behavior, or mental state of mind after the user had made contact with a technology directly or
indirectly. Tarafdar et al. (2007) study developed and verified one which consists of five groups
of factors to describe how technostress occurs in generic situations: techno-overload, techno-
invasion, techno-complexity, techno-insecurity, and techno-uncertainty. Tarafdar et al. (2007)
also took a further step to examine what effects technostress can have on role stress and
productivity, and the results show both relationships are negative. Ragu-Nathan et al. (2008)
explored the effects on individuals and organizations of technostress based on a transaction-
based model, and identified technostress creators and inhibitors. Technostress creators include
techno-overload, techno-invasion, techno-complexity, techno-insecurity, and techno-uncertainty.
Technostress inhibitors are Technical support provision, Literacy facilitation, and Involvement
facilitation. These studies in U.K also reveal a negative relationship between technostress
creators and job satisfaction and a positive relationship between job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, and continuance commitment from technostress.
The fourth is Mobile Technostress. Yu et al. (2009) survey study in China pointed out that
mobile technostress comprises four components which are technology, stress, technostress, and
mobile technology. The major concern with using IT is to have control of it. Users experience
stress when they lose control, have a bad experience, or are unable to utilize it adequately. Four
technology acceptance factors can be used for measuring the creation of mobile technostress:
usefulness of technology, ease of use of technology, techno-accessibility of technology, and
normality of technology. Their study shows that when there is interaction between human beings
and technology, there is the potential for a negative impact. While technology empowers users
with more abilities to handle tasks, mobile technostress surfaces if the users cannot find a
balance between using and controlling the technology, particularly when they sense a loss of
control.
Apart from the previous mentioned anxiety and stress caused by fear and struggle of use, this
study discusses the stress derived from the ubiquitous nature of technology i.e. ubiquitous
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technostress. Since this is a newer notion of technostress, academic work on it is very rare but
several practical examples can be seen. In past few years, a number of news reports have
indicated that the ubiquitous nature of mobile technology has caused phone users to be
negatively impacted emotionally. For example, the use of the Blackberry mobile phone has
caused 45 suicide cases (22 succeeded and 13 tried unsuccessfully) in France’s Telecom because
the employees have experienced much stress from using the mobile phone in replying to an
overwhelming volume of emails and messages (Hartley, 2009). The study done in the United
Kingdom found that nearly 53 percent of mobile phone users in Britain tend to be anxious about
being out of mobile phone contact which includes: running out of battery, being out of network
coverage, or losing their mobile phone (Wikipedia, 2010). This is called “Nomophobia”. It is
found that several common negative effects of overusing mobile phones are, for example, stress,
attitude towards suicide, and anxiety and nervousness (worry concerning outage of battery or
loss of reception)
In order to understand the phenomenon of technostress, another study in U.K focused on the
stress source of IT functions’ complexity. Liang and Wei (2004) were concentrated on two other
characteristics of mobile technologies. These were mobility and reachability. Reachability can be
further divided into detailed characteristics including ubiquity, convenience, instant connectivity,
personalization, and localization. Ubiquitous is the word that can be used to sum up these
characteristics. In line with these characteristics and prior literature, this study defines ubiquitous
technostress as:
“The users of a mobile technology who are familiar with the current operating technology
encountering specific stress caused by the characteristics of mobility and/or reachability of the
technology or suffering for a long period of time through continual connection with that
particular mobile technology”.
Prior research suggested that stress causes various kinds of effects to banking organizations, such
as reduced productivity, increased work dissatisfaction, lack of involvement in work, and low job
performance (Jackson and Schuler 1985; Kahn et al. 1964). Wheeler and Riding (1994) found
that stress is a factor which can cause inefficiency, a high turnover rate, absence, low work
quality, increased healthcare costs, and reduced job satisfaction. The Tarafdar et al. (2007) study
also pointed out that technostress has a negative impact on productivity, and when employees
feel higher technostress, there will be a productivity paradox. This means that if managers cannot
94
effectively govern technostress, the expected productivity will be affected. Based on these
findings, the stress in an organization will lead to reduced employee productivity and other
results.
Prior survey studies in Europe mentioned factors such as: job redesign, job adjustment, stress
management training, work information sharing, social support, health plans, negotiation,
assistance, and enhancing the job control (Davis and Gibson, 1994; Jimmieson and Terry 1998)
as means of reducing stress. McGrath (1976) mentioned that the factors that cause stress
(stressors) will increase the consequences from personal burden (strain-related outcomes) while
some of the mechanisms from the organization (e.g. situational factors) will reduce these
consequences. Several studies also indicated that the mechanisms supplied from organizations
(the situational factors), such as giving employees more control over their work (Karasek, 1979),
and providing more work-related information (Jimmieson and Terry, 1998) are useful for
moderating the relationship between stressors and strain. Cooper et al. (2001), Fenlason and
Beehr (1994) also mentioned that there is a moderating effect on the relationship between
stressors and strain if providing feedback and training. Yet, on the other hand, Ragu-Nathan et al.
(2008) found that situational factors have an insignificant moderating effect on the relationship
between stressors and strain. Prior literature has shown that job stress can cause health related
problems to employees and consequently create problems for the organization, such as employee
dissatisfaction, psychological problems, low productivity, absenteeism, and a high turnover rate
(Beehr and Newman, 1978; Parker and Decotiis, 1983). For organizations, those negative
outcomes include absenteeism, a high turnover rate, and low productivity. Dwyer and Ganster’s
(1991) also mentioned that high stress in the work environment can generate significant costs,
such as sickness, loss of time, and low productivity.
Tennant (2001) survey study in U.S found that work-related stress can negatively affect job
satisfaction, productivity, physiological health, and mental health, and also stimulates
absenteeism and other monetary costs. A number of studies had also focused specifically on the
relationship between organizational commitment and job stress (Boshoff and Mels, 1994; Dale
and Fox, 2008; Vakola and Nikolaou, 2005). In the view of Omolara (2008), study employees
with low level of stress were more committed to achieving organizational goals and reported
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higher level of commitment towards the organization. However, his study did not identify the
specific stressors that correlated with organizational behaviour, unlike the findings of Dale and
Fox (2008), and others. The studies of Dale and Fox (2008), Lopopolo (2002), Tu, Ragu-Nathan
and Ragu-Nathan (2001), and Jamal (1990) all concluded that two type of role stressors, namely
role ambiguity and role conflict, were negatively related to organizational commitment. Focusing
on role conflict and role clarity, Lee and Jamil (2003) also argued that role conflict was
negatively related to organizational commitment while a positive relationship existed between
role clarity and organizational commitment. On the contrary, Boshoff and Mels (1994) only
found a significant inverse relationship between organizational commitment and conflict but
failed to find significant correlation between organizational commitment and role ambiguity.
While these studies were conducted across professions and geographical locations, they were
still mainly limited to the stressors of role conflict and role ambiguity and did not focus on the
different types of organizational commitment.
(Harper, 2000) Ragu-Nathan, Tarafdar, Ragu-Nathan, and Tu (2008) study revealed that techno-
overload, techno-invasion, techno-insecurity, techno-complexity, and techno-uncertainty are
among the sources of technostress, known as technostress creators.
Griffin and Moorhead (2010) descriptive survey study carried out in U.K simply assert that job
satisfaction “is the extent to which people find gratification or fulfillment in their work.” Similarly,
McShane and Glinow (2010) described job satisfaction as “an evaluation of perceived job characteristics,
work environment, and emotional experiences at work.” While job performance is defined as “all the
behaviors employees engage in while at work” (Jex, 2002). However, the impact of technostress on job
satisfaction and job performance is gaining deserved recognition from the management of organizations.
This is evident that users’ satisfaction is a surrogate for the decreasing technostress as well as the success
of an information system in the organizations (Tarafdar, et al., 2011). Many theories were used by
scholars in attempting to explain the antecedents and consequences of job satisfaction. This led to the
factors that are associated with job satisfaction to include commitment, performance, turnover,
absenteeism, well-being and general life satisfaction (Chatzoglou, Vraimaki, and Komsiou, 2011).
Therefore, job dissatisfaction is negatively associated with a strain which can lead to poor job
performance (Tarafdar et al., 2007). Although, McShane and Von Glinow (2010) argued that employees
may be dissatisfied with their jobs but can improve their performance as some will be waiting to leave,
sees the situation as temporary or leave with it. For instance, the introduction of technology turned-on the
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employees 24/7 and the productivity improved but the finding suggested that they suffers severely malady
of technostress (Gendreau, 2007).
Tarafdar et al. (2007) study further submitted that technological changes have determined the
work progress of the users in Pakistan by dictating the pace and timing of action to take, causes
job dissatisfaction relationship because of lack of control, task difficulty and increase work
demand. Therefore, technostress creators decrease job satisfaction and reduce productivity
resulting from the effect of technology on tasks flow of work and processes involved (Dhar and
Dhar, 2010; Rose, Stoklosa, and Gray, 1998).
Prior study Al-Fudail and Mellar (2008) revealed that inadequate or insufficient training and
technical support are listed among the factors that create technostress in the users of technology.
Notwithstanding, empirical evidence suggests that the technostress creators reduce job
satisfaction while technostress inhibitors increases job satisfaction (Tarafdar et al., 2011).
Similarly, Ayyagari (2012) confirmed that better technology management strategy (inhibiting)
increases job satisfaction. To this end, technostress that is triggered by the use of technology
have negative effects on the users because it dictates the pace and timing of task performance,
involves use of varieties of ICTs and impose multitasking with the resultant effect of job
dissatisfaction and decrease in job performance. However, these effects can best be managed
using the technostress inhibitors to increase user job satisfaction which has reciprocal effects on
job performance.
The complexity of technical capabilities and terminology associated with ICTs has increased
significantly in recent years. Anecdotal findings and trade surveys (Weil, and Rosen, 1997)
suggest that most people find the variety of applications, functions, and technical jargon
intimidating, and do not really understand what many of the words mean or how the technologies
associated with them can be used. Fear and anxiety are common reactions to this ever increasing
complexity of ICTs (DeMaagd, 1983, Yaverbaum, 1988). Further, although most ICT
applications, such as enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, are quite complex, they do not
completely meet business requirements and cannot be used without major modifications. Even
after these modifications have been made, computers crash, applications are slow, and it takes
time to troubleshoot and get help. This creates dissatisfaction and a feeling of being unable to
cope (Fisher, and Wesolkowski, 1999), often leading to low productivity.
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The use of ICTs enables information input from multiple channels, such as internal company
sources, the Internet, and other external sources. Individuals are therefore exposed to more
information than they can efficiently handle and effectively use (Brod, 1984, Weil, and Rosen,
1999). They feel inundated with information and are forced to work faster to cope with increased
processing requirements. Also, they feel compelled to acquire and process the information
simply because it is available. This may actually impair performance and lead to stress. This has
been referred to as "information fatigue" (Weil, and Rosen, 1997) and "datasmog" (Brillhart,
2004).
ICTs help in multitasking and hence help accomplish more tasks at the same time. It is common,
for example, to have several applications running simultaneously and to carry out many different
information-processing tasks at the same time. However, there are limits to which individuals
can effectively engage in multitasking, and the use of ICTs can lead individuals to exceed these
limits, resulting in exhaustion. Prolonged multitasking, aided by the use of KTs, often leads to
burnout and adversely affects productivity. Based on the above discussions, it can be
hypothesized that there is an inverse relationship between technostress and productivity.
2.8 Empirical Studies on the Management of Techno-Invasion to Enhance Innovation in
Money Deposit Banks.
Monat and Lazarus (1991) survey study carried out in America on coping strategies have
classified them into two major categories:
Emotion focused strategies and problem-focused strategies. “Problem-focused coping refers to
effort to improve the troubled person –environment relationship by changing things for example,
by seeking information about what to do, by holding back from impulsive and premature actions,
and by confronting the person or persons responsible for ones difficulty. Emotion focused (or
palliative) coping refers to thoughts or actions whose goal is to relieve the emotional impact of
stress. These are apt to be mainly palliative in the sense that such strategies of coping do not
actually alter the threatening or damaging condition but make the person feel better. Example are
avoiding thinking about the trouble, denying that anything is wrong, distancing oneself as in
joking about what makes one feel distressed or taking tranquilizer or attempting to relax” (Monat
and Lazarus, 1991).
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Also it is not surprising; given the result of Clute (1988) study carried out in U.K found that the
majority of advice on coping with technostress is directed at management in banks. Some of this
advice is pertinent to staff as well, such as keeping your perspective and maintaining a sense of
humor (Champion, 1988). Champion suggested that banks and other organization should; discuss
technostress and plan for it, take breaks from technology, take time to pay attention to the people
with whom you work, exercise at the computer while it completes routine tasks, set realistic
goals, ask for help when you need advice, learn positive imaging, mediate, listen to stress
reduction tapes, get messages therapy (Compute specific) and / or cognitive and use biofeedback
software. We need to learn new ways to cope with the constant demand to learn new skills, meet
speedier turnaround times, and be accessible 24 hours a day. The pace of technological
innovation and intrusion into our lives is unprecedented, and there needs to be a radical re-
thinking of how we relate to technology. Yet managed appropriately, technology can enhance
both the quality and efficiency of everyday life. Weil and Rosen (1999) quantitative study
offered these tips to help people manage the information flow:
• Sift and trash-Try to focus on the information you really need instead of news blips that
distract. Think critically and separate the gems from the dross.
• Set limits-Ration the time you spend watching television, listening to the radio and
cruising the Internet. Designate the best times for people to call or fax you.
• Respond on your own time-Disable the e-mail ding and turn off the ringer on the fax
machine.
• Relax when technology makes you wait-instead of getting irritated while your e-mail
boots or a company's telephone system puts you on hold, use that time to rest or tend to
small tasks.
• Use the technologies that work for you-You don't have to acquire every new technology.
If beepers and cell phones cause you stress, stick with voice mail.
• Schedule time away from information-Set aside slots for exercise, sports, dinner with
friends and family vacations. Additional strategies for coping with the detrimental effects
of technology on health and well-being at work and home.
Mohamad, (2010) survey study in Pakistan highlight the following as solutions methods for
technostress:
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• Using appropriate software with simple usage.
• Creation of suitable environment for connection between employees and technologies
• Creation of stable and secure environment.
• Training new technologies to employees
Further the act of combating technostress means finding ways to achieve a healthy balance of
using technology without becoming consumed by it:
• Awareness is the first step. See where technology has created stress in your personal and
professional life. Keep a daily log or diary to identify how and when you use the Internet, cell
phones, and pagers. By becoming more aware of ways you use and possibly abuse technology,
you’ll learn to take control of it instead of being controlled by it.
• Take a technology time-out. Take time each day to avoid plugging into anything. Avoid
computers, fax machines, phones, and any other technological devices that habitually demand
your attention. Get up, walk around the office, stretch, do breathing exercises, or meditate. At the
very least, take a short vision break from your computer. A quick time-out can help you feel
more refreshed and better able to tackle the next technological task.
• Limit your need to multitask . Not everything needs to be done all at once. While you may
feel as if you are getting more accomplished, multitasking actually hurts your concentration.
Learn to focus your attention on one task at a time. Instead of answering your e-mail while
talking on the phone with a client, only check your e-mail or only check your voice mail. You
will find that by learning how to prioritize and setting goals for when and how you use
technology, you will be less distracted and better able to concentrate.
• Slow down. So often we get caught up in having to finish the next report, having to answer the
next e-mail, or having to make the next phone call. We rush through the day never pausing long
enough to really slow down. Give yourself more time to complete tasks. If a project is expected
to take two days, plan on a third, just so you don’t feel so rushed; if you planned on 15 minutes
to get to your next appointment, allow yourself a half-hour. Slowing down helps you feel more
relaxed and better able to combat the wired whirlwind of techno stress.
100
• Exercise. Sitting in front of your computer all day means that you aren’t getting the proper
exercise. Get up from your desk, take a walk at lunch, or stretch your legs and take a stroll
around the office. If you can, join a gym or take a Pilates class. Taking even small steps to
exercise momentarily gets you away from work, lets you clear your mind, and helps you regain
concentration when you do have to answer that next e-mail.
• Rekindle old interests. Take time to enjoy the non-technical things in your life. Have interests
or hobbies fallen by the wayside? Do you find yourself completely absorbed with work?
Rekindle those old interests or take up new ones. Spending time on other interests will give you a
different perspective on your time pressures at work and help you feel better refreshed when you
return to the office.
• Take e-vacations. When you decide to take a vacation, make sure it is a real vacation. Don’t
tote your laptop on the trip or expect to keep in touch with the office. Go out to dinner or to the
movies with family and friends and don’t take along your cell phone or pager. Learning to feel
completely relaxed without access to technology may be a little daunting at first, but in the long
run it will prove worth it. You will learn to work smarter, not harder.
http://www.americanbar.org/newsletter/publications/gp_solo_magazine_home/gp_solo_magazin
e_index/technostress.html
Brod (1982) survey study describes technostress as a pattern of avoidance in behavior such as
simply not using the computer, increased error rates, decreased productivity, and not
remembering or violating new procedures. An error cycle begins that leads to increased
frustration and stress. Brod goes on to state that managers often have a part in this technostress
cycle by not using the technology or being anti-technological. He explains that the use of
computer technology can be improved by shaping human performance, which takes places in
three phases: educational, rehearsal and network mentoring. The educational phase describes
technostress to employees, and provides explanations of their responses to it. It gives employees
a sense of control over work-related changes and the skills involved. The rehearsal phase
provides employees with coping techniques which can be used as solutions for technostress.
Network mentors are employees who are given additional training in problem solving methods,
and technostress and leadership skills; these mentors will be able to monitor the environment.
101
The first step in managing technostress is to meet the challenge of technology head-on, and not
deny that computers are a part of the library profession (Champion, 1988). Effective
management skills reduce techno stress, and one of the most important things managers can do in
reducing techno stress is to present a positive example. Coping with stress is a highly individual
matter; different people react to stress in different ways, and therefore the techniques to reduce
stress will be individualized. Champion (1988) suggests that there are three fundamentals stages
to successful technostress management which must be considered in adapting to change: 1) how
one perceives techno change and how one interprets it; 2) how one feels about techno change;
and 3) how one copes with techno change. Failure to recognize that every change imposed by
technology generates varying degrees of technostress automatically results in the failure to
effectively manage change.
The actions of management typically have a great effect on how technostress impacts an
organization. Good practices include setting clear and reasonable priorities, fostering a culture
that values cooperation and is positive about technology. Key issues include planning, staffing
and training. When the introduction of new technology is in the planning stage, it is very
important to involve all staff members who will be affected by the changes. By involving staff in
the planning stage, they can develop a more positive attitude toward change without feeling
threatened (Barlett, 1995). A great deal of technostress can be eliminated by informing staff of
planned changes, as employees deal more effectively with known or expected change.
Employees feel disenfranchised from the process of incorporating new technologies into their
work areas. Who better to be included in the technological planning than those directly affected
by such changes (Poole, 2001).
When management focuses on staffing issues, there are several core issues which must be
addressed. Barlett (1995) study asserts that there should be a sufficient number of employees to
ensure that no one feels overwhelmed. Also, matching employees to the tasks to be performed is
essential. Each account job description needs to be reevaluated and the appropriate computer
qualifications determined. Staff should be given ample time and resources to achieve the level of
expertise identified for their particular jobs. Bichteler (1987) points out that end-user also
experience technostress and ban staff should be available to answer questions. End-user
102
education should include basic education on how to search, subject heading arrangement and
search strategy. They need to understand the differences between full-text, numeric and
bibliographic database. The challenge, of course, is how to teach all this to users who may not be
interested in learning it. Basic guidelines to managing technostress include encouraging
technology users to:
• Set realistic goals
• Manage time
• Develop a positive attitude
• Take breaks
� From the computer.
� From coworkers
• Exercise at the computer while it completes routine tasks
• Learn the art of compromise
• Maintain a sense of humor
• Ask for help when advice is needed
• Take one task at a time
• Be realistic and learn to say “no”
• Shed the perfectionist image
• Stay healthy
• Relax
• Participate in massage therapy
• Meditate, listen to stress reduction tapes, or use biofeedback (Champion, 1988;
Kupersmith, 1992)
• Take responsibility for your own education.
Positive attitudes and management strategies are essential in alleviating the symptoms of
technostress. There are many ways in which management can help the employee feel in control
of technology rather than controlled by it. One of the most important for both managers and staff
is to be alert to technostressors, both personally and otherwise. Recognizing the symptoms of
technostress is an important step in addressing the problems that come with the implementation
of new technologies. In a constantly changing environment such as can be found in
103
organizations, adapting to changes with a positive attitude and a sense of humor will ensure
success.
Okebaram (2012) descriptive survey study carried out in Nigeria suggests that the following
measures can improve the ongoing implication of the technostress in organization practice:
Use of stress inoculation training (SIT); Stress inoculation is a three stage process; education,
rehearsal and application. During the first stage (education) the person is given a framework for
understanding her or his response to stressful events. During this phase data is collected by the
individual; these data could be collected in the form of a diary as suggested by Greenberg
(1990). The person should pay more attention to the "internal dialogue" that accompanies
responses to stressors. This will hopefully "educate" people by making them more aware of their
responses to stress. During second stage (rehearsal), the person learns how to make cognitive
self-statements as a form of coping and problem solving skills. The third stage (application) has
the individual use the information and skills learned during the first two stages (education and
rehearsal) in actual stressful situations. It is appropriate to evaluate the use of the skills in low
stress situations and then move on to higher stress situations. During the evaluation of these new
skills, changes can be made so the person can develop a set of self-statements to effectively
respond to most stressful situations. Stress inoculation training has been shown to be an effective
stress management technique in a variety of circumstances (e.g., control of anger, test anxiety,
phobias, pain, etc.) and could be effective in treating techno stress.
Relaxation Response: One component of the stress response is the increased arousal of the
individual. This is evident in physical changes in: heart rate, blood pressure, the central nervous
system, the autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system. It is also evident in the
psychological (cognitive) changes experienced by the individual; increased awareness of being
"stressed". The opposite of arousal or hyper-arousal is elicitation of the "relaxation response".
The elicitation of the relaxation response in the presence of a stressor has been shown to be an
effective treatment. "The relaxation response is perhaps best understood as a psycho-
physiological state of hypo-arousal engendered by a multitude of diverse technologies (e.g.,
meditation, neuromuscular relaxation)".
104
Organizations should incorporate emotion-focused strategies and problem-focused strategies to
cope with this techno stress. The Problem-focused coping refers to efforts to improve the
troubled person-environment relationship by changing things, for example, by seeking
information about what to do, by holding back from impulsive and premature actions, and by
confronting the person or persons responsible for one's difficulty. Emotion-focused (or
palliative) coping refers to thoughts or actions whose goal is to relieve the emotional impact of
stress. These are apt to be mainly palliative in the sense that such strategies of coping do not
actually alter the threatening or damaging conditions but make the person feel better. Examples
are avoiding thinking about the trouble, denying that anything is wrong, distancing or detaching
oneself as in joking about what makes one feel distressed, or taking tranquilizers or attempting to
relax. Problem-focused coping strategies have sometimes been referred to as direct approaches,
while emotion-focused coping strategies are indirect approaches.
Okebaram (2013) survey study carried out in Nigeria further discloses other clearer strategies
that could minimize the technostress in organization practice to include;
i) Work-Life Balance: This concept is about employees achieving a satisfactory equilibrium
between work and non-work activities (flexible working).
ii) Use of stress inoculation training (SIT); Stress inoculation is a three stage process;
education, rehearsal and application. Stress inoculation training has been shown to be an
effective stress management technique in a variety of circumstances (e.g., control of anger, test
anxiety, phobias, pain, etc.) and could be effective in treating technostress.
iii) Relaxation Response: One component of the stress response is the increased arousal of the
individual. The opposite of arousal or hyper-arousal is elicitation of the relaxation response. The
elicitation of the relaxation response in the presence of a stressor has been shown to be an
effective treatment. The relaxation response is perhaps best understood as a psycho-physiological
state of hypo-arousal engendered by a multitude of diverse technologies (e.g., meditation,
neuromuscular relaxation).
iv) Organisations should adopt emotion-focused strategies and problem-focused strategies to
minimize the technostress.
105
Amarjit et al (1986) study covers the sociological impact of technology on organizations in U.K
their article "Technostress management." They define technostress as a form of "social stress
which is specific to new information technology." To prepare for this social stress, organizations
need to adopt plans of "strategic choice," which has been defined as both actions or rules for
choosing actions in a conflict situation" and "long term planning. Strategic choice, when used in
technostress management, should prepare an organizations' environmental condition. Options
with strategic choice can be proactive, reactive or interactional. Identification and assessment is a
must in order to reduce uncertainty and increase opportunity. The authors also break down
strategic choice from organizational to individual to a societal level. Managing change and social
responsibility are only part of the choices on a societal level.
Quinn (1998) article "Reducing stressful aspects of information technologies in public services"
is a review of the technostress literature of the field. Quinn in U.K reports that solutions include
communication and involvement of staff, a slower implementation process, adequate training
and planning. Ergonomics should definitely be a consideration in avoiding the physical side of
technostress. Well designed user interfaces and hardware/software standardization are also cited
as ways to reduce and avoid technostress. Yu (2004) survey study carried out in China affirms
that combating technostress means finding ways to achieve a healthy balance of using
technology without becoming consumed by it:
• Awareness is the first step. See where technology has created stress in your personal and
professional life. Keep a daily log or diary to identify how and when you use the Internet, cell
phones, and pagers. By becoming more aware of ways you use and possibly abuse technology,
you’ll learn to take control of it instead of being controlled by it.
• Take a technology time-out. Take time each day to avoid plugging into anything. Avoid
computers, fax machines, phones, and any other technological devices that habitually demand
your attention. Get up, walk around the office, stretch, do breathing exercises, or meditate. At the
very least, take a short vision break from your computer. A quick time-out can help you feel
more refreshed and better able to tackle the next technological task.
106
• Limit your need to multitask . Not everything need’s to be done all at once. While you may
feel as if you are getting more accomplished, multitasking actually hurts your concentration.
Learn to focus your attention on one task at a time. Instead of answering your e-mail while
talking on the phone with a client, only check your e-mail or only check your voice mail. You
will find that by learning how to prioritize and setting goals for when and how you use
technology, you will be less distracted and better able to concentrate.
• Slow down. So often we got caught up in having to finish the next report, having to answer the
next e-mail, or having to make the next phone call, we rush through the day never pausing long
enough to really slow down. Give yourself more time to complete tasks. If a project is expected
to take two days, plan on a third. Just so, you don’t feel so rushed; if you planned on 15 minutes
to get to your next appointment, allow yourself a half-hour. Slowing down helps you feel more
relaxed and better able to combat the wired whirlwind of technostress.
• Exercise. Sitting in front of your computer all day means that you are not getting the proper
exercise. Get up from your desk, take a walk at lunch, or stretch your legs and take a stroll
around the office. Taking even small steps to exercise momentarily gets you away from work,
lets you clear your mind and helps you regain concentration when you do have to answer that
next e-mail.
• Rekindle old interests. Take time to enjoy the non-technical things in your life. Have interests
or hobbies fallen by the wayside? Do you find yourself completely absorbed with work?
Rekindle those old interests or take up new ones. Spending time on other interests will give you a
different perspective on your time pressures at work and help you feel better refreshed when you
return to the office.
• Take e-vacations. When you decide to take a vacation, make sure it is a real vacation. Don’t
take your laptop on the trip or expect to keep in touch with the office. Go out to dinner or to the
movies with family and friends and don’t take along your cell phone or pager. Learning to feel
completely relaxed without access to technology may be a little daunting at first, but in the long
run it will prove worth it. You will learn to work smarter, not harder.
107
In Lazarus' psychological theory of stress, people are appraising potential stressors. The
appraisal process includes primary and secondary appraisal. The secondary appraisal process will
determine whether the person has the necessary resources to cope with the primarily appraised
stressor. Coping is the process of managing external and internal demands that are perceived as
taxing or exceeding a person's resources. Coping may consist of behavior or cognitive responses
that are designed to reduce, overcome, or tolerate the demands placed on the individual, known
as coping strategies. Coping strategies have been classified into two major categories: emotion-
focused strategies and problem-focused strategies.
Roskies (1991) survey study carried out in U.S suggests that "stress has become the fashionable
disease of our time, and the treatment of stress is a popular and profitable activity." There are
several types of stress management used today. They may be placed in the following broad
categories:
Environment/Lifestyle: time management, proper nutrition, exercise, finding alternatives to
frustrated goals, stopping bad habit (smoking, drinking, excessive eating, etc.).
Personality/Perception: assertiveness, training, thought stopping, refuting irrational ideas, stress
inoculation, modifying typeA behaviour. Biological responses: progressive relaxation, relaxation
response, meditation, breathing exercises, biofeedback, autogenics. There are many techniques
that could be used to manage stress with varying claims of effectiveness, of which very few have
been empirically documented. It is important to note that a single technique might not be
effective for everyone and one technique can be combined with another. An important issue
related to stress management is whether one should utilize an individual intervention or an
organizational stress-management intervention (Everly, 1989). Kuppersmith (1992) mentioned
several of these techniques in his article on technostress for reference librarians and other
organizations:
i) Stress Inoculation: Meichenbaum (1977) study developed the stress-management technique
called stress inoculation training (SIT). Stress inoculation is a three stage process: (education,
rehearsal and application). During the first stage (education) the person is given a framework for
understanding her or his response to stressful events. During this phase data is collected by the
individual; these data could be collected in the form of a diary as suggested by Greenberg
108
(1990). The person should pay more attention to the "internal dialogue" that accompanies
responses to stressors. This will hopefully "educate" people by making them more aware of their
responses to stress.
During second stage (rehearsal), the person learns how to make cognitive self-statements as a
form of coping and problem solving skills. Examples of coping self-statements can be placed
into the following categories with sample self-statements (Greenberg, 1990):
• Preparing for a stressor--You can develop a plan to deal with it;
• Confronting and handling a stressor--One step at a time: You can handle the situation;
• Coping with the feeling of being overwhelmed--Keep the focus on the present; what is it
you have to do?;
• Reinforcing self-statements--It worked; you did it.
Other skills can be taught during this stage as well as to enhance the stress management. The
third stage (application) has the individual use the information and skills learned during the first
two stages (education and rehearsal) in actual stressful situations. It is appropriate to evaluate the
use of the skills in low stress situations and then move on to higher stress situations. During the
evaluation of these new skills, changes can be made, so that the person can develop a set of self-
statements to effectively respond to most stressful situations. Stress inoculation training has been
shown to be an effective stress management technique in a variety of circumstances (e.g., control
of anger, test anxiety, phobias, pain, etc.) and could be effective in treating technostress.
ii) Relaxation Response-
One component of the stress response is the increased arousal of the individual. This is evident in
physical changes in: heart rate, blood pressure, the central nervous system, the autonomic
nervous system, and the endocrine system. It is also evident in the psychological (cognitive)
changes experienced by the individual; increased awareness of being "stressed". The opposite of
arousal or hyperarousal is elicitation of the "relaxation response". The elicitation of the
relaxation response in the presence of a stressor has been shown to be an effective treatment.
Thus, the relaxation response is perhaps best understood as a psycho-physiological state of hypo-
arousal engendered by a multitude of diverse technologies (e.g., meditation, neuromuscular
109
relaxation)" (Everly, 1989). Thus, one could think of being relaxed as quite opposite from being
stressed and that the two states have different psychological and physiological mediators. As
suggested there are a variety of techniques (technologies) that can engender the relaxation
response. No one such technique would be effective for everyone.
One of the techniques used to induce the relaxation response is meditation. Briefly, meditation is
"...a mental exercise that affects body processes... The purpose of meditation is to gain control
over your attention so that you can choose what to focus upon rather than being subject to the
unpredictable ebb and flow of environmental circumstances" (Greenberg, 1990). Neuromuscular
relaxation, known as progressive relaxation, was developed by Dr. Edmund Jacobson in the
1930s. Using this technique the person learns to progressively relax selected muscles by first
tensing then relaxing the muscles. The progressive relaxation could concentrate on the whole
body or one part of the body. The therapeutic effect of this technique is the person's learned
awareness of the difference between tense muscles and relaxed muscles. Neuromuscular
relaxation has been shown to be effective in treating a variety of stress-related reactions:
insomnia, tension headaches, and subjective reports of anxiety, general autonomic arousal, and
development of a calmer attitude to possibly combat excessive stress arousal (McGuigan, Sime,
and Wallace, 1984).
2.9 Summary of the Reviewed of Related Literature
This study captured firstly the antecedents of stress and technostress as ailment that negatively
affects the psychological ability and health of employees as they over use information
communication technologies wares. In this study, the components of technostress were traced
from the origin, stress (burnout, stressor, technostress and technostressor,) approaches to stress
(i.e reponse-based definition of stress, stimulus-based, stress as a transaction). The researcher
looked at types of stress (via physiological aspect and psychological), different authors definition
of technostress, job burnout, technostressors and causes and symptoms of technostress in
banking industry. The theoretical framework was anchored as in the epidemiological perspective,
cognitive and psychological models, also the stress theory was link in it numerous domains of
person-environment fit, complementary fit and supplementary fit theories. Thus the empirical
framework reviewed the studies carried out by other authors in line with the objectives of the
110
study. First is the influence of work overload on productivity in banking industry, the extent of
burnout stress on growth in banking industry. Also the empirical x-rayed the effect of computer
phobia psychological factors on market shares in banking industry, techno-complexity
perception on creativity and the management of techno-invasion to enhance innovation in
banking industry.
Apparently, the study gap is on how to integrate psychological and physiological mechanism in
management of technostress in alignment with managerial task-oriented actions.
111
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a detailed description of the procedures, methods and techniques used in the
study. Also it entails the overall research plans and designs that guided the process of data collection
and the range of approaches used in research to collate data. It embraced techniques embodied in a
comprehensive analysis of the research design, sources of data, population of the study, sample size
determination, description of the research instrument, validity of instrument, reliability of instrument,
and methods of data analysis.
3.2 Research Design
The study adopted Descriptive Survey Research Design.
3.3 Sources of Data
The sources of data used for the study comprised of both primary and secondary data.
Primary Source: They contain direct accounts of events or phenomena. It consisted of all raw data
and information obtained personally from the respondents. The data were obtained from
observations, interviews and the use of questionnaire. The key sources here are questionnaire and
oral interview. The researcher conducted oral interview among the staff of the banks as a way to
generate information which could not be achieved by questionnaire.
Secondary Source: They contain information which contains account of events or phenomena by
other people who did not participate or witness the events. These include published journals, text
books, company’s annual report and internet.
3.4 Population of the Study
The target population for the study is eight thousand eight hundred and seventy nine (8,879)
employees comprise of Junior and senior staff of the thirteen (13) selected commercial banks in the
SouthEast, Nigeria. The representative population of the study was collated using table of random
number to select the thirteen (13) commercial banks.
131
Table 3:1 Staff Strength of the Selected Banks:
Bank Name Senior Staff Junior Staff Total
Access Bank Plc 58 650 708
Citibank 23 204 227
Diamond Bank Plc 47 600 647
Ecobank Nigeria 70 850 920
Enterprise Bank Ltd 22 180 202
Fidelity Bank of Nigeria 35 450 485
First Bank Plc 113 1040 1153
First City Monument Bank 21 410 431
Guaranty Trust Bank 18 350 368
Keystone Bank Ltd 29 412 441
United Bank of Africa Plc 83 1000 1083
Union Bank Plc 89 1015 1104
Zenith bank Plc 90 1020 1110
Total 698 8,181 8,879
Source: Field Survey, 2014
3.5 Sample Size Determination
The target population of the study includes senior and junior employees in the thirteen (13) selected
commercial banks in the SouthEast, Nigeria totaling 8,879. Thus, using the finite population formula
of Godden (2004) the sample size is determined viz:
SS = Z2 (P)(1-P) ----------------------- (equation 3.1)
C2
Given =
SS = SS ---------------------- (equation 3.2)
(1+ (SS-1)
Pop
Where:
SS = Sample size
132
Z = Confidence level (95%)
P = Percentage of population picking a choice (worst case % of the sample 50% or .5)
C = Confidence interval = 0.05
Pop = Total population (8879).
Godden (2004) rule criteria states that this formula is best applied where the population is less than
50,000.
Substituting:
Z = 95% (1.96)
P = 90% (.9)
C = 0.05
SS = 1.962 (.9) (1- 0.9)
0.052
SS = 3.8416 (.9) (.5)
0.0025
SS = 691.
Pop = 8879
∴ New SS = 691
1 + (691 – 1)
8879
= 691
1.078 = 640
The Bowley’s proportional allocation statistical technique was used to estimate the stratum to the
various banks (Bowley, 1997).
nh = nNh
N
Where:
nh = The number of unit allocated to each stratum.
Nh = The number of staff in each category
n = The total sample size
133
N= The actual or total population.
Table 3.2: Breakdown of the Sample Size
Bank Name Senior Staff Junior Staff
Access Bank Plc 640 x 58
8879 = 4
640 x 650
8879 = 47
Citibank of Nigeria Limited 640 x 23
8879 = 2
640x 204
8879 = 15
Diamond Bank Plc 640 x 47
8879 = 3
640 x 600
8879 = 43
Ecobank Nigeria Plc 640 x 70
8879 = 5
640 x 850
8879 = 61
Enterprise Bank Ltd 640 x 22
8879 = 2
640 x 180
8879 = 13
Fidelity Bank of Nigeria Plc 640 x 35
8879 = 2
640 x 450
8879 = 32
First Bank Plc 640 x 113
8879 = 8
640 x 1040
8879 = 75
First City Monument Bank Plc 640 x 21
8879 = 1.5
640 x 410
8879 = 29
Guaranty Trust Bank Plc 640 x 18
8879 = 1
640 x 350
8879 = 25
Keystone Bank Ltd 640 x 29
8879 = 2
640 x 412
8879 = 30
United Bank of Africa Plc 640 x 83
8879 = 6
640 x 1000
8879 = 72
Union Bank Plc 640 x 89
8879 = 6
640 x 1015
8879 = 73
Zenith bank Plc 640 x 90
8879 = 6
640 x 1020
8879 = 73
Total 52 588
Source: Field Survey, 2014
134
3.6 Description of the Research Instrument
The key data collection instrument used for the study was questionnaire and oral interview. The
structured questionnaire was designed for the respondents in a five-point Likert scale. The
questionnaire was divided only into one (1) section which was from the objectives of the study. The
administration of the questionnaire was cut across the thirteen (13) banks chosen for this study.
Oral interview was carried out to generate more information from the staff of the banks. The
interview helped the researcher to gather some relevant information that could not be gathered
through the structured questionnaire used for the study.
3.7 Validity of the Instrument
It involved the operationalization of concepts or constructs needed to carry out the translations. The
“content validity” was used which essentially checks the operationalization against the relevant
content domain for the constructs, and was determined using expert panel of management scientists
critic, and supervisor’s vetting.
3.7 Reliability of the Instrument
A test-re-test method of reliability was adopted for the study. The pilot study was carried out. Thirty
nine (39) copies of the questionnaires were administered to the thirteen (13) banks under study and
three (3) copies each to the banks. After two weeks, the instrument was collected and re-administered
for the second time. The reliability coefficient of the test was ascertained using Cronbach Alpha. The
reliability result is 0.98%.
Table 3.3 Cronbach Alpha Validity and Reliability Test
N %
Cases Valid 39 100.0
Excludeda 0 .0
Total 39 100.0
a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure.
Source:SPSS Version 15.00
135
Reliability Statistic
Cronbach's Alpha
Cronbach's Alpha Based on
Standardized Items N of Items
.988 .993 39
Source: SSPS Version 15.00
3.9 Methods of Data Analysis
In this stage, all the raw data collected from the respondents were presented and analyzed using the
best techniques and statistical tools. Firstly, the questionnaires completed by the respondents were
presented using simple percentage cross tabulation. While, the hypotheses were tested using the non-
parametric statistical techniques.
A non-parametric statistical test is test whose models do not specify conditions about the parameters
of the population from which the sample was drawn. It works on the assumptions of independents,
continuity and sample involved as assumed to be a random sample (Uzoagulu, 1998). In addition, the
SPSSWIN (statistical package of social science window) tool of the parametric statistics was used to
test the hypotheses. Hypotheses one, two and three were tested using simple linear regression.
However, Pearson Chi-square was used to test hypotheses four and five to test whether the observed
proportion for a categorical variable differ from hypothesized proportion.
136
REFERENCES
Aiken, L.R. (1979) Psychological Testing and Assessment, Boston: Allyn and Bacon Inc.
Bowley, A. L. (1997) Leading Personalities in Statistical Sciences from the Seventeenth Century to
the Present (eds.), N. L. Johnson & S. Kotz, New York: Wiley.
Godden, B. (2004) Sample Size Formulas: http://williamgodden.com
Nkpa, N. (1997) Educational Research for Modern Scholars, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.
Orjih, J. (1999) Business Research Methodology, Enugu: Meteson Publicity Company.
Osuala, E. C. (1987) Introduction Research Methodology, Onitsha: Africana-Fep Publisher Ltd.
Selltiz, C., Wrightsman, L.S. and Cook, S.W. (1976) Research Methodology, New York: Holt
Rinehart and Winston Press.
Trochim, W.M.K. (2006) Research Methods Knowledge Base, Cincinnati: Web Center for Social
Research Method Atomic Dog Publisher.
Uzoagulu, A.E. (1998) Practical Guide to Writing Research Project Reports in Tertiary Institutions,
Enugu: John Jacob’s Classic Publishers Ltd.
Yamane, T. (1964) Statistics: An Introductory Analysis, London: Harper and Row.
137
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the data obtained from respondents under study, attempts are made to analyze the results obtained there in.
4.2 Data Presentation
From the six hundred and forty (640) copies of questionnaire distributed to senior and junior
staff of commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria, a total of five hundred and sixty (560) copies of
the questionnaire were correctly filled and returned by the staff of commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria, which gave a percentage of 93%. Also the non-response rate was 41 out of
560, giving a percentage of 7%.
Table 4.1 Presents the Response rate of Questionnaire Distributed to the staff of commercial
Banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Staff Copies of
Questionnaire
Distributed
Copies of
Questionnaire
returned
Percentage
Response
(%)
Senior 52 41 7
Junior 588 519 93
Total 640 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
From table 4:1 it was revealed that six hundred and forty (640) copies of questionnaires were
distributed to the staff of commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Five hundred and six (506)
copies of the questionnaire were filled and returned, 41(7%) were from senior staff while 519
(93%) were from junior staff.
138
4.3 Research Findings
Objective One: Determine the influence of Work Overload on Productivity in commercial
Banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.2 Reponses as to whether Work Overload affects Morals, Productivity,
Organizational Efficiency, Absentees and Profitability for both Individuals and
Organizations
Staff Senior
staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
(%)
Strongly
agree
30 410 440 79
Agree 6 90 96 17
Undecided 2 3 5 1
Disagree 2 10 12 2
Strongly
disagree
1 6 7 1
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.2 represent the responses from staff based on questions related to objective one of this
study. From table 4.2, it was revealed that four hundred and forty (440) respondents representing
79% of staff strongly agreed that work overload affects morals, productivity, organization
efficiency, absenteeism and profitability for both individuals and the organisation. A breakdown
indicates that thirty (30) of the respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria, four hundred and ten (410) were junior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. Ninety six (96) respondents representing 17% of staff agreed that work
overload affects morals, productivity, organizational efficiency, absenteeism and profitability for
both individuals and the organizations. Five (5) respondents representing 1% of staff were
139
undecided that work overload affects morals, productivity, organizational efficiency,
absenteeism and profitability for both individuals and the organizations. A breakdown indicates
that two (2) of the respondents were senior staff and three (3) of the respondents also were junior
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Twelve (12) respondents representing 2% of staff disagreed that work overload affects morals,
productivity, organizational efficiency, absenteeism and profitability for both individuals and the
organizations. Two (2) respondents were senior staff while ten (10) respondents were junior staff
of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Seven (7) respondents representing 1% of staff
strongly disagreed that work overload affects morals, productivity, organizational efficiency,
absenteeism and profitability for both individual and the organization. A breakdown indicates
that one (1) of the respondent was senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and
six (6) of the respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.3 Work Overload Accelerate Job Burnout Syndrome, Emotional Extraction and
Cynicism
Staff Senior
staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
(%)
Strongly
agree
20 280 300 54
Agree 15 190 205 37
Undecided 2 10 12 2
Disagree 3 16 19 3
Strongly
disagree
1 23 24 4
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
140
From table 4.3, it was again revealed that three hundred (300) respondents representing 54% of
staff strongly agreed that work overload accelerates job burnout syndrome, emotional exhaustion
and cynicism. A breakdown indicates that twenty (20) of the respondents were senior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and two hundred and eighty (280) of the respondents
were junior staff of money deposit banks in South East Nigeria. Two hundred and five (205)
respondents representing 37% of staff agreed that work overload accelerates job burnout
syndrome, emotional exhaustion and cynicism. A breakdown indicates that fifteen (15) of the
respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and one hundred and
ninety (190) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Twelve (12) respondents representing 2% of staff were undecided that work overload accelerates
job burnout syndrome, emotional exhaustion and cynicism. Two (2) respondents were senior
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and ten (10) respondents were junior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Nineteen (19) respondents representing 3% of staff
disagreed that workoverload accelerate job burnout turnover syndrome, emotional exhaustion
and cynicism. Twenty four (24) respondents representing 4% of staff strongly disagree that work
overload accelerates job burnout syndrome, emotional exhaustion and cynicism, one (1) was a
senior staff of commercial banks and twenty three (23) were junior staff of commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.4 Work Overload Leads to Role Conflict Multitasking and Hypertension
Staff Senior
staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
(%)
Strongly
agree
32 257 289 52
Agree 4 205 209 37
Undecided 3 7 10 2
Disagree 1 35 36 6
141
Strongly
disagree
1 15 16 3
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.4 reveals that two hundred and eighty-nine (289) respondents representing 52% of staff
strongly agreed that, work overload leads to role conflict, multitasking and hypertension. A
breakdown indicates that thirty-two (32) respondents were senior staff while two hundred and
fifty seven (257) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in South East Nigeria.
Two hundred and nine (209) respondents representing 37% of staff agreed that work overload
leads to role conflict, multitasking and hypertension. Ten (10) respondents representing 2% of
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria were undecided that work overload leads to
role conflict, multitasking and hypertention. A breakdown indicates that three (3) of the
respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and seven (7) of the
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Thirty six (36)
respondents representing 6% of staff disagree that work overload leads to role conflict,
multitasking and hypertention. A breakdown indicates that one (1) of the respondents was senior
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and thirty five (35) respondents were junior
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Sixteen (16) respondents representing 3% of
the respondents strongly disagreed that work overload leads to role conflict, multitasking and
hypertension. One (1) respondent was a senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria while fifteen (15) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria.
142
Table 4.5: Work Overload Deteriorate Quality of Work Life, enable Increased Monitoring
and Surveillance-especially Real Time Monitoring Versus after the fact Monitoring Results
to under Staff, loss of Control, Depression and undue Burden on the availability of
Resource.
Staff Senior
staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
(%)
Strongly
agree
27 209 236 42
Agree 10 289 299 53
Undecided 1 9 10 2
Disagree 2 4 6 1
Strongly
disagree
1 8 9 2
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
From table 4.5, it was revealed that 42% of two hundred and thirty six (236) respondents
representing 42% strongly agreed that work overload deteriorate quality of work life, enable
increase monitoring and surveillance-especially real time monitoring versus after the fact
monitoring result to understaff, loss of control, depression and undue burden on the availiability
of resource. A breakdown indicates that twenty seven (27) were senior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria while two hundred and nine (209) respondents were junior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Two hundred and ninety-nine (299) respondents
representing 53% agreed that work overload deteriorates quality of work life, enable increased
monitory and surveillance -especially real time monitoring versus after the fact monitoring result
to understaff, loss of control, depression and undue burden on the availability of resources. A
breakdown indicates that ten (10) respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria and two hundred and eighty nine (289) respondents were junior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Ten (10) representing 2% were undecided about the
143
statement. One (1) of the respondents was a senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria and nine (9) of the respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria. Six (6) of the respondents representing 1% disagree that workoverload deteriorates
quality of work life, enable increased monitoring and surveillance-especially real-time
monitoring, versus after- the- fact monitoring results to understaff, loss of control, depression
and undue burden on the availability of resources. A breakdown indicates that two (2) of the
respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria while four (4) of the
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.6: Work Overload creates Psychosomatic Issue (anxiety, hypertension, Heart
Attack, Headache, Pains and Sleeping Disorder) for the Workers which can lead to
Inefficiencies at Work.
Staff Senior
Staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
%
Strongly
agree
19 349 368 66
Agree 15 84 99 18
Undecided 3 9 12 2
Disagreed 2 45 47 8
Strongly
Disagree
2 32 34 6
Total 41 519 560 109
Source: Field Survey, 2014
From table 4.6, it was again revealed that three hundred and sixty eight (368) respondents
representing 66% of staff strongly agreed that work overload create psychosomatic issue
(anxiety, hypertension, heart attack, headache, pains and sleeping disorder) for the workers
144
which can lead to inefficiency at work. A breakdown indicate that nineteen (19) of the
respondents were senior staff of commercial banks in South East Nigeria while three hundred
and forty nine (349) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Ninety nine (99) of the respondents representing 18% agreed that work overload create
psychosomatic issue (anxiety, hypertention, heart attack, headache, pains and sleeping disorder)
for the workers which can lead to inefficiencies at work. A breakdown indicate that fifteen (15)
of the respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria while eighty
four (84) of the respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.7 Work Overload increase Catecholamine levels, as part of Sympathetic Nervous
Responses, which also Increase Heart Rate and Blood Pressure
Staff Senior
Staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
%
Strongly
agree
21 365 268 51
Agree 15 149 164 29
Undecided 1 34 34 6
Disagreed 3 56 59 11
Strongly
Disagree
1 16 17 3
Total 41 519 560 109
Source: Field Survey, 2014
From table 4.7, it was revealed that two hundred and eighty six (286) respondents representing
51% of staff strongly agreed that work overload increase catecholamine levels as part of
sympathetic nervous responses, which also increase heart rate and blood pressure. A breakdown
indicates that twenty one (21) of the respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. Two hundred and sixty five (265) were junior staff of money deposit banks
145
in SouthEast, Nigeria. One hundred sixty four (164) representing 29% of staff agreed that work
overload increase catecholamine levels as part of sympathetic nervous response which also
increases heart rate and blood pressure. A breakdown indicate that fifteen (15) of the respondents
were senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and one hundred forty-nine (149)
of the respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Thirty four
(34) respondents representing 8% were undecided that work overload increase catecholamine
level as part of sympathetic nervous responses, which also increase heart rate and blood pressure.
A breakdown indicates that one (1) respondent was a senior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria while thirty-three (33) were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria. Fifty nine (59) respondents representing 11% disagreed that work overload increases
catecholamines level, as part of sympathetic nervous responses, which also increase heart rate
and blood pressure. A breakdown indicates that three (3) of the respondents were of senior staff
of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria while fifty six (56) of the respondents were junior
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Seventeen (17) respondents representing 3%
strongly disagreed that work overload increases catecholamine levels, as part of sympathetic
nervous responses, which also increase heart rate and blood pressure. A breakdown indicates that
one (1) of the respondents was a senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and
sixteen (16) of the respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
146
Objective Two: Ascertain the Extent of Burnout Stress on Growth in Money Deposit Banks
in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.8: Work Relationship affects Growth in Commercial Bank
Staff Senior
Staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
%
Strongly
agree
11 133 144 26
Agree 23 309 332 59
Undecided 3 20 24 4
Disagreed -- 33 31 7
Strongly
Disagree
-- 24 24 4
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.8 reveals that one hundred and forty-four (144) respondents representing 26% of staff
strongly agreed that work relationship affects growth of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that eleven (11) of the respondents were senior staff of money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and one hundred and thirty three (133) of the respondents
were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Three hundred and thirty two
(332) respondents representing 59% agreed that work relationship affect growth in money
deposit banks. A breakdown indicates that twenty three (23) of the respondents were senior staff
of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and three hundred and nine (309) of the
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twenty-four (24)
respondents representing 4% were undecided about the statement that work relationship affects
growth in commercial banks in South East Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that three (3) of the
respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and twenty (20) of
the respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Thirty seven
147
(37) of the respondents representing 7% disagreed that work relationship affect growth in money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that four (4) of the respondents were
senior staff of the money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and thirty three (33) of the
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twenty-four (24) of
the respondents representing 4% strongly disagreed that work relationship affect growth in
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that twenty-four (24) of the
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.9 Work Overload affects Growth in Money Deposit Banks
Staff Senior
Staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
%
Strongly
agree
30 405 438 78
Agree 7 85 92 16
Undecided 1 5 6 1
Disagreed 2 10 12 2
Strongly
Disagree
1 14 15 3
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.9 reveals that four hundred and thirty eight (438) respondents representing 78% of the
staff strongly agreed that work overload affect growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria. A breakdown indicates thirty (30) of the respondents were senior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and four hundred and five (405) of the respondents were junior staff
of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Ninety two (92) respondents representing 16%
agreed that workoverload affect growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A
breakdown indicates that seven (7) of the respondents were senior staff in money deposit banks
148
in SouthEast, Nigeria and eighty-five (85) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks
in SouthEast, Nigeria. Six (6) of the respondents representing 1% were undecided about the
statement that work overload affects growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A
breakdown indicates that one (1) of the respondents was a senior staff in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria and five (5) of the respondents were junior staff in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. Twelve (12) respondents representing 2% disagreed that work overload
affects growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that two (2)
of the respondents were senior staff and ten (10) of the respondents were junior staff in money
deposit banks in SouthEast Nigeria. Fifteen (15) respondents representing 3% strongly disagreed
that work overload affects growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A break down
indicates that one (1) respondents was a senior staff and fourteen (14) of the respondents were
junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.10 Technical Support affects Growth in Money Deposit Banks
Staff Senior
Staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
%
Strongly
agree
32 110 142 25
Agree 4 341 345 62
Undecided 1 16 17 3
Disagreed 2 27 29 5
Strongly
Disagree
2 25 27 5
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
From table 4.10, it was revealed that one hundred and forty two (142) respondents representing
25% strongly agreed that technical support affects growth in money deposit banks. A breakdown
indicate that thirty two (32) respondents were senior staff in money deposit banks in SouthEast,
149
Nigeria and one hundred and ten (110) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. Three hundred and forty five (345) representing 62% agreed that technical
support affects growth in money deposit banks. A breakdown indicates that four (4) of the
respondents were senior staff in money deposit banks and three hundred and forty one (341)
respondents were junior staff in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Seventeen (17)
respondents representing 3% were undecided about the statement that technical support affects
growth. A breakdown indicate that one (1)of the respondents was a senior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and sixteen (16) respondents were junior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twenty-nine (29) respondents representing 5% disagreed that
technical support affects growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A break down
indicates that two (2) respondents were senior staff while twenty seven (27) respondents were
junior staff in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twenty seven (27) respondents
representing 5% strongly disagreed that technical support affects growth in money deposit banks.
A breakdown indicates that two (2) respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria while twenty-five (25) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks
in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.11 Role Ambiguity affects Growth in Money Deposit Banks Staff Senior
staff Junior staff
Total Percentage %
Strongly agree
17 410 427 76
Agree 18 81 99 18
Undecided 3 7 10 2
Disagree 2 14 16 4
Strongly Disagree
1 87 8 1
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014 Table 4.11, it was again revealed that four hundred and twenty seven (427) respondents
representing 76% strongly agreed that role ambiguity affects growth in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that seventeen (17) respondents were senior staff of
150
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and four hundred and ten (410) respondents were
junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Ninety-nine (99) respondents
representing 18% agreed that role ambiguity affects growth in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that eighteen (18) respondents were senior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and eighty-one (81) respondents were junior staff in
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Ten (10) respondents representing 2% were of
undecided that role ambiguity affects growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A
breakdown indicates that three (3) respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria and seven (7) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. Sixteen (16) respondents representing 4% disagree that role ambiguity
affects growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that two (2)
respondents were senior staff in money deposit bank in SouthEast, Nigeria and fourteen (14)
respondents were junior staff in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Eight (8)
respondents representing 1% strongly disagreed that role ambiguity affects growth of money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that one (1) respondent was a senior
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and seven (7) respondents were junior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
151
Table 4.12: Job Security Affects Growth in Money Deposit Banks
Staff Senior
staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
%
Strongly
agree
22 216 238 43
Agree 11 245 256 46
Undecided 2 5 7 1
Disagree 3 31 34 6
Strongly
disagree
3 22 25 4
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.12 reveals that two hundred thirty eight (238) respondents representing 43% strongly
agree that job security affects growth in money deposit banks. A breakdown indicates that
twenty two (22) of the respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria and two hundred sixteen (216) were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria. Two hundred fifty six (256) respondents representing 46% agreed that job security
affects growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that eleven
(11) respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and two
hundred and forty five (245) respondents were junior staff in SouthEast, Nigeria. Seven (7)
respondents representing 1% were undecided that job security affects growth in money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that two (2) respondents were senior staff in
SouthEast, Nigeria and five (5) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. Thirty-four (34) respondents representing 6% disagreed that job security
affects growth in money deposit banks. A breakdown indicates that three (3) of the respondents
were senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and thirty one (31) respondents
were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twenty-five (25) respondents
representing 4% strongly disagreed that job security affects growth in money deposit bank. A
152
break down indicates that three (3) of the respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks
in SouthEast, Nigeria and twenty-two (22) of the respondent were junior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Objective Three: Investigate the effect of Computer Phobia Psychological Factors on
Market Shares in Money Deposit Banks
Table 4.13: Psychological Capital affects Market Shares
Staff Senior
staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
%
Strongly
agree
18 320 338 60
Agree 20 100 120 21
Undecided 1 9 10 2
Disagree 1 64 65 12
Strongly
disagree
1 26 27 5
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey 2014
Table 4.13 reveals that three hundred and thirty eight (338) respondents representing 60%
strongly agreed that psychological capital affects market shares. A break down indicates eighteen
(18) respondents were senior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and three
hundred and twenty (320) respondents were junior staff of money deposit bank in SouthEast,
Nigeria. One hundred and twenty (120) respondents representing 21% agreed that psychological
capital affects market shares. A breakdown indicates that twenty (20) respondents were senior
staff of money deposit bank in SouthEast, Nigeria and one hundred (100) respondents were
junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Ten (10) respondents representing 2%
were undecided that psychological capital affects market shares. A breakdown indicates one (1)
153
respondent was senior staff while nine (9) respondents were junior staff of money banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. Sixty five (65) respondents representing 12% disagreed that psychological
capital affects market shares. A breakdown indicates one (1) of respondents was a senior while
sixty-four (64) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Twenty seven (27) respondents representing 5% strongly disagree that psychological capital
affects market shares. A breakdown indicates that one (1) respondent was a senior staff while
twenty six (26) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.14: Role Anxiety and Job Insecurity affects Market Shares
Staff Senior
staff
Junior
staff
Total Percentage
%
Strongly
agree
23 419 442 79
Agree 13 64 77 14
Undecided 2 12 14 3
Disagree 2 17 19 3
Strongly
disagree
1 7 8 1
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.14 revealed that four hundred and forty two (442) respondents representing 79% strongly
agree that role anxiety and job insecurity affects market shares. A breakdown indicates that
twenty three (23) respondents were senior staff while four hundred and nineteen (419)
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Seventy-seven (77)
respondents representing 14% agreed that role anxiety and job insecurity affects market shares.
A breakdown indicates that thirteen (13) respondents were senior staff and sixty-four (64)
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Fourteen (14)
154
representing 3% were undecided that role anxiety and job insecurity affects market shares. A
breakdown indicates that two (2) respondents were senior staff and twelve (12) respondents were
junior staff of money banks banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Nineteen (19) respondents representing
3% disagreed that role anxiety and job insecurity affects market shares in SouthEast, Nigeria. A
breakdown indicates two (2) respondents were junior staff and seventeen (17) respondents were
senior staff in money deposit banks in South East Nigeria. Eight (8) respondents representing 1%
strongly disagree that role anxiety and job insecurity affects market shares in money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.15 Interpersonal Conflict affects Market Shares
Staff Senior Junior
Staff
Total %
Strongly agreed 34 304 338 60
Agree 3 174 177 32
Undecided 1 9 10 2
Disagree 2 21 23 4
Strongly
disagree
1 11 12 2
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
From Table 4.15, it was revealed that three hundred and thirty eight (338) respondents
representing 60% strongly agreed that interpersonal conflict affects market shares in money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that thirty four (34) respondents
were senior staff and three hundred and four (304) respondents were junior staff in money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. One hundred and seventy-seven (177) respondents represent
32% agreed that interpersonal conflict affects market shares. A breakdown indicates that three
(3) respondents were senior staff while one hundred and seventy four were junior staff of money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Ten (10) respondents representing 2% were undecided that
155
interpersonal conflict affects market shares in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. One
(1) respondent was a senior staff while Nine (9) respondents were junior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twenty -three (23) respondents representing 4% agreed that
interpersonal conflict affects market shares in money deposit banks. A breakdown indicates that
two (2) respondents were senior staff while twenty one (21) respondents were junior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twelve (12) respondents representing 2% strongly
disagreed that interpersonal conflict affects market shares. A breakdown indicates that one (1) of
the respondents was a senior staff and eleven (11) respondents were junior staff of money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.16 Cognitive Processing affects Market Shares
Staff Senior Junior
Staff
Total %
Strongly agreed 10 230 240 43
Agree 20 241 261 47
Undecided 3 15 18 3
Disagree 4 19 23 4
Strongly
disagree
4 14 18 3
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.16 reveled that two hundred and forty (240) respondents representing 43% of staff
strongly agreed that cognitive processing affects market shares. A breakdown indicates that ten
(10) respondents were senior staff and two hundred and thirty (230) respondents were junior staff
of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Two hundred and sixty–one (261) of respondents
representing 47% of staff agreed that cognitive processing affects market shares. A breakdown
indicates that twenty (20) respondents were senior staff and two hundred and forty one (241)
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Eighteen (18)
156
respondents representing 3% of staff were undecided that cognitive processing affects market
shares. A breakdown indicates that three (3) of respondents were senior staff while fifteen (15)
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twenty three (23)
representing 4% disagreed that cognitive processing affects market shares. A breakdown
indicates that four (4) respondents were senior staff and nineteen (19) respondents were junior
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Eighteen (18) respondents representing 3%
strongly disagreed that cognitive processing affects market shares.
Table 4.17 Work –family Conflict and Imbalance affects Market Shares
Staff Senior Junior
Staff
Total %
Strongly agreed 17 370 387 69
Agree 23 107 130 23
Undecided 1 12 13 2
Disagree - 15 15 3
Strongly
disagree
- 15 15 3
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field survey, 2014
From table 4.17, it was again revealed that three hundred and eighty seven (387) respondents
representing 69% of staff in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria strongly agreed that
work –family conflict and imbalance affects market shares. A breakdown indicates that
seventeen (17) respondents were senior staff and three hundred and seventy (370) respondents
were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. One hundred and thirty (130)
respondents representing 23% of staff agreed that work -family conflict and imbalance affects
market shares. A breakdown indicates that twenty -three (23) respondents were senior staff and
one hundred seventy (170) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
157
Nigeria. Thirteen (13) respondents representing 2% were undecided that work-family conflict
and imbalance affects market shares. A breakdown indicates that one (1) respondent was a senior
staff and twelve (12) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria. Fifteen (15) respondents representing 3% of staff disagreed that work –family conflict
and imbalance affects market shares. A breakdown indicates that fifteen (15) respondents were
junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Fifteen (15) respondents representing
3% of staff in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria strongly disagree that work –family
conflict and imbalance affects market shares. A breakdown indicates that fifteen (15)
respondents were junior staff of commercial banks in South East Nigeria.
Objective four: Establish the Extent of Perfection of Techno Complexity on Creativity in
Money Deposit Banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.18 Techno Complexity is Perceived as Computer Anxiety, Internet Anxiety and Mobile –anxiety
Staff Senior Junior Staff
Total %
Strongly agreed 25 311 336 60
Agree 12 195 207 37
Undecided 1 5 6 1
Disagree 2 4 6 1
Strongly disagree
1 4 5 1
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field survey, 2014
Table 4.18 reveals that three hundred and thirty –six (336) respondents representing 60% of staff
strongly agreed that Techno –complexity is perceived as computer anxiety, internet anxiety and
mobile –anxiety. A breakdown indicates that twenty –five (25) respondents were senior staff and
three hundred and eleven (311) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. Two hundred and seven (207) respondents representing 37% of staff agreed
that Techno complexity is perceived as computer –anxiety, internet anxiety and mobile anxiety.
158
A breakdown indicates that twelve (12) respondents were senior staff and one hundred and
ninety five (195) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Six (6) respondents representing 1% of staff were undecided that Techno complexity is
perceived as computer anxiety, internet –anxiety and mobile anxiety. A breakdown indicates that
one (1) respondent was a senior staff and five (5) respondents were junior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Six (6) respondents representing 1% of staff disagreed that Techno
complexity is perceived as computer anxiety, internet –anxiety and mobile –anxiety. A
breakdown indicates that two (2) respondents were senior staff and four (4) respondents were
junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Five (5) respondents representing 1%
of staff strongly disagreed that Techno complexity is perceived as computer –anxiety, internet
anxiety and mobile –anxiety. A breakdown indicates that one (1) respondent was a senior staff
and four (4) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.19: Techno –Complexity is perceived to affect Job Satisfaction, Organizational
Component and Continuance Commitment when Addicted by Employee
Staff Senior Junior Staff
Total %
Strongly agreed 17 199 216 39
Agree 14 285 299 53
Undecided 3 5 8 1
Disagree 4 19 23 4
Strongly disagree
3 11 14 3
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field survey, 2014
Table4.19 reveals that two hundred and sixteen (216) respondents representing 39% of staff
strongly agreed that techno –complexity is perceived to affect job satisfaction, organizational
commitment and compliance commitment when addicted by employee. A breakdown indicates
that seventeen (17) respondents were senior staff and one hundred and ninety-nine (199)
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Two hundred and
159
ninety-nine (299) respondents representing 53% of staff agreed that Techno-complexity is
perceived to affect job satisfaction, organizational commitment and continuance commitment
when addicted by employee. A breakdown indicates that fourteen (14) respondents were senior
staff and two hundred and eighty five (285) respondents were junior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Eight (8) respondents representing 1% of staff in money deposit
banks were undecided about the statement that Techno complexity is perceived to affect job
satisfaction, organizational commitment and continuance commitment when addicted by
employee. Twenty three (23) respondents representing 4% of staff disagreed that Techno-
complexity is perceived to affect job satisfaction, organizational commitment and compliance
when addicted by employee. A breakdown indicated that four (4) respondents were senior staff
and nineteen (19) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Fourteen (14) respondents representing 3% of staff of money deposit banks strongly disagreed
that Techno complexity is perceived to affect job satisfaction, organizational commitment when
addicted by employee. A breakdown indicated that three (3) respondents were senior staff and
eleven (11) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
160
Table 4.20 Its Generic use leads to Techno Overload, Techno Invasion, Techno Insecurity
and Techno-uncertainty.
Staff Senior Junior
Staff
Total %
Strongly agreed 17 411 428 76
Agree 20 94 114 20
Undecided 2 4 6 1
Disagree 1 5 6 1
Strongly
disagree
1 5 6 1
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field survey, 2014
Table 4.20 reveals that four hundred and twenty –eight (428) respondents representing 70% of
staff strongly agreed that its generic use leads to Techno –overload, Techno invasion, Techno –
insecurity and techno –uncertainty. A breakdown indicates that seventeen (17) respondents were
senior staff and four hundred and eleven (411) respondents were junior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. One hundred and fourteen (114) respondents representing 20% of
staff agreed that its generic use leads to Techno Overload, Techno invasion Techno insecurity
and Technology uncertainty. A breakdown indicates that twenty (20) respondents were senior
staff and Ninety –four (94) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria. Six (6) respondents representing 1% staff of money deposit banks were undecided about
the statementthat generic use leads to Techno overload, Techno invasion, Techno insecurity and
Techno uncertainty. A breakdown two (2) respondents were senior staff and four (4) respondents
were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Six (6) respondents representing
1% of staff disagreed that generic use leads to Techno overload, Techno invasion, Techno
insecurity and Techno uncertainty. A breakdown indicates that one (1) respondent was a senior
staff and five (5) respondents were junior staff in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Six
(6) respondents representing 1% of the staff strongly disagreed that its generic use leads to
161
Techno overload, Techno invasion, Techno insecurity and Techno uncertainty. A breakdown
indicates that one (1) respondent was senior staff and five (5) respondents were junior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.21 Techno–complexity Perceived as Usefulness of Technology, Ease of use of
Technology, Techno–accessibility of Technology and Normality of Technology to Maximize
Productivity
Staff Senior Junior
Staff
Total %
Strongly agreed 14 191 205 37
Agree 21 309 330 59
Undecided 3 10 13 2
Disagree 2 5 7 1
Strongly
disagree
1 4 5 1
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field survey, 2014
Two hundred and five (205) respondents representing 37% of staff strongly agree that techno –
complexity is perceived as usefulness of technology, ease of use of technology.Techno
accessibility of technology and normality of technology to maximize productivity. A breakdown
indicates that fourteen (14) respondents were senior staff and one hundred and ninety –one (191)
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Three hundred and
thirty (330) respondents representing 59% of staff agreed that techno complexity is perceived as
usefulness of technology ease of use of technology, technology accessibility of technology and
normality of technology to maximize productivity. A breakdown indicates that twenty one (21)
162
respondents were senior staff and nine (309) respondents were junior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Thirteen (13) respondents representing 2% of staff were undecided
that techno complexity is perceived as usefulness of technology ease of use of technology,
techno accessibility of technology and normality of technology to maximum productivity. A
breakdown indicates that three (3) respondents were senior staff and ten (10) respondents were
junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Seven (7) respondents representing
1% of staff disagreed that technology complexity is perceived usefulness of technology, ease to
use of technology, techno accessibility of technology and normality of technology of maximum
productivity. A breakdown indicates that two (2) respondents were senior staff and five (5)
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Five (5) respondents
representing 1% of staff strongly disagreed that Techno complexity is perceived as usefulness
ease of use of technology, techno –accessibility of technology and normality of technology to
maximum productivity. A break down indicates that one (1) respondent was junior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4.22 Techno–complexity Predomination affects Psych –physiological Activation and
System Mechanism
Staff Senior Junior
Staff
Total %
Strongly agreed 22 189 211 38
Agree 10 275 285 51
Undecided 3 10 13 2
Disagree 4 25 29 5
Strongly
disagree
2 20 22 4
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: Field survey 2014
163
Table 4.22 reveals that hundred and eleven (211) respondents representing 38% of staff strongly
agreed that techno complexity predomination affects psych –physiological activation and system
mechanism. A breakdown indicates that twenty two (22) of the respondents were senior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and one hundred and eighty nine (189) respondents
were junior staff of money deposit bank in SouthEast, Nigeria. Two hundred and eight five (285)
respondents representing 51% of staff agreed that techno–complexity predomination affects
psych –physiological activation and system mechanism. Thirteen (13) respondents representing
2% of staff of money deposit banks were undecided about the statement that Techno complexity
predomination affect psych – physiological activation and system mechanism. A breakdown
indicates that three (3) respondents were senior staff and ten (10) respondents were junior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.Twenty nine (29) respondents representing 5% of
staff disagreed that techno-complexity predomination affects psych–physiological activation and
system mechanism. A breakdown indicates that four (4) respondents were senior staff and twenty
five (25) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twenty
two (22) respondents representing 4% of staff strongly disagreed that Techno-complexity
predomination affects psych-physiological actuation and system mechanism. A break down
indicates that two (2) respondents were senior staff and twenty (20) respondents were junior staff
of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Objective five: Verify how Techno Invasion could be managed to Enhance Innovation in
Money Deposit Banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4:23: Set Realistic Goals Manage Time and Develop a Positive Attitude
Staff Senior Staff
Senior Staff
Total Percentage %
Strongly agree 27 314 341 61 Agree 9 104 113 20 Undecided 3 15 18 3 Disagree 1 47 48 9 Strongly disagree
1 39 40 7
Total 41 519 560 100 Source: field Survey, 2014 Table 4:23 reveals that three hundred and forty one (341) respondents representing 61% of staff
strongly agreed that set realistic goals, manage time and develop a positive attitude. A
164
breakdown indicates that twenty seven (27) respondents were senior staff and Three hundred and
fourteen (314) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. One
hundred and thirteen (113) respondents representing 20% of staff agreed that set realistic goals
manage time and develops a positive attitude of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Eighteen (18) respondents representing 3% of staff were undecided that set realistic goals
manage time, develop a positive attitude. A breakdown indicates that three (3) respondents were
senior staff and fifteen (15) respondents were junior staff of money deposit in SouthEast,
Nigeria. Forty eight (48) respondents representing 9% of staff of money deposit banks disagreed
that set realistic goals manage time and develops a positive attitude in commercial banks in
South East Nigeria. A breakdown indicates that one (1) respondent was senior staff and forty
(40) respondents representing 7% strongly disagreed that set realistic goals manage time and
develop a positive attitude could be managed to enhance innovation. A breakdown indicates that
one (1) respondent was senior staff and thirty nine (39) respondents were junior staff of money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4:24: Relaxation Response and Meditation
Staff Senior Staff
Senior Staff
Total Percentage %
Strongly agree 23 141 164 29 Agree 12 338 350 63 Undecided 2 8 10 2 Disagree 1 18 19 3 Strongly disagree
3 14 17 3
Total 41 519 560 100 Source: field Survey, 2014
Table 4:24 reveals that one hundred and sixty four (164) respondents representing 29% strongly
agreed that relaxation response and mediation could be used to enhance innovation. A
breakdown indicates that twenty three (23) respondents were senior staff and one hundred and
forty one (141) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Three hundred and fifty (350) respondents representing 63% of staff agreed that relaxation
response and mediation could be used to enhance innovation. A breakdown indicates that twelve
(12) respondents were senior staff and three hundred and thirty eight (338) respondents were
165
junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Ten (10) respondents representing 2%
of staff were undecided that relaxation response and mediation could be used to enhance
innovation. A breakdown indicates that two (2) respondents were senior staff and eight (8)
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Nineteen (19)
respondents representing 3% of staff disagreed that relaxation response and meditation could be
used to enhance innovation. A breakdown indicate that one (1) respondent was a senior staff and
eighteen (18) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Seventeen (17) representing 3% of staff strongly disagreed that relaxation response and
meditation could be used to enhance innovation. A breakdown indicates that three (3)
respondents were senior staff and fourteen (14) respondents were junior staff of money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4:25: Environment Lifestyle (Time Management Proper Nutrition)
Staff Senior
Staff
Senior
Staff
Total Percentage
Strongly agree 15 240 255 46
Agree 14 240 254 45
Undecided 5 10 15 3
Disagree 4 13 17 3
Strongly
disagree
3 16 19 3
Total 41 519 560 100
Source: field Survey, 2014
Table 4:25 reveals that two hundred and fifty five (255) respondents representing 46% of staff
strongly agreed that environment/lifestyle (time management, proper nutrition) encourage
innovation. A breakdown indicates that fifteen (15) respondents of staff were senior staff and
two hundred and forty (240) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
166
Nigeria. Two hundred and fifty four (254) respondents representing 45% of staff agreed that
environment/lifestyle (time management, proper nutrition) encourage innovation. A breakdown
indicates that fourteen (14) respondents were senior staff and two hundred and forty (240)
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Fifteen (15)
respondents representing 3% of staff were undecided that environment/lifestyle (time
management, proper nutrition) encourage innovation. A breakdown indicates that five (5)
respondents were senior staff and ten (10) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks
in SouthEast, Nigeria. Seventeen (17) respondents representing 3% of staff disagreed that
environment/lifestyle (time management, proper nutrition) encourage innovation. A breakdown
indicates that four (4) respondents were senior staff and thirteen (13) respondents were junior
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Nineteen (19) respondents representing 3%
of staff strongly disagreed that environment/lifestyle (time management, proper nutrition)
encourage innovation. A breakdown indicates that three (3) respondents were senior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria and sixteen (16) respondents were junior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4:26: Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) and Personality Perception (Refuting
Irrational Ideas)
Staff Senior Staff
Senior Staff
Total Percentage %
Strongly agree 18 228 246 44 Agree 13 195 208 37 Undecided 1 43 44 8 Disagree 4 34 38 7 Strongly disagree
5 19 24 4
Total 41 519 560 100 Source: field Survey, 2014 From table 4.26; it ideas revealed that two hundred forty six (246) respondents representing 44%
of staff strongly agreed that stress inoculation training and personality perception (refuting
irrational ideas) encourage innovation.
A breakdown indicates that eighteen (18) respondents were senior staff while twenty eight (228)
respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Two hundred and
eight (208) respondents representing 37% agreed that stress inoculation training and personality
167
perception (refuting irrational ideas) encourage innovation. A break down indicates that thirteen
(13) respondents were senior staff and one hundred and ninty five (195) respondents were junior
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Forty four (44) respondents representing 8%
were undecided that stress inoculation training and personality perception (refuting irrational
ideas) encourage innovation. A breakdown indicates that one (1) respondent was a senior staff
and forty three (43) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Thirty eight (38) respondents representing 7% of staff disagreed that stress inoculation training
and personality perception (refuting irrational ideas) encourage innovation. A breakdown
indicates that four (4) respondents were senior staff and forty four (34) respondents were junior
staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twenty four (24) respondents representing
4% of staff strongly disagreed that stress inoculcation training and personality perception
(refuting irrational ideas) encourage innovation. A breakdown indicates that five (5) respondents
were senior staff while nineteen (19) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria.
Table 4:27: Taking E-vacations, Exercise and Work Life Balance
Staff Senior Staff
Senior Staff
Total Percentage %
Strongly agree 18 210 228 41 Agree 14 235 249 44 Undecided 2 15 17 3 Disagree 4 24 28 5
Strongly disagree 3 35 38 7 Total 41 519 560 100
Source: field Survey, 2014
Table 4.27, it was reveals that two hundred and twenty eight (228) respondents representing 41%
of staff strongly agreed that taking e-vacations, exercise and work life balance encourage
innovation. A breakdown indicates that eighteen (18) respondents were senior staff while two
hundred and ten (210) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria. Two hundred and forty nine (249) respondents representing 44% of staff agreed that
taking e-vacations, exercise and work-life balance encourage innovation. A breakdown indicates
that fourteen (14) respondents were senior staff while two hundred and thirty five (235) were
junior staff of money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Seventeen (17) Respondents
representing 3% of staff were undecided that taking e-vacations, exercise and work life balance
168
encourage innovation. A break down indicates that two (2) respondents were senior staff while
fifteen (15) respondents were junior staff in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Twenty
eight (28) respondents representing 5% of staff disagreed that taking e-vacations, exercise and
work life balance encourage innovation. A breakdown indicates that four (4) respondents were
senior staff while twenty four (24) respondents were junior staff of money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. Thirty eight (38) respondents representing 7% of staff strongly disagree that
taking e-vacation, exercise and work life balance encourage innovation. A breakdown indicates
that three (3) respondents were senior staff while thirty five (35) respondents were junior staff of
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
4.4 TEST OF HYPOTHESES ONE TO FIVE
The five hypotheses postulated in chapter one were tested with various test statistics aided by
computer through the application of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 0: 15 version)
of Microsoft environment. Specifically, hypotheses one, two and three were tested with simple
linear regression. Hypotheses four and five were tested with Pearson Chi-Square
4.4.1 Test of Hypotheses One
Ho: There is no significant negative influence of work overload on productivity in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria Hi: There is significant negative influence of work overload on productivity in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria
table 4.28 Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
Productivity 1.6536 .89801 1120
work overload 1.7411 1.35442 1120
table 4.29 Correlations
productivity work overload
Pearson Correlation Productivity 1.000 .763
work overload .763 1.000
Sig. (1-tailed) Productivity . .000
169
work overload .000 .
N Productivity 1120 1120
work overload 1120 1120
Model Summaryb
Model R R Square
Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of the
Estimate Durbin-Watson
1 .763a .414 .413 .79669 .070
a. Predictors: (Constant), workoverload
b. Dependent Variable: productivity
Table 4.30 ANOVAb
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 696.619 1 96.619 152.224 .000a
Residual 654.174 1118 .635
Total 1350.793 1119
a. Predictors: (Constant), work overload
b. Dependent Variable: productivity
Table 4.31 Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
T Sig. B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 1.119 .055 20.400 .000
work overload .307 .025 .763 12.338 .000
a. Dependent Variable: productivity
R = 0.763
R2 = 0.414
170
F = 152.224
T = 20.400
DW = .070
Interpretation:
The regression sum of squares (996.619) is greater than the residual sum of squares (654.174),
which indicates that more of the variation in the dependent variable is not explained by the
model. The significance value of the F statistics (0.000) is less than 0.05, which means that the
variation explained by the model is due to chance.
R, the correlation coefficient which has a value of 0.763, indicates that there is significant
negative influence of work overload on productivity in money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria. R square, the coefficient of determination, shows that 41.4% of the variation in
productivity is explained by the model.
With the linear regression model, the error of estimate is low, with a value of about .79669. The
Durbin Watson statistics of 0.070, which is less than 2, indicates there is no autocorrelation.
The work overload coefficient of 0.763 indicates there is significant negative influence of work
overload on productivity in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria, which is statistically
significant (with t = 20.400). Therefore, the null hypothesis should be accepted and the
alternative hypothesis accordingly rejected.
171
Table 4.34 Model Summaryb
Model R R Square
Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of the
Estimate Durbin-Watson
1 .552a .304 .303 .97893 .157
a. Predictors: (Constant), burnout stress
4.4.2 Test of Hypothese Two
Ho: There is no significant negative effect of burnout stress on growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Hi: There is significant negative effect of burnout stress on growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. Table 4.32 Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
Growth 1.8143 1.17265 1120
burnout stress 1.8482 1.44679 1120
Table 4.33 Correlations
growth burnout stress
Pearson Correlation Growth 1.000 .552
burnout stress .552 1.000
Sig. (1-tailed) Growth . .000
burnout stress .000 .
N Growth 1120 1120
burnout stress 1120 1120
172
Table 4.34 Model Summaryb
Model R R Square
Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of the
Estimate Durbin-Watson
1 .552a .304 .303 .97893 .157
b. Dependent Variable: growth
Table 4.35 ANOVAb
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 233.957 1 233.957 244.139 .000a
Residual 534.728 558 .958
Total 768.686 559
a. Predictors: (Constant), burnout stress
b. Dependent Variable: growth
Table 4.36 Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
T Sig. B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) .988 .067 14.712 .000
burnout stress .447 .029 .552 15.625 .000
a. Dependent Variable: growth
R = 0.552
R2 = 0.304
F = 244.139
T = 14.712
DW = .157
173
Interpretation:
The regression sum of squares (233.957) is less than the residual sum of squares (534.728),
which indicates that more of the variation in the dependent variable is not explained by the
model. The significance value of the F statistics (0.000) is less than 0.05, which means that the
variation explained by the model is due to chance.
R, the correlation coefficient which has a value of 0.552, indicates that there is significant
negative effect of burnout stress on growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. R
square, the coefficient of determination, shows that 30.4% of the variation in the growth is
explained by the model.
With the linear regression model, the error of estimate is low, with a value of about .97893. The
Durbin Watson statistics of 0 .157, which is less than 2, indicates there is no autocorrelation.
The burnout stress coefficient of 0.552 indicates there is significant negative effect of burnout
stress on growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria, which is statistically significant
(with t = 14.712). Therefore, the null hypothesis should be accepted and the alternative
hypothesis accordingly rejected.
174
4.4.3Test of Hypotheses Three
Ho: There is no significant negative effect of computer-phobia psychological factors on market shares in money deposits banks in SouthEast, Nigeria
Hi: There is significant negative effect of computer-phobia psychological factors on market shares in money deposits banks in SouthEast, Nigeria
Table 4.37 Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
market share 1.9589 1.27593 1120
computer-phobia 2.0821 1.51452 1120
Table 4.38 Correlations
market share computer-phobia
Pearson Correlation market share 1.000 .631
computer-phobia .631 1.000
Sig. (1-tailed) market share . .000
computer-phobia .000 .
N market share 1120 1120
computer-phobia 1120 1120
Table 4. 39 Model Summaryb
Model R R Square
Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of the
Estimate Durbin-Watson
1 .631a .486 .385 1.15220 .146
175
Table 4. 39 Model Summaryb
Model R R Square
Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of the
Estimate Durbin-Watson
1 .631a .486 .385 1.15220 .146
a. Predictors: (Constant), computer-phobia
b. Dependent Variable: market share
Table 4.40 ANOVAb
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 169.279 1 169.279 127.511 .000a
Residual 740.777 1118 1.328
Total 910.055 1119
a. Predictors: (Constant), computer-phobia
b. Dependent Variable: market share
Table 4.41 Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
T Sig. B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 1.202 .083 14.518 .000
computer-phobia .363 .032 .631 11.292 .000
a. Dependent Variable: market share
R = 0.631
R2 = 0.486
F = 127.511
T = 14.518
DW = 0.146
Interpretation:
176
The regression sum of squares (199.279) is less than the residual sum of squares (740.777),
which indicates that more of the variation in the dependent variable is not explained by the
model. The significance value of the F statistics (0.000) is less than 0.05, which means that the
variation explained by the model is due to chance.
R, the correlation coefficient which has a value of 0.631, indicates that there is significant
negative effect of computer-phobia on market shares in money deposit banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria. R square, the coefficient of determination, shows that 48.6% of the variation in market
share is explained by the model.
With the linear regression model, the error of estimate is low, with a value of about 1.15220.
The Durbin Watson statistics of 0 .146, which is less than 2, indicates there is no autocorrelation.
The work overload coefficient of 0.631 indicates There is significant negative effect of
computer-phobia on market shares in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria, which is
statistically significant (with t = 14.518). Therefore, the null hypothesis should be accepted and
the alternative hypothesis accordingly rejected.
4.4.4 Test of Hypotheses Four
Ho: There is great perception of techno-complexity on creativity in money deposit banks
in SouthEast, Nigeria
Hi: There is great perception of techno-complexity on creativity in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria
Table 4.42 Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 20.440(a) 6 .002 Likelihood Ratio 18.974 6 .004 Linear-by-Linear Association .650 1 .420
N of Valid Cases 2240
177
Table 4.42 is the output of the computed Chi-Square values from the cross tabulation statistics of
observed and expected frequencies with the response options of agree and disagree based on the
responses of the research subjects from selected in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Pearson. Chi-Square computed value (X2c= 20.440) is greater than the Chi –Square tabulated
value (X2t = 12.59) with 6 degrees of freedom (df) at 0.05 level of alpha (X2
c = 20.440, p< .05)
Decision Rule
The decision rule is to accept the alternate hypothesis if the computed Chi- Square value is
greater than tabulated Chi-Square value otherwise reject the null hypothesis.
Decision
Since the Pearson Chi- Square computed X2c= 20.440 is greater than Chi- Square table value X2
t
= 12.59, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternate hypothesis is accepted. Thus, we conclude
that there is great perception of techno-complexity on creativity in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria.
4.4.5 Test of Hypotheses Five Ho: Relaxation and stress inoculation training could not be used to enhance innovation in money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Hi: Relaxation and stress inoculation training could be used to enhance innovation in
commercial banks in South East Nigeria.
Table 4.43 Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 28.270(a) 6 .006 Likelihood Ratio 18.911 6 .004 Linear-by-Linear Association .441 1 .507
N of Valid Cases 2024
178
Table 4.43 is the output of the computed Chi-Square values from the cross tabulation statistics of
observed and expected frequencies with the response options of agree and disagree based on the
responses of the research subjects selected from money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Pearson Chi-Square computed value (X2c= 28.270) is greater than the Chi –Square tabulated
value (X2t = 12.59) with 6 degrees of freedom (df) at 0.05 level of alpha (X2
c =28.270, p,< .05)
Decision Rule
The decision rule is to accept the alternate hypothesis if the computed Chi- Square value is
greater than tabulated Chi-Square value otherwise reject the null hypothesis.
Decision
Since the Pearson Chi- Square computed X2c= 28.270is greater than Chi- Square table value X2
t
= 12.59, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternate hypothesis is accepted. Thus, we conclude
that relaxation and stress inoculation training could be used to enhance innovation in money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
4.5 Discussion of Results
The study was evaluated through use of questionnaire with questions tailored towards
determining effect of technostress on organizational performance in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. All the five hypotheses were subjected to statistical test and these tools were
employed: Simple linear regression and Pearson Chi-square. The implication of result is
discussed in line with the objectives of the study below.
Objective One: Determine the influence of work overload on productivity in money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
There is significant negative influence of work overload on productivity in money deposit banks
in SouthEast, Nigeria
Hypotheses one was tested with simple linear regression to determine the influence of work overload
on productivity in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. The result shows that there is
179
significant negative influence of work overload on productivity in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria (r = 0.763; p < 0.05)
Kupersmith (2003) in his survey study in U.K discovered that out of the 92 bankers surveyd,
59% reported that they experienced work overload while rendering services to users in the past
five years, 34% felt it has not changed much in them and only 4% believed it has decreased in
their respective banks. The investigation also revealed that 65% of the respondents reported work
overload is a serious problem for them. Respondents identified information overload, networking
problems, computer hardware and software as leading causes of work overload for them.
Objective Two: Ascertain the extent of burnout stress on growth in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria.
There is significant negative effect of burnout stress on growth in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria
Hypothesis two was tested with simple linear regression. To ascertain the extent of burnout stress on
growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.The result shows that there is significant
negative effect of burnout stress on growth in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria ( r =
0.552 ; p < 0.05)
The longitudinal study by Murry and Rotis (2007) survey study carried out in England found out
that workers can become overwhelmed and experience burnout because of technology. With the
constant useage and technology interaction within an organization, individuals can become
inundated. This engulfing of technology can make users “tired” and “exhausted”. The
technological “burnout” makes workers ineffective. Coping with technostress can be challenging
for an organization.
Objective Three: Investigate the effect of computer phobia psychological factors on market shares
in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
There is significant negative effect of computer-phobia psychological factors on market shares in
money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
180
Hypothesis three was tested with simple linear regression. To investigate the effect of computer
phobia on market shares in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. The result shows that there is
significant negative effect of computer-phobia on market shares in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria (r = 0.631; p <0.05).
Brillhart (2004) in a survey study in U.K found out many factors that affect technostress.
Individual attempts to deal with feelings of phobia and stress in their efforts to reorganize
familiar habits and deal with increased possibilities for remote supervision, multitasking and
pervasive connectivity. Such could lead to fellings of helplessness and of being hassled and can
result in aversion to phobia.
Objective Four: Establish the extent of perception of techno-complexity on creativity in money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
There is great perception of techno-complexity on creativity in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria.
Hypothesis four was tested with chi square. To establish the extent of perception of techno-complexity
on creativity in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria, the result shows that there is great
perception of techno-complexity on creativity in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria
(X2c= 20.44; p<0.05).
The complexity of technical capabilities and terminology associated with ICTs has increased
significantly in recent years. Anecdotal findings and trade surveys by Weil and Rose (1997)
suggest that most people find the variety of application, functions and technical jargon
intimidating and do not really understand what many of the words mean or how the technologies
associated with them can be used. Fear and anxiety are common reactions to this ever increasing
complexity of ICTs.
Objective Five: Verify how techno-invasion could be managed to enhance innovation in money
deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria.
Relaxation and stress inoculation training could be used to enhance innovation in money deposit
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria
181
Hypothesis five was tested with chi square. To verify how techno-invasion could be managed to
enhance innovation in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria the result shows that relaxation and
stress inoculation training could be used to enhance innovation in money deposit banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria( X2c= 28.27; p< 0.05).
Roskies (1991) survey study carried out in U.S suggests that “stress has become the fashionable
disease of our time, and the treatment of stress is a popular and profitable activity”. There are
several types of stress management used today. These include relaxation response and stress
inoculation. Meichenbaum (1977) advocates three (3) stages process in stress inoculation;
(education, rehearsal and application).
182
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the summary of findings, conclusion, recommendations, contribution to
knowledge and suggestions for further studies.
5.2 Summary of Findings
The summary of the findings were in line with the set out objectives of the study.
1) There is significant negative influence of work overload on productivity in commercial banks
in SouthEast, Nigeria (r = 0.763; p < 0.05)
2) There is significant negative effect of burnout stress on growth in commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria (r = 0.552; p < 0.05).
3) There is significant negative effect of computer-phobia on market shares in commercial banks
in SouthEast, Nigeria (r = 0.631; p <0.05).
4) There is great perception of techno-complexity on creativity in commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria (X2c= 20.440; p<0.05).
5) Relaxation and stress inoculation training could be used to enhance innovation in commercial
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria (X2c= 28.270; p< 0.05).
5.3 Conclusion
The study is on effects of technostress on organizational performance of commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria. This study sought to determine the influence of burnout stress on
productivity in commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria, ascertain the extent of work overload on
growth in commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria, investigate the effect of computer phobia on
market shares in money deposit banks in SouthEast, Nigeria, ascertain the extent of effect of
techno complexity on creativity in commercial banks and verify how techno-invasion could be
managed to enhance innovation in commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. The study adopted
survey research design. Simple random technique was used in selecting the thirteen (13)
183
commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. The selected banks are Access Bank Plc, Citibank Nig.
Ltd, Diamond Bank Plc, Ecobank Plc, Enterprise Bank Ltd, Fidelity Bank of Nigeria Plc, First
Bank Plc, First City Monument Bank Plc, Guaranty Trust Bank Plc, Keystone Bank Ltd, United
Bank of Africa Plc, Union Bank of Africa Plc, Union Bank Plc and Zenith Bank Plc. A sample
of 560 respondents was determined from the population of eight thousand eight hundred and
seventy nine (8879) drawn from the senior and junior staff of the selected banks using Godden
(2004) statistical formula. The sources of data for the study were primary and secondary. The
main instrument used for primary data collection was questionnaire and interview. The
questionnaires were structured in five-point Likert scale in line with the objectives of the study.
Content validity approach was used to ensure that the variables measured were all covered. The
instrument was checked for reliability using test-re-test method. The total number of the
questionnaires distributed for this study was six hundred and forty (640) copies, while five
hundred and sixty (560) copies representing 94% were completed and returned. The data
generated from the field survey were presented and analysed using frequency distribution tables
and simple percentages. The hypotheses were tested using Pearson Chi-square for hypotheses
four and five and simple linear regression for hypotheses one, two and three.
The findings indicate that there was significant negative influence of work overload on
productivity in commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria; Significant negative effect of burnout
stress on growth in commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria; Significant negative effect of
computer phobia on market shares in commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria; Great perception
of techno-complexity on creativity in commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria; Relaxation
response and stress inoculation training could be used to enhance innovation in commercial
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria. The study concludes that management of banking industry should
endeavor to make technostress sufferers to adapt freely to their environment as this will enhance
efficiency and effectiveness and in-turn will lead to productivity in the banking sector.
184
5.4 Recommendations
Based on the findings and the conclusions of the study, we make the following recommendations
which will be relevant, not only to Nigerian money deposit banks, but to policy-makers and
practitioners.
1. Management should introduce tools that are user-friendly. This will make work easier and
more interesting so as to increase the rate of effectiveness and efficiency in the banking
sector.
2. Enabling environment should be created in the banking industry as this will help their staff
to adapt to their new found jobs as the over bearing effect of technology usage has been
found to cause tension, fatigue, burnout stress, techno-overload, techno-complexity,
techno-phobia, technomania etc.
3. Management should give remuneration packages to their staff as this will enable their staff
to have access to good health. Since technostress is a modern ailment of an adaptation
caused by defect with the new computer technologies in an unhealthy manner, these will
make technostress sufferers to experience poor health, depression, negative self image and
in itself affects performance at work as the employees can become under productive.
4. Management should inculcate relaxation response and stress inoculation training in their
portfolio. These stress inoculation training has been shown to be an effective stress
management technique in a variety of circumstances (e.g control of anger, test anxiety,
phobias, pains etc) and could be effective in treating technostress. One of the techniques
used to induce the relaxation response is “meditation”. The purpose of meditation is to
gain control over your attention so that you can choose what to focus upon rather than
being subject to the unpredictable ebb and flow of environmental circumstances.
185
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge
The study contributes to knowledge by expanding the structural model of technostress. Based on
the analysis of the correlation between variables identified the research model can be constructed
as follows to contribute to knowledge in this study.
P <0.05
P <0.05
P < 0.05
P <0.05
P <0.05
Figure 5.1: Technostress Model Source: Researcher, 2014
As indicated from the figure above, very fast changes in the use of technology in the banking
sector have brought a change in organizational performance demands in order to survive and
even to win the competition. This fact has an impact on every individual who works in the bank
to have better performance continually, both in quantity and quality.
The study observed that technostress creators are workload, burntout stress, computer phobia
psychological factors, perception of complexity and technoinversion management, Factors such
as excessive workload (over workload) due to the changes in technology that affect the work
Workload
Burntout stess
Computer phobia
psychological factors
Perception of
Technocomplexity
Technoinvasion
Management
Technostress Performance
186
system correlated to the technostress emergence. The findings in the study shows technostress
creators have a positive impact, but could cause technostress on employees if it was not prepared
properly. Subsequent impact of technostress on the employees could give a negative effect on the
organization because of excessive technostress might degrade the performance of employees
thereby inhibiting performance. The findings of the study should remind the banks, other
organisations and individuals to undertake preparatory step before a new technology changes
were implemented in an organization in order to make expected results.
5.6 Suggestions for Further Research
The following are suggestions for further research study:
- Assessing the implication of technostress in Nigeria manufacturing firm.
- The relationship between technostress and organizational effectiveness in Nigeria
banking sector
187
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207
APPENDIX 1
University of Nigeria,
Enugu campus
School of postgraduate studies,
Faculty of Business Administration,
Department of Management,
Febuary, 2014.
Dear Respondent,
I am a postgraduate student of the above mentioned University. I am currently conducting a
research on effects of technostress on organizational performance of commercial banks in South
East Nigeria.The research is strictly academic. It will be of immense assistance if answers to the
questions in the questionnaire are given without bias. Your response will be treated with utmost
confidentiality, and will be used solely for the purpose of this research.
Thanks in anticipation for your special co-operation.
Yours faithfully
EZIEFULE, CHINYERE ADA
208
QUESTIONNAIRE
Instruction : Please kindly mark the option that best applies in the questions below:
To determine the influence of work overload on productivity in commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria
VLE LE UD LI VLI
Work overload affects morale, productivity,
organizational efficiency, absenteeism, and profitability
for both individuals and the organization
Work overload accelerate job burnout syndrome,
emotional exhaustion, and cynicism
Work overload leads to role
conflict, multitasking and hypertension
Work overload deteriorates quality of work life, enable
increased monitoring and surveillance--especially real-
time monitoring, versus after-the-fact monitoring results
to understaff, loss of control, depression and undue
burden on the availability of resources
Work overload creates psychosomatic issues ( anxiety,
hypertension, heart attack, headache, pains and sleeping
disorder) for the workers which can lead to inefficiencies
at work
Work overload increases catecholamines levels, as part of
sympathetic nervous responses, which also increase heart
rate and blood pressure
209
To ascertain the extent of burnout stress on growth in commercial banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria
SA A UD DA SD Work relationship
Work overload
Technical support
Role Ambiguity Job Security
To investigate the effect of computer phobia psychological factors on market shares in
commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria
SA A UD DA SD
Psychological capital
Role anxiety and job insecurity
Interpersonal conflict
Cognitive processing
Work-family conflict and imbalance
To ascertain the extent of effect of techno-complexity on creativity in commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria
VLE LE UD LI VLI
Techno-complexity is perceived as computer- anxiety, internet-anxiety and mobile-anxiety
Techno-complexity is perceived to affect job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and continuance commitment when addicted by employee.
Its generic use leads to techno-overload, techno-invasion, techno-insecurity, and techno-uncertainty.
Techno-complexity is perceived as usefulness of
210
technology, ease of use of technology, techno-accessibility of technology, and normality of technology to maximize productivity
Techno-complexity predomination affects psych-physiological activation and system mechanism
To verify how techno invasion could be managed to enhance innovation in commercial
banks in SouthEast, Nigeria
SA A UD DA SD
Set realistic goals, manage time and develop a positive
attitude
Relaxation response and meditation
Environment/Lifestyle (time management, proper nutrition etc)
Stress inoculation training (SIT) and personality perception (refuting irrational ideas)
Take e-vacations, exercise and work-life balance
211
APPENDIX I1
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
1. To what extent does work overload affect productivity in commercial banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2. To what extent does burnout stress affect growth in commercial banks in SouthEast,
Nigeria? ------------------------------------------------
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3. To what extent do computer-phobia psychological factors affect market shares in
commercial banks in SouthEast, Nigeria? ---------------------------------------------------------
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4. How does the perception of techno-complexity affect creativity in commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria? -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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5. How could techno-invasion be managed to enhance innovation in commercial banks in
SouthEast, Nigeria? -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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