Factors Affecting Body Image in College Students

Factors Affecting Body Image

in College Students

Nathan Horton

Spring Arbor University

April 25, 2014

Running head: BODY IMAGE

Factors Affecting Body Image

in College Students

Nathan Horton

Spring Arbor University

PSY 352: Research Design

April 25, 2014

[email protected]

BODY IMAGE

Abstract

A study was conducted with 55 college students at a private Midwestern

university to determine factors that influence body image. Subjects were 47.3%

male (n = 26) and 52.7% female (n = 29) with ages ranging from 18 to 36 (mean

= 20.453). The majority of respondents were Caucasian (n = 38, 70.4%), eight

were African-American (14.8%), and eight were of other races. Twenty students

were athletes (36.4%) and thirty-five were non-athletes (63.6%). Questionnaires

containing 37 items were handed out using a sample of convenience. After

analyzing the data, no variables were found to be statistically significant,

although social support was found to have a slight trend (p = 0.080). This

suggests that, on average, students who have higher levels of social support are

more likely to have higher levels of body image than students with lower levels of

social support. This study did not find any relationship between body image and

self-esteem (p = 0.337), faith commitment (p = 0.482), or media engagement (p =

0.322). Other additional findings are reported at the end of the results section.

i

BODY IMAGE

Table of Contents

Literature Review .................................................................................... 1

Gender ............................................................................................ 2

Race ............................................................................................... 2

Faith ................................................................................................ 3

Media .............................................................................................. 4

Summary ........................................................................................ 5

Present Study ......................................................................................... 5

Purpose .......................................................................................... 5

Hypotheses ..................................................................................... 6

Methodology ........................................................................................... 8

Subjects .......................................................................................... 8

Instrument ......................................................................................10

Results ...................................................................................................11

Major Findings ...............................................................................12

Additional Findings.........................................................................16

Discussion .............................................................................................19

Limitations ..............................................................................................22

Implications ............................................................................................23

Future Research ....................................................................................25

Summary ...............................................................................................26

References ............................................................................................30

ii

BODY IMAGE

Appendices ............................................................................................35

Appendix A ....................................................................................36

Appendix B ....................................................................................45

Appendix C ....................................................................................52

iii

BODY IMAGE

Table of Tables

Table 1: Hypothesis and Source of Data ................................................ 7

Table 2: Summary of Participants’ Demographics .................................. 9

Table 3: Summary of Analysis of Variance on

Quality of Body Image as a Function of Self-esteem ................12

Table 4: Summary of Quality of Body Image

as a Function of Self-esteem ....................................................12

Table 5: Summary of Analysis of Variance on Quality of

Body Image as a Function of Faith Commitment ......................13


as a Function of Faith Commitment ..........................................13


Body Image as a Function of Media Engagement ....................14


as a Function of Media Engagement ........................................14


Body Image as a Function of Social Support ............................15


as a Function of Social Support ................................................15

Table 11: Summary of Biggest Influence to Body Image .......................17

Table 12: Summary of Hypotheses and Results ....................................18

Table 13: Summary of Additional Findings ............................................18

iv

BODY IMAGE

Table 14: Summary of Gender as a Function of Body Image ................46

v

BODY IMAGE 1

Literature Review

In a society with much focus on physical appearance, and with rise of

obesity and eating disorders (Comer, 2011), it is not surprising that one’s

satisfaction or dissatisfaction with one’s body image has an impact (Eyal &

Te’eni-Harari, 2013). Cash, Morrow, Hrabosky, and Perry (2004) found that such

dissatisfaction is not unusual and can harm a person’s “psychosocial functioning

and quality of life,” and define body image as “a multidimensional construct

encompassing self-perceptions and attitudes regarding one’s physical

appearance” (p. 1081). Objectification of women, a patriarchal byproduct, hurts

both men and women (Swami & Voracek, 2013), and studies show that most

college students (65-78%) have low body image (Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2006;

Yates, Edman, & Aruguete, 2004). Men who struggle with body image may

develop obsessive-compulsive symptoms, bulimic symptoms, depression, have

relationship issues, and/or abuse substances (Parent, 2013; McFarland & Petrie,

2012; Parent & Moradi, 2011). Women’s body dissatisfaction correlates to low

self-worth, low self-esteem, and eating disorders, including bulimic behaviors

(Homan, 2012; Rayner, Schniering, Rappe, Taylor, & Hutchinson, 2013).

This literature review explores several factors that affect body image.

Sundry sources factor into body image, including gender, race, faith, and media.

These four variables will be discussed in this literature review.

BODY IMAGE 2

Gender

While males, particularly of college age, may experience low levels of

body image satisfaction (Peat, Peyerl, Ferraro, & Butler, 2011; Parent & Moradi,

2011), females tend to be more dissatisfied with their body image and more likely

to alter their eating habits (Jacobson, Hall, & Anderson, 2013; Cash et al., 2004;

Else-Quest, Higgins, Allison, & Morton, 2012; Tylka & Kroon Van Diest, 2013).

Female athletes also have the difficulty of negotiating their athletic build and the

ideal feminine body type, which may lead to decreased body satisfaction and the

development of eating disorders (Anderson, Petrie, & Neumann, 2012; Steinfeldt,

Zakrajsek, Carter, & Steinfeldt, 2011).

Studies on men are limited, but younger men may have higher levels of

body dissatisfaction than older men (Daniel & Bridges, 2013; Peat, et al., 2011;

Murray & Lewis, 2014). This may be due to cultural standards of appearance

(Parent & Moradi, 2011). Most studies have been done on heterosexual men, but

Michaels, Parent, and Moradi (2013) found that sexual minority men have less

body satisfaction.

Race

There are differences in body image among races, including Blacks and

Whites. Cash and colleagues (2004) found that Black women did not vary greatly

over two decades (1980s-1990s) in body satisfaction and compared similarly with

non-Black men from 1996 to 2001 (17% and 16%, respectfully). However,

research suggests that body image concerns have increased over the past

BODY IMAGE 3

decade (2000s) for African-American women (Comer, 2011). White women were

found to be more likely to respond to media ideal of thinness, though publication

bias may in some part explain the discrepancy (Greenwood & Dal Cin, 2012;

Ferguson, 2013). Black women are underrepresented in media, which may be

why Black men desire a more “Eurocentric” appearance in Black women

(Capodilupo & Kim, 2014, p. 46). Researchers suggest that African Americans

who identify more closely with African American culture are less likely to be

dissatisfied with their bodies (Capodilupo & Kim, 2014; Greenwood & Dal Cin,

2012).

Faith

Various studies have shown that religious faith correlates with

psychological health (Comer, 2011). Homan (2012) used attachment theory

(developed by Bowlby, 1969/1982, 1973, 1980 and further investigated by Hazan

& Shaver, 1987) to see if a relationship with God would impact female body

image when subjects were presented with media pictures of thin women.

Participants were rated on their attachment to God before being exposed to

either thin or normal-weight models. After the slide show, the women filled out a

“visual analogue scale” pertaining to their body image (Homan, 2012, p. 326).

Although the manifestation of thin models resulted in more body dissatisfaction

than the manifestation of normal-weight models, women who were more securely

attached to God had lower levels of body dissatisfaction. In addition, Jacobson et

al. (2013) found that both men and women who considered their body as sacred

BODY IMAGE 4

(a religious concept) had greater body satisfaction. Both Homan (2012) and

Comer (2011) agree that secure attachment to God reduces the levels of stress

felt in a stressful situation.

Media

Media’s interpretations of female beauty often portray women who are

skinnier than the average woman, while men are presented in unattainable

muscular appearance (Greenwood & Dal Cin, 2012; Eyal & Te’eni-Harari, 2013;

Comer, 2011; Parent, 2013). Greenwood and Dal Cin (2012) investigated how

body image was connected with a woman’s favorite television character or

persona. Both Black and White women who were conscious of wanting the

approval of others were more aware of their physical appearance; this correlates

with lower levels of body image. Another study (Eyal & Te’eni-Harari, 2013)

connected favorite television characters and body dissatisfaction in adolescents,

manifesting that media impacts a person’s life early on. However, conditioning

intervention may lead to higher body satisfaction (Martijn et al., 2013; Becker,

Bull, Schaumberg, Cauble, & Franco, 2008).

Researchers studied another popular form of media, Facebook, but

discovered that usage of the social networking site is not related to greater body

image concerns (Rutledge, Gillmor, & Gillen, 2013). Indeed, a meta-analysis

discovered that media’s ideal body types for women (thin) and men (muscular)

may only affect women who are already dissatisfied with their body and do not

appear to affect men at all (Ferguson, 2013).

BODY IMAGE 5

Summary

While many factors contribute to body image satisfaction, this literature

review focused on gender, race, faith, and media. Although studies on males are

limited, females tend to be more dissatisfied with their body image. In regard to

race, White women have been shown to be more dissatisfied with their body

image than Black women, but body image concerns have increased over this

past decade for African-American women. Faith has been shown to correlate

with psychological health, and a secure attachment to God protects women

against body dissatisfaction. In addition, the media’s distorted presentation of

attractiveness may lead to lower levels of body image satisfaction, but perhaps

only in women already predisposed to low body image.

The Present Study

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine what factors affect body image

in college students. In particular, self-esteem, faith commitment, media

engagement, and social support were tested to determine what effect, if any,

they had on the body image of college students.

BODY IMAGE 6

Hypotheses

The hypotheses that were tested in the present study were as follows:

H1: Students with higher self-esteem have a more positive body image than

students with a lower self-esteem.

H0: Students with higher self-esteem do not have a more positive body image

than students with a lower self-esteem.

H2: Students with a higher faith commitment have a more positive body image

than students with a lower faith commitment.

H0: Students with a higher faith commitment do not have a more positive body

image than students with a lower faith commitment.

H3: Students who are regularly engaged in media have a more negative body

image than students who are not regularly engaged in media.

H0: Students who are regularly engaged in media do not have a more negative

body image than students who are not regularly engaged in media.

H4: Students who have higher levels of social support have a more positive

body image than students who have lower levels of social support.

BODY IMAGE 7

H0: Students who have higher levels of social support do not have a more

positive body image than students who have lower levels of social support.

A table listing each hypothesis can be found below. This table also lists the

source of data used in the analysis of each hypothesis.

Table 1: Hypotheses and Source of Data

Hypothesis

Source of Data

H1 Students with higher self-esteem have a more positive body image than students with a lower self-esteem.

Independent variable—Self-esteem

1. I look people in the eyes when talking to them. 2. I like who I am. 6. I am pessimistic. (R)* 9. I am confident when faced with a new task. 10. I sometimes think about intentionally hurting myself. (R)* Dependent variable--The total of responses for body image items: 17. I worry about my physical appearance. (R)* 20. I compare my body with other people. (R)* 23. I feel embarrassed by my body when in the presence of someone from the opposite sex. (R)* 25. I feel that other people must think my body is unattractive. (R)* 26. My thoughts about my body and physical appearance are negative and self-critical. (R)* 27. I am satisfied with my appearance. 29. I use products to enhance my appearance (makeup, cologne, etc.). (R)* 31. I am self-conscious about my body weight. (R)*

BODY IMAGE 8

*Reverse-scored

Methodology

Subjects

The sample of 55 college students came from a private Midwestern

university. Surveys were distributed in the Residence Halls, Library and Student

Center of the university and participants completed them voluntarily. Subjects

were 47.3% male (n = 26) and 52.7% female (n = 29) with ages ranging from 18

H2 Students with a higher faith commitment have a more positive body image than students with a lower faith commitment.

Independent variable—Faith commitment

11. I attend a religious service outside of chapel. 12. I enjoy going to chapel. 13. I read from a religious book (ex. Bible, devotional, Koran, Book of Mormon, etc.). 16. I feel that I have a close relationship with a higher power. 18. I spend time with friends that have the same religious faith as me. Dependent variable—The total of responses for body image. See H1

H3 Students who are regularly engaged in media have a more negative body image than students who are not regularly engaged in media.

Independent variable—Media engagement

14. I engage in social media (Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, etc.). 19. I read magazines. 21. I watch television. 22. I watch sports programming. 24. I watch reality shows (ex. The Bachelor/Bachelorette, Biggest

Loser, etc.). Dependent variable—The total of responses for body image. See H1

H4 Students who have higher levels of social support have a more positive body image than students who have lower levels of social support.

Independent variable—Social support

3. I regularly spend time with opposite gender friends. 4. I have at least one (1) positive male role model in my life. 5. I have at least one (1) positive female role model in my life. 7. I feel that I have a healthy relationship with my father. 8. I feel that I have a healthy relationship with my mother. Dependent variable—The total of responses for body image. See H1

BODY IMAGE 9

to 36 (mean = 20.453). The majority of respondents were Caucasian (n = 38,

70.4%), eight were African-American (14.8%), and eight were of other

race/ethnicities. One subject did not indicate race. In terms of class standing,

Juniors (n = 15, 27.3%) outnumbered Sophomores (n = 14, 25.5%), Freshman (n

= 13, 23.6%), Seniors (n = 10, 18.2%), Fifth-year Seniors (n = 2, 3.6%), and

Auditors (n = 1, 1.8%). Twenty students were athletes (36.4%) and thirty-five

were non-athletes (63.6%). Table 2 summarizes the demographics of the

respondents.

Table 2: Summary of Participants’ Demographics

Participants Number Percentage Gender Male

26

47.3

Female Race

29 52.7

Caucasian 38 70.4 African-American 8 14.8 Other Race Class

8 14.8

Freshman 13 23.6 Sophomore 14 25.5 Junior 15 27.3 Senior 10 18.2 Fifth-year Senior 2 3.6 Auditor Athlete

1 1.8

Yes 20 36.4 No 35 63.6 Age Range: 18-36 Mean: 20.453

The major variables that were measured were body image, self-esteem,

faith commitment, media engagement, and social support. In the sample

BODY IMAGE 10

surveyed, 62.2% (n = 28) were found to have a high level of body image, and

37.8% (n = 17) were found to have a low level of body image. Most students had

a high level of self-esteem (n = 34, 81%), while only 19% (n = 8) had a low level

of self-esteem. More than two-thirds (n = 23, 67.6%) manifested high levels of

faith commitment and 32.4% (n = 11) manifested low levels of faith commitment.

The majority of respondents were found to have low levels of media engagement

(n = 30, 76.9%) and 23.1% (n = 9) were found to have high levels of media

engagement. In regards to social support, 80.5% (n = 33) reported high levels of

social support and 19.5% (n = 8) reported low levels of social support.

Instrument

Questionnaires were handed out to 55 college students from a private

Midwestern university using a sample of convenience. The questionnaire that

was given to participants of this study was approved by the Human Subjects

Review at the university (see Appendix A1). The subjects signed and put their

informed consent forms (see Appendix A2) in a different pile than their surveys in

order to achieve anonymity.

The survey (see Appendix A3) was a quantitative questionnaire containing

37 items. Most of the questions followed a Likert-type scale, which was designed

to measure body image, self-esteem, faith commitment, media engagement, and

social support. Scoring was achieved by totaling the points of the questions in

each subscale. Points received from each question could range from 1 to 5. The

BODY IMAGE 11

points on each subscale were then summed to form a total index for that

subscale.

Body image was measured by adapting The Body Investment Scale

(Orbach & Mikulincer, 1998) and The Assessing Your Body Image Scale (Strong

& Sayad, 1999; see Appendix A4). Scoring for the eight items could range from 8

to 40. A score of 28 or higher was considered to signify a high level of body

image and a score of 24 or less represented a low level of body image.

The other four subscales each had a total possible point value of 25. A

score of 20 or higher was considered to signify a high level of self-esteem and a

score of 17 or less represented a low level of self-esteem. A score of 22 or higher

was considered to signify a high level of faith commitment and a score of 18 or

less represented a low level of faith commitment. A score of 18 or higher was

considered to signify a high level of media engagement and a score of 14 or less

represented a low level of media engagement. A score of 21 or higher was

considered to signify a high level of social support and a score of 17 or less

represented a low level of social support.

Results

The focus of this study was to examine several factors to determine what

affects body image in college students. Four predictions were hypothesized.

Each of these and the corresponding data are presented in this section.

Additional findings are also presented in this section.

BODY IMAGE 12

Major Findings

A. Self-esteem and Body Image

Hypothesis One:

H1: Students with higher self-esteem have a more positive body image than

students with a lower self-esteem.

The data related to hypothesis H1 were analyzed. The findings from this

hypothesis are presented in Tables 3 and 4.

Table 3: Summary of Analysis of Variance on Quality of Body Image as a Function of Self-esteem

Source df Mean Square F p Body Image 1 52.984 0.943 0.337 Error 40 56.200 Total 41

Table 4: Summary of Quality of Body Image Mean Scores as a Function of Self-esteem

Body Image N Mean* Standard Deviation Low 8 25.375 10.663 High 32 28.235 6.634 *Not statistically significant, p = 0.337

Since the differences in self-esteem among students with low and high body

images are not statistically significant (p = 0.337), the research hypothesis H1

cannot be accepted. That is, students with low and high self-esteem do not differ

significantly in regards to their body image. The mean self-esteem score for

those with low body image was 25.375 and the mean self-esteem score for those

with high body image was 28.235.

BODY IMAGE 13

B. Faith and Body Image

Hypothesis Two:

H2: Students with a higher faith commitment have a more positive body

image than students with a lower faith commitment.



Table 5: Summary of Analysis of Variance on Quality of Body Image as a Function of Faith Commitment


Table 6: Summary of Quality of Body Image Mean Scores as a Function of Faith Commitment


Again, the differences among students with low and high levels of faith

commitment are not statistically significant (p = 0.482). Hence, the research

hypothesis H2 cannot be accepted. That is, students who have low or high levels

of faith commitment do not differ significantly in regards to body image. The

mean faith commitment score for those with low body image was 25.091 and the

mean faith commitment score for those with high body image was 27.136.

BODY IMAGE 14

C. Media Engagement and Body Image

Hypothesis Three:

H3: Students who are regularly engaged in media have a more negative

body image than students who are not regularly engaged in media.



Table 7: Summary of Analysis of Variance on Quality of Body Image as a Function of Media Engagement


Table 8: Summary of Quality of Body Image Mean Scores as a Function of Media Engagement


Since the differences in media engagement among students with low and

high body images are not statistically significant (p = 0.322), the research

hypothesis H3 cannot be accepted. That is, the number of students who have a

low or high levels of media engagement do not differ significantly in regards to

their body image. The mean media engagement score for those with low body

image was 27.867 and the mean media engagement score for those with high

body image was 25.000.

BODY IMAGE 15

D. Social Support and Body Image

Hypothesis Four:

H4: Students who have higher levels of social support have a more positive

body image than students who have lower levels of social support.



Table 9: Summary of Analysis of Variance on Quality of Body Image as a Function of Social Support


Table 10: Summary of Quality of Body Image Mean Scores as a Function of Social Support


Since the differences in social support among students with low and high

body images are not statistically significant (p = 0.080), the research hypothesis

H4 cannot be accepted. That is, the number of students who have a low or high

levels of social support do not differ significantly in regards to their body image,

although there is a very slight trend indicating that students with higher levels of

social support tend to have higher levels of body image. The mean social support

score for those with low body image was 23.000 and the mean social support

score for those with high body image was 28.188.

BODY IMAGE 16

Additional Findings

There was one open-ended question on the survey asking respondents

what influences their body image the most. The subjects’ answers were grouped

into five categories, including ‘social support,’ ‘self-esteem,’ ‘health habits,’

‘media,’ and ‘miscellaneous.’ Because more than one answer was allowed, there

were more responses (n = 64) than respondents (n = 55). Two-fifths of subjects’

answers (n = 22, 40%) involved social support. The other four categories were

nearly equal, as ‘self-esteem’ received 23.6% (n = 13) of the responses, ‘health

habits’ 20% (n = 11), ‘media’ 16.3% (n = 9), and ‘miscellaneous’ 23.6% (n = 13).

All of the responses to what influenced students’ body image the most are listed

and can be viewed in Appendix B2. Answers are also summarized below in

Table 11.

After analyzing the data from the present study, some additional findings are

of interest, but only one case was found to be statistically significant. Race as a

function of body image (p = 0.323), class as a function of body image (p = 0.273),

and athlete status as a function of body image (p = 0.125) were studied and none

manifested statistical significance. However, gender as a function of body image

was statistically significant.

The differences between gender and body image were found to be

statistically significant (p = 0.009). This suggests that, on average, female college

students are more likely to have lower levels of body image than male college

students (see Table 14 in Appendix B1).

BODY IMAGE 17

Table 11: Summary of Biggest Influences to Body Image

Biggest Influence N (55) Percent of Subjects Reporting

Social Support 22 40.0 Self-esteem 13 23.6 Health Habits 11 20.0 Media 9 16.3 Miscellaneous 9 16.3 TOTAL 64 116.3

BODY IMAGE 18

Table 12: Summary of Hypotheses and Results

Hypotheses Results H1: Students with higher self- esteem have a more positive body image than students with a lower self-esteem.

There is no significant difference in self-esteem between students with a low body image and those with a high body image.

p = 0.337*

H2: Students with a higher faith commitment have a more positive body image than students with a lower faith commitment.

There is no significant difference in faith commitment between students with a low body image and those with a high body image.

p = 0.482*

H3: Students who are regularly engaged in media have a more negative body image than students who are not regularly engaged in media.

There is no significant difference in media engagement between students with a low body image and those with a high body image.

p = 0.322*

H4: Students who have higher levels of social support have a more positive body image than students who have lower levels of social support.

There is a very slight trend; this suggests that, on average, students with higher levels of social support tend to have higher levels of body image.

p = 0.080*

*Not statistically significant

Table 13: Summary of Additional Findings

Hypothesis Results H1: Students who are female are more likely to have lower levels of body image than students who are male.

On average, female students have lower levels of body image than

male students.

p = 0.009* *Statistically significant

BODY IMAGE 19

Discussion

The present study examined several variables which had been theorized

by the researcher as potential factors influencing body image in college students.

Those variables were self-esteem, faith commitment, media engagement, and

social support.

Hypothesis one stated that there was a correlation between higher levels

of self-esteem and higher levels of body image. However, the results did not

confirm this prediction (p = 0.337). A review of the literature manifested that self-

esteem and body image are linked (Homan, 2012), so this result was surprising.

One explanation for this outcome could be that the survey tested both males and

females, which may have skewed the results, since males tend to have a higher

body image than females (Jacobson, Hall, & Anderson, 2013; Cash et al., 2004;

Else-Quest, Higgins, Allison, & Morton, 2012; Tylka & Kroon Van Diest, 2013).

However, when measured, self-esteem was not affected by gender.

Another explanation may be that the respondents simply did not feel

comfortable admitting they had body image issues, which may be why the

percentage of subjects with a low body image (37.8%) was almost half that of

college students in previous studies (65-78%; Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2006; Yates,

Edman, & Aruguete, 2004). Although the researcher let the respondents know

that their answers were anonymous, they may not have wanted to openly admit

something that may be a struggle for them.

BODY IMAGE 20

A third reason for these results may simply be due to the questions asked

on the survey. Perhaps self-esteem cannot be properly measured in five

questions. If the survey had expanded the self-esteem section, maybe the

findings would have been significant.

Hypothesis two stated that there was an association between higher levels

of faith commitment and higher levels of body image. Again, the results did not

confirm this prediction (p = 0.482). While the literature contrasts with this finding

(Homan, 2012; Jacobson et al., 2013), several factors may explain this outcome.

An obvious limitation is that the study was done at a private Christian university

where students are required to attend chapel and to adhere to Christian behavior

in regards to alcohol, relationships, and language. It is possible that subjects had

the tendency to rate their faith commitment higher than it is in reality.

Alternatively, because the university adheres to Christian principles, perhaps

more Christians attend who do have a high faith commitment. This would help

explain why the levels of body image are higher than normal, but when tested,

body image was not found to be connected to levels of faith commitment.

In addition, faith commitment is difficult to measure. The questions on the

survey pertained mainly to behavior and not cognitive functions. It is possible to

attend church as a ritual without it having any effect on one’s faith. In contrast, it

is also possible that some subjects rarely attend church because they are

required to go to chapel, but they may have more of a faith commitment than the

former group. Faith can be shown through actions, but actions and habits alone

BODY IMAGE 21

do not equate to faith. Perhaps open-ended questions would have yielded more

honest results, as people could then define faith commitment for themselves. But

even this would not be a perfect measure. To yield the most accurate results in

faith commitment, perhaps a combination of qualitative or quantitative answers

and observance of behavior in real world settings is needed, but this was beyond

the scope of this study.

The third hypothesis predicted a connection with higher levels of media

engagement and lower body image, but this was not the result (p = 0.322). This

was not entirely surprising, as media may only play a factor when females

already have low levels of body image and may not affect males at all (Ferguson,

2013). In this study, additional analysis showed that media engagement was not

affected by either gender. Other explanations involve the campus environment.

Three of the five questions measuring media engagement had to do with

television viewing, when the university only provides televisions in residence hall

lobbies; individuals must bring their own to their rooms and a cable subscription

is not provided or even an option. Thus, people may be more likely to watch

movies or play video games in their rooms than watch television programs.

Perhaps if the questions were more geared to a specific form of media

(social media or movies or video games, etc.), statistical significance could be

found. The five questions covered a broad array of the forms of media: social

networks, magazines, and television were included. Lastly, many of the surveys

were handed out in the Library, which may have included students who more

BODY IMAGE 22

studious, and thus do not spend as much time engaging media than people who

do not frequent the Library.

Hypothesis four said that higher levels of social support correlate with

higher levels of body image. This was not found to be statistically significant (p =

0.080), but a very slight trend was found in favor of the prediction. In addition,

40% of respondents to the qualitative question stated that social support

influenced their body image the most. The literature shows some support to this,

as females tend to choose friends with similar levels of body satisfaction (Rayner

et al., 2013). As social creatures, it makes sense that the environment factors

into body image. Body image not only concerns how one person views him or

herself, but also how that person perceives what others think of his or her body.

Therefore, healthier relationships with parents, friends of both genders, and role

models tend to yield higher levels of body satisfaction. Of course, the survey only

shows correlation and not causation. Does healthy social support lead to high

body image or do those with high body image find healthy relationships?

Limitations

In retrospect, this study had several limitations, including sample size,

race demographics, sample location, and questionnaire structure. The sample

was small (n = 55), so generalizability may be limited. In addition, the sample

was taken from a Midwestern university that is comprised mainly of Caucasian

students; only 16 subjects indicated a race other than Caucasian, which again

BODY IMAGE 23

limits generalizability. The university also is faith based, and this may have

skewed the findings of faith commitment, as students may have had the

tendency to rate themselves higher in terms of faith commitment than is reality.

Since the researcher was also a student at the time when the data were

collected, subjects may have worried that their answers would be criticized,

although they were told their responses would be kept anonymous. The structure

of the survey could have been better as well. Questions pertaining to faith were

written in an attempt not to show bias (i.e. although the study was done at a

Christian university, a question about reading religious literature included options

of the Koran and Book of Mormon, in addition to the Bible.), but each of the four

variables had only five questions each. It is quite likely that self-esteem, faith

commitment, media engagement, and social support all require more

scrutinization and depth of questions than this study gave.

Implications

Despite none of the hypotheses showing statistical significance, the

present study has contributed to existing literature on body image. The purpose

of this study was to determine what factors affect body image in college students.

If certain factors could be pinpointed, then these areas could receive more

attention and subsequently, those with low levels of body image could be better

helped.

BODY IMAGE 24

This study found a very slight trend indicating that college students with

higher levels of social support tend to have higher levels of body image. Colleges

and universities could be more intentional in providing social support to new

students through various programs, including peer-to-peer and faculty-to-peer

interactions. This phase of life often is the first time students are away from their

families for an extended period of time and thus, this population may be more in

need of social support from the campus. In addition, students could be educated

about how social support affects their body image and in turn, their health. By

being aware of the importance of building positive relationships, college students

will have the ability to lead healthier lives.

Additional analysis confirmed the gender gap in terms of body image.

Females are more likely to have lower levels of body image than males. More

light needs to be shed on this issue in order that change can occur. In this

patriarchal society, women’s appearance has been scrutinized, and the

traditional role of women has morphed into more ambiguity in the past few

decades. Aside from being attractive, females are expected to succeed in school,

have a good job, rear children, and take care of the home. Men tend not to be

judged as harshly in terms of appearance or behavior, which may be why they do

not struggle as much with body image. A survey can only imply correlation, not

causation, but further study would be beneficial to discover what causes body

image issues.

BODY IMAGE 25

Future Research

Since body image dissatisfaction often leads to a lower quality of life,

including health issues, further study on its causes are needed. Of particular

importance would be to discover the differences in the potential causes of low

body image in females and males. As the two sexes have varying gender roles,

pressures, and expectations, it is likely that their causes of body image vary from

one another.

Another area that could receive increased attention is the importance of

social support in regard to body image. Media has been frequently blamed for

producing low body image, but this may only affect females who already have a

low body image. In today’s society, people are not only surrounded by myriad

forms of mass media, but also by people. No matter how advanced technology

becomes, people naturally form relationships with each other and these people

affect their lives. More work should be done to discover how these relationships

affect not only one’s body image, but one’s overall wellbeing. The friend groups,

families, and overall social environment (including co-workers, neighbors, and

enemies) should be examined in order to provide a fuller picture of one’s level of

social support.

Finally, future research on factors affecting body image may be better

served to concentrate on one variable at a time. In order to make a survey that

was not too time consuming (and thereby causing test fatigue), the four variables

received only five questions each, hardly enough to fully measure each item.

BODY IMAGE 26

This study may have turned out very differently with additional or alternative

questions. One variable that may need multiple studies or at least a multi-method

study is faith commitment. Since faith is not necessarily an observable behavior,

research could be done using open-ended questions as well as observations. In

this way, it may be possible to see a complete picture of faith commitment.

Summary

Body image encompasses the attitudes that one has with one’s physical

appearance. Low levels of body image are common in college students and may

lead to eating disorders, depression, and relationship issues. The goal of this

present study was to identify factors that contribute to body image. Self-esteem,

faith commitment, media engagement, and social support were analyzed in this

study. Having an understanding of what impacts body image will be beneficial to

the physical and mental health of college students. In addition, insight into these

factors would better enable teachers, parents, coaches, and mentors to instruct

and aid students, children, athletes, and mentees towards healthy lifestyles.

The literature review looked at gender, race, faith, and media as factors

affecting body image. It was manifested that females tend to struggle with body

image more than males. This may be due to Western culture’s patriarchal society

and enveloped other factors, such as media. Many studies bemoan the negative

effect media has on body image, but further investigation revealed that media

may only affect body image in females who already have a low body image and

BODY IMAGE 27

may not affect males at all. The literature also showed that faith commitment

correlates to higher levels of body image and that Caucasians are more likely

than minorities to have body image dissatisfaction.

In an attempt to identify factors that affect body image in college students,

a survey was distributed and completed by 55 students at a private Midwestern

university. The questionnaire included 37 items relating to four hypotheses

believed to contribute to body image. The variables were self-esteem, faith

commitment, media engagement, and social support. The results were later

analyzed.

In the present study, none of the four hypotheses were found to be

statistically significant. Only social support (p = 0.080) was found to have a very

slight trend. This indicates that, on average, students with higher levels of social

support tend to have higher levels of body image. Additional analysis examined

gender, race, class standing, and athlete status, but only gender was found to be

statistically significant (p = 0.009). On average, females have lower levels of

body image than males.

There are several explanations for these results, as the study had some

limitations. The sample size was small (n = 55) and the subjects were primarily

Caucasian (70.4%), so generalizability is an issue. The environment also was a

factor. The university where the research took place is a Christian institution,

which may have led to respondents scoring themselves higher in terms of faith

commitment than reality dictates. In addition, the institution only provides

BODY IMAGE 28

television in residential hall lobbies, but three of the five questions pertaining to

media engagement involved television viewing. Overall, questions could have

been worded better and five questions per variable limit both internal and

external validity.

The present study has various implications and would benefit from future

research. The study contributes to existing literature on body image in an attempt

to pinpoint what affects body image. The importance of social support was

shown, and colleges and universities could be more intentional in providing new

students social support through peer-to-peer and faculty-to-peer programs.

Students would also benefit from education on how social support influences

their body image and in turn, their overall wellbeing. Post-secondary students are

often away from home for an extended period of time for the first time in their

lives and may be especially vulnerable to their social environment. Additional

research on the effects of social support is welcomed.

The present study also reiterated the gender difference in body image. In

today’s society, females are judged more harshly than males in regard to

appearance and behavior, and this may influence their body image. Females are

more likely to have lower levels of body image than males. More study into the

causes of body image satisfaction and dissatisfaction in both sexes would

helpful, as females and males have differing pressures, expectations, and gender

roles.

BODY IMAGE 29

Many factors influence body image. Media is often blamed for producing

unrealistic physical expectations and goals, but this alone does not account for

an influx in body dissatisfaction nor does it have as great of an effect as is

believed. Other variables, including gender and social support have a greater

impact. In particular, females and those with lower levels of social support tend

to, on average, have lower levels of body image. More research is needed to

discover why this is and – more importantly – what can be done about it.

BODY IMAGE 30

References

Anderson, C. M., Petrie, T. A., & Neumann, C. S. (2012). Effects of sports

pressures on female collegiate athletes: A preliminary longitudinal

investigation. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1(2), 120-

134. doi: 10.1037/a0026587

Becker, C. B., Bull, S., Schaumberg, K., Cauble, A., & Franco, A. (2008).

Effectiveness of peer-led eating disorders prevention: A replication trial.

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 347-354. doi:

10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.347

Capodilupo, C. M., & Kim, S. (2014). Gender and race matter: The importance of

considering intersections in black women’s body image. Journal of

Counseling Psychology, 61(1), 37-49. doi: 10.1037/a0034597

Cash, T. F., Morrow, J. A., Hrabosky, J. I., & Perry, A. A. (2004). How has body

image changed? A cross-sectional investigation of college women and

men from 1983 to 2001. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,

72(6), 1081-1089. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.72.6.1081

Comer, R. (2011). Fundamentals of abnormal psychology. New York: Worth

Publishers.

Daniel, S., & Bridges, S. K. (2013). The relationships among body image,

masculinity, and sexual satisfaction in men. Psychology of Men &

Masculinity, 14(4), 345-351. doi: 10.1037/a0029154

BODY IMAGE 31

Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C. (2012). Gender

differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.

Psychological Bulletin, 138(5), 947-981. doi: 10.1037/a0027930

Eyal, K., & Te’eni-Harari, T. (2013). Explaining the relationship between media

exposure and early adolescents’ body image perceptions: The role of

favorite characters. Journal of Media Psychology, 25(3), 129-141. doi:

10.1027/1864-1105/a000094

Ferguson, C. J. (2013). In the eye of the beholder: Thin-ideal media affects

some, but not most, viewers in a meta-analytic review of body

dissatisfaction in women and men. Psychology of Popular Media Culture,

2(1), 20-37. doi: 10.1037/a0030766

Gillen, M. M., & Lefkowitz, E. S. (2006). Gender role development and body

image among male and female first year college students. Sex Roles,

55(1), 25-37. doi: 10.1007/s11199-006-9057-4

Greenwood, D. N., & Dal Cin, S. (2012). Ethnicity and body consciousness:

Black and white American women’s negotiation of media ideals and

others’ approval. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(4), 220-235. doi:

10.1037/a0029411

Homan, K. J., (2012). Attachment to God mitigates negative effect of media

exposure on women’s body image. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,

4(4), 324-331. doi: 10.1037/a0029230

BODY IMAGE 32

Jacobson, H. L., Hall, M. E. L., & Anderson, T. L. (2013). Theology and the body:

Sanctification and bodily experiences. Psychology of Religion and

Spirituality, 5(1), 41-50. doi: 10.1037/a0028042

Martijn, C., Sheeran, P., Wesseldijk, L. W., Merrick, H., Webb, T. L., Roefs, A., &

Jansen, A. (2013). Evaluative conditioning makes slim models less

desirable as standards for comparison and increases body satisfaction.

Health Psychology, 32(4), 433-438. doi: 10.1037/a0028592

McFarland, M. B., & Petrie, T. A. (2012). Male body satisfaction: Factorial and

construct validity of the body parts satisfaction scale for men. Journal of

Counseling Psychology, 59(2), 329-337. doi: 10.1037/a0026777

Michaels, M. S., Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2013). Does exposure to

muscularity-idealizing images have self-objectification consequences for

heterosexual and sexual minority men? Psychology of Men & Masculinity,

14(2), 175-183. doi: 10.1037/a0027259

Murray, T., & Lewis, V. (2014). Gender-role conflict and men’s body satisfaction:

The moderating role of age. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 15(1), 40-

48. doi: 10.1037/a0030959

Orbach, I., & Mikulincer, M. (1998). The body investment scale: Construction and

validation of a body experience scale. Psychological Assessment, 10(4),

425.

BODY IMAGE 33

Parent, M. C. (2013). Clinical considerations in etiology, assessment, and

treatment of men’s muscularity-focused body image disturbance.

Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(1), 88-100. doi: 10.1037/a0025644

Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2011). His biceps become him: A test of

objectification theory’s application to drive muscularity and propensity for

steroid use in college men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(2), 246-

256. doi: 10.1037/a0021398

Peat, C. M., Peyerl, N. L., Ferraro, F. R., & Butler, M. (2011). Age and body

image in Caucasian men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 12(2), 195-

200. doi: 10.1037/a0021478

Rayner, K. E., Schiering, C. A., Rapee, R. M., Taylor, A., & Hutchinson, D. M.

(2013). Adolescent girls’ friendship networks, body dissatisfaction, and

disordered eating: Examining selection and socialization processes.

Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(1), 93-104. doi: 10.1037/a0029304

Rutledge, C. M., Gillmor, K. L., & Gillen, M. M. (2013). Does this profile picture

make me look fat? Facebook and body image in college students.

Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2(4), 251-258. doi:

10.1037/ppm0000011

Steinfeldt, J. A., Zakrajsek, R., Carter, H., & Steinfeldt, M. C. (2011). Conformity

to gender norms among female student-athletes: Implications for body

image. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 12(4), 401-416. doi:

10.1037/a0023634

BODY IMAGE 34

Strong, B., & Sayad, B. W. (1999). The resource book: A teacher’s tool kit to

accompany human sexuality. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing

Company.

Swami, V., & Voracek, M. (2013). Associations among men’s sexist attitudes,

objectification of women, and their own drive for muscularity. Psychology

of Men & Masculinity, 14(2), 168-174. doi: 10.1037/a0028437

Tylka, T. L., & Kroon Van Diest, A. M. (2013). The intuitive eating scale-2: Item

refinement and psychometric evaluation with college men and women.

Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(1), 137-153. doi: 10.1037/a0030893

Yates, A., Edman, J., & Auguete, M. (2004). Ethnic differences in BMI and

body/self-dissatisfaction among whites, Asian subgroups, Pacific

Islanders, and African-Americans. Journal of Adolescent Health, 34(4),

300-307. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.07.014

BODY IMAGE 35

Appendices

Appendix A: Questionnaire

Appendix A1: Human Subjects Review ........................... 37

Appendix A2: Letter of Informed Consent ....................... 39

Appendix A3: Survey Questionnaire ............................... 40

Appendix A4: Questions taken from other sources ......... 44

Appendix B: Additional Findings

Appendix B1: Additional Findings ................................... 46

Appendix B2: Additional Responses ............................... 47

Appendix C: PowerPoint Presentation .................................... 53

BODY IMAGE 36

Appendix A:

Questionnaire

BODY IMAGE 37

Appendix A1: Human Subjects Review

Human Subjects Review: Spring Arbor University

Request for approval of 352 research proposal

Title of study:

What factors affect body image in college students?

Researcher: Nathan Horton

Faculty sponsor: Dr. Jan Yeaman, Department of Psychology

Question or problem to be investigated:

This present student will measure quality of body image among students at Spring Arbor University. It will attempt to identify factors that contribute to body image, such as self-esteem, faith commitment, media engagement, and social support.

Purpose and/or benefit of study:

The findings of this study could be helpful to many different people. For example, if it was determined that many students have a low quality of body image, student programs and assistance for individuals could be developed. Student development personnel (Resident Directors, Resident Assistants, Peer Advisors), campus counseling services, and/or the school nurse would be people who could use this information.

Subjects:

Description of desired sample: At least 35 (and no more than 50) students from the main campus. Approximately half of the subjects will be male and approximately half will be female. Methods of selecting subjects: Subjects will be obtained using a sample of convenience. Questionnaires will be passed out to students in Andrews and Gainey Halls. If more students are still needed, surveys will be handed out in the Student Center and the Library as well. Possible risks to subjects:

There are no perceived risks to subjects. Subjects will voluntarily participate and can discontinue at any point during the survey.

BODY IMAGE 38

Plan or method for carrying out study:

The present study will use a survey questionnaire. Subjects will be approached by me and asked to participate.

Time table for study (Please specify what is being done on what dates):

Data will be collected between March 17 and March 24, 2014. The entire research project will be completed by April 24, 2014.

If deception is to be used, describe debriefing procedures:

Deception will not be used.

Please include the following: Note—all are attached.

1. a copy of data collection instrument(s)

2. a copy of voluntary informed consent form that subjects will sign. (If informed consent will not be obtained, please indicate the reasons for this omission.) A voluntary informed consent form must include:

a. an explanation of procedures that will be followed during the study

b. description of possible discomforts and risks to subjects

c. how data will be used and who will have access to it

d. assurance that subject is free to withdraw from the study at any time

e. description of the benefits that can be expected from the study.

BODY IMAGE 39

Appendix A2: Letter of Informed Consent

Welcome and thank you for taking the time to participate in this research project conducted by Nathan Horton, at Spring Arbor University. The questionnaire that you will complete today will greatly assist this college and others like it to understand issues related to students throughout their academic career. Knowing this information will make it possible to provide more effective services for students. Your responses to all questions will be completely anonymous. Do not put your name on the answer sheet. The data collected for the study will only be considered as a group data pool. You will hand in the signed statement of informed consent separately from your questionnaire. No one associated with the college, including myself, will be able to identify any individual's questionnaire nor their responses to specific questions. This study involves no deceit and no risk or discomfort to you for participating. You may change your mind about participating at anytime. A report of the results of this study may be submitted to a professional publication or conference at a later time. If you are willing to participate, you need to sign the Statement of Informed Consent below:

THANK YOU FOR PARTICIPATING IN THIS STUDY. ιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιι

STATEMENT OF INFORMED CONSENT

I have read the above information about this research study. My signature below indicates that I voluntarily agree to participate as a subject in this study, based on the information above. Today’s Date __________________ Signature ________________________________________________

BODY IMAGE 40

Appendix A3: Survey Questionnaire

Section I For each of the following questions please circle the response that best describes you with Strongly Disagree (1), Disagree (2), Not Sure (3), Agree (4), or Strongly Agree (5).

1. I look people in the eyes when talking to them ................ 1 2 3 4 5

2. I like who I am .................................................................. 1 2 3 4 5

3. I regularly spend time with opposite gender friends ......... 1 2 3 4 5

4. I have at least one (1) positive

male role model in my life ................................................ 1 2 3 4 5

5. I have at least one (1) positive

female role model in my life ............................................. 1 2 3 4 5

6. I am pessimistic................................................................ 1 2 3 4 5

7. I feel that I have a healthy relationship with my father...... 1 2 3 4 5

8. I feel that I have a healthy relationship with my mother ... 1 2 3 4 5

9. I am confident when faced with a new task ...................... 1 2 3 4 5

10. I sometimes think about intentionally hurting myself ........ 1 2 3 4 5

Stro

ngly

Dis

agre

e

Dis

agre

e

Not

Sur

e

Agre

e

Stro

ngly

Agr

ee

BODY IMAGE 41

Section II

For each of the following questions please circle the response that best

describes you with Never (1), Rarely (2), Sometimes (3), Usually (4),

or Always (5).

11. I attend a religious service outside of chapel .................. 1 2 3 4 5

12. I enjoy going to chapel ..................................................... 1 2 3 4 5

13. I read from a religious book

(ex. Bible, devotional, Koran, Book of Mormon, etc.) ...... 1 2 3 4 5

14. I engage in social media

(ex. Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, etc.) ............................ 1 2 3 4 5

15. I exercise ......................................................................... 1 2 3 4 5

16. I feel that I have a close relationship

with a higher power .......................................................... 1 2 3 4 5

17. I worry about my physical appearance ............................. 1 2 3 4 5

18. I spend time with friends that have

the same religious faith as me ......................................... 1 2 3 4 5

19. I read magazines ............................................................. 1 2 3 4 5

20. I compare my body with other people .............................. 1 2 3 4 5

21. I watch television .............................................................. 1 2 3 4 5

22. I watch sports programming ............................................. 1 2 3 4 5

23. I feel embarrassed by my body when in the

presence of someone from the opposite sex ................... 1 2 3 4 5

24. I watch reality shows

(ex. The Bachelor/Bachelorette, Biggest Loser, etc.) ....... 1 2 3 4 5

Nev

er

Rar

ely

Som

etim

es

Usu

ally

Alw

ays

BODY IMAGE 42

25. I feel that other people must think

my body is unattractive .................................................... 1 2 3 4 5

26. My thoughts about my body and physical

appearance are negative and self-critical ........................ 1 2 3 4 5

27. I am satisfied with my appearance ................................... 1 2 3 4 5

28. I eat healthy foods............................................................ 1 2 3 4 5

29. I use products to enhance my appearance

(makeup, cologne, etc.) .................................................. 1 2 3 4 5

30. I take pictures of myself ................................................... 1 2 3 4 5

31. I am self-conscious about my body weight ...................... 1 2 3 4 5

Section III For each of the following questions please circle or fill in the response that applies to you. 32. Please indicate your gender

1 Male

2 Female

33. How old were you on your last birthday? ______

34. Please indicate your class standing according to the registrar’s office

1 Freshman

2 Sophomore

3 Junior

4 Senior

5 Fifth year Senior

6 Other (please specify): ______________

35. Are you on a Spring Arbor University athletic team?

1 Yes

2 No

BODY IMAGE 43

36. Please indicate your race

1 Caucasian

2 African-American

3 Hispanic/Latino

4 Asian

5 Other (please specify): ____________

37. What do you feel influences your body image the most?

BODY IMAGE 44

Appendix A4: Questions taken from other sources

Orbach, I., & Mikulincer, M. (1998). The body investment scale: Construction and

validation of a body experience scale. Psychological Assessment, 10, 425.

Copyright 1998 Israel Orbach.

17. I worry about my physical appearance.

27. I am satisfied with my appearance.

29. I use products to enhance my appearance (makeup, cologne, etc.)

Strong, B., & Sayad, B. W. (1999). The resource book: A teacher’s tool kit to

accompany human sexuality by Bryan Strong, Christine DeVault, and

Barbara W. Sayad (p. 209). Copyright 1999 Mayfield Publishing Company.

20. I compare my body with other people.

23. I feel embarrassed by my body when in the presence of someone from

the opposite sex.

25. I feel that other people must think my body is unattractive.

26. My thoughts about my body and physical appearance are negative

and self-critical.

BODY IMAGE 45

Appendix B:

Additional Findings

BODY IMAGE 46

Appendix B1: Additional Tables

I. Gender as a Function of Body Image

Table 14: Summary of Gender as a Function of Body Image (in percentages)

Gender Level of Body Image Male Female Low 15.8 53.8 High 84.2 46.2 N = 19 26 Chi-square = 6.764; df = 1; p = 0.009

BODY IMAGE 47

Appendix B2: Additional Responses

Question

What do you feel influences your body image the most?

*All 64 responses included. Some are repeated because they overlap into

multiple categories.*

Social Support (n = 22, 40.0%)

• My girlfriend

• The other people around me and social media

• Being around other really fit runners and athletes who are extremely

skinny

• Just being around smaller woman, or pictures of other woman. Television,

magazines?

• Media, and those closest to me. Primarily girls

• Friends, media

• I’m not really sure. Maybe my friends’ and family’s opinion of how I look?

• Other people I live with

• I know that I’m loved and my body image doesn’t affect how the people

who love me see me. So I don’t worry about it.

• Friends who I perceive to have healthy/athletic body types

• Media & friends

• Friends

BODY IMAGE 48

• Media, my friends, and family

• Close relationships w/ other people, proper eating/exercise (as in if my

appearance is a result of creation or laziness) and being loved physically

& emotionally in the past and thus being confident now.

• The way other people view it.

• Seeing other girls skinnier, more toned, in shape, beautiful, well

developed, taller than I am.

• Other people around me regularly.

• Opinions of friends

• How I feel that day, and whether or not someone pays me a compliment.

• The biggest influence on my body image would be if I am constantly

around girls who are thinner than I am and continue to talk about it.

• Other people

• Other people. My sister

Self-esteem (n = 13, 23.6%)

• Looking and feeling healthy!

• I know that I’m loved and my body image doesn’t affect how the people

who love me see me. So I don’t worry about it.

• My personality

• My physical performance if I’m more muscular I can do more. My image is

influenced by this and what self confidence I have.

BODY IMAGE 49




• I will say nothing influences my body image. Because I feel confidently

about myself.

• Myself.

• My insecurities because of my lack of a father figure.

• Me.

• How I feel that day, and whether or not someone pays me a compliment.

• Attitude

• I’ve been small for a long time…my mom informed me that I probably

won’t start picking up major weight until I start having kids. So until that

time is right in my life. I just try to enjoy the shape and figure I have now!

• My feelings because I am a Health and Exercise major so staying fit is

proper to me. I feel happier when I eat and look better. More confidence

comes from a more comfortable look.

Health Habits (n = 11, 20.0%)

• What I eat and how I exercise

• Staying healthy

• I exercise constantly – at least twice a day, and I eat super healthy.

• Muscle, posture, clothes, and hygiene

BODY IMAGE 50




• How often I exercise

• Exercise

• My feelings because I am a Health and Exercise major so staying fit is

proper to me. I feel happier when I eat and look better. More confidence

comes from a more comfortable look.

• Athletic ability & Strength

• My physical performance if I’m more muscular I can do more. My image is

influenced by this and what self confidence I have.

• Muscles

Media (n = 9, 16.3%)

• The other people around me and social media

• Just being around smaller woman, or pictures of other woman. Television,

magazines?

• Media, and those closest to me. Primarily girls

• Friends, media

• Media

• Media & friends

• Media, my friends, and family

• The Internet and advertisements and my faith

BODY IMAGE 51

• All the different forms of media forcing perfection as a societal norm

Miscellaneous (n = 9, 16.3%)

• Nothing.

• Tall, Dark, & Handsome

• Christ and being made in his image

• Things

• N/A

• What Jesus has to say about it.

• Probably the stereotypical idea of what a “man” should look like.

• Clothes

• Clothing?

BODY IMAGE 52

Appendix C:

PowerPoint Presentation Slides

BODY IMAGE 53

Factors Affecting Body Image in College Students

Nathan HortonPSY 352

May 1, 2014

Literature ReviewLow body image: 65-78%

(Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2006; Yates, Edman, & Aruguete, 2004)

Major variables explored:GenderFemales ↓ Males ↑

Race(Cash, Morrow, Hrabosky, & Perry, 2004; Comer, 2011)

Faith ↑(Jacobson, et al., 2013; Comer, 2011; Homan, 2012)

Media??(Ferguson, 2013)

BODY IMAGE 54

Subjects (n = 55)Participants Percent (n)

Gender

Males 47.3 (26)

Females 52.7 (29)

Race

Caucasian 70.4 (38)

African-American 14.8 (8)

Other Races 14.8 (8)

Class

Freshman 23.6 (13)

Sophomore 25.5 (14)

Junior 27.3 (15)

Senior 18.2 (10)

Other 5.4 (3)

Athlete

Yes 36.4 (20)

No 63.6 (35)

Methodology

InstrumentApproved by Human Subjects37 item questionnaire

31 items (5-point Likert scale)1 open ended5 demographic

ProcedureSample of convenience

BODY IMAGE 55

Results

Four hypotheses testedZero with statistical significanceOne with trend in predicted direction

One additional finding statistically significant

H1 Quality of body image as afunction of self-esteem

p = 0.337

Body image and self-esteem were not found to be related

BODY IMAGE 56

H2 Quality of body image as a function of faith commitment

p = 0.482

Body image and faith commitment were not found to be related

H3 Quality of body image as a function of media engagement

p = 0.322

Body image and media engagement were not found to be related

BODY IMAGE 57

H4 Quality of body image as a function of social support

p = 0.080

Those with higher levels of body image tend to have

higher levels of social support

Additional Findings

Females are more likely to have lower levels of body image

p = 0.009

BODY IMAGE 58

Discussion: Any Questions??

Date post:	13-Apr-2017
Category:	Documents
Upload:	nathan-horton
View:	719 times
Download:	2 times

Factors Affecting Body Image in College Students

Documents