FACTORS AFFECTING THE MOTIVATION OF TEFL …eprints.qut.edu.au/54742/1/Wenying_Ma_Thesis.pdfFACTORS...

FACTORS AFFECTING THE MOTIVATION OF TEFL

ACADEMICS IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA

WENYING MA

Bachelor of Arts (CNU, PRC) and Diploma in Linguistics (JLU, PRC)

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Centre for Learning Innovation

Faculty of Education

Queensland University of Technology

July 2012

i

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the motivation of English language lecturers in a

Chinese university. Recent studies have shown that low morale and job

dissatisfaction are significant problems identified in lecturers who teach English

in universities in China. Given the importance of teaching English as a second

language in China, this problem has potentially significant ramifications for the

nation’s future. Low staff morale is likely to be associated with less effective

teaching and poor student learning outcomes. Although the problem is

acknowledged, there has been limited research to understand the underlying

contributing factors. To address this, a sequential explanatory mixed methods

approach was adopted and implemented in two phases at a large regional

university in Northern China. The participants in the main study were 100

lecturers from two colleges at this university. All of the lecturers were

responsible for teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL); 50 were teaching

English majors and 50 were teaching university students whose majors were not

English. The research was informed by a synthesis of self determination theory

and theories of organisational culture. The study found: 1) in contrast to

previously reported studies, lecturers in this institution were in general

autonomously motivated in teaching. 2) However, their level of motivation was

influenced by their personal experiences and varied sense of competence,

relatedness and autonomy. 3) In particular, personal experiences and contextual

factors such as the influence of Chinese culture, societal context, and

organisational climate were significant in regulating lecturers’ motivation to

teach. The findings are significant for leaders in higher education who need to

implement policies that foster effective work environments. The study has also

ii

provided insights into the capacity of self determination theory to explain

motivation in a Chinese culture.

KEY WORDS

TEFL academics; teacher motivation; higher education; China; self

determination theory; competing values theory; job satisfaction; wellbeing

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...................................................................................... i

Table of Contents............................................................................. iii

List of Figures ................................................................................... x

List of Tables .................................................................................... xi

List of Abbreviations ..................................................................... xiii

Declaration ..................................................................................... xiv

Acknowledgments ........................................................................... xv

Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................ 1

1.1 Overview .............................................................................. 1

1.2 Background to the Study...................................................... 3

1.3 Higher Education in China .................................................. 6

1.3.1 Overview of the development of Chinese education ......... 7

1.3.2 Structure of the higher education system in China ............ 9

1.3.3 TEFL academics in Chinese universities ........................ 11

1.3.4 Social and political status of academics .......................... 11

1.3.5 Appointment of academic staff ....................................... 13

1.3.6 Academic staff assessment .............................................. 14

1.3.7 Promotion ........................................................................ 15

1.3.8 Academics’ salaries ......................................................... 16

1.3.9 Workload ......................................................................... 17

iv

1.3.10 Working conditions .................................................... 18

1.3.11 Academics’ professional development ...................... 18

1.4 The Study ........................................................................... 20

1.5 Significance of this Research ............................................. 21

1.5.1 The researcher’s position ................................................. 24

1.6 Northern University ........................................................... 25

1.6.1 Organisational structure of Northern University ............. 26

1.6.2 The two research sub-sites ............................................... 28

1.6.3 English teaching at Northern University ......................... 28

1.7 Aims of the Study .............................................................. 30

1.8 The Research Questions ..................................................... 31

1.9 Structure of the Thesis ....................................................... 31

Chapter 2: Literature Review .................................................... 33

2.1 Overview ............................................................................ 33

2.2 Theories of Teachers’ Motivation ...................................... 34

2.2.1 Achievement Goal Theory ............................................... 35

2.2.2 Self -efficacy Theory ....................................................... 36

2.2.3 Expectancy Value Theory ............................................... 37

2.2.4 Attribution Theory ........................................................... 38

2.2.5 Self-Determination Theory .............................................. 40

2.3 Application of Self-Determination Theory ........................ 42

2.3.1 Basic psychological needs ............................................... 42

2.3.2 Role of goals in achieving needs ..................................... 46

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2.3.3 Wellbeing ........................................................................ 48

2.3.4 Cross-cultural studies of Self-Determination Theory...... 53

2.3.5 The limitation of Self-Determination Theory.................. 55

2.4 Studies on the Motivation of TEFL Academics in China .. 56

2.5 Summary ............................................................................ 59

Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework for the Study ................... 61

3.1 Overview ............................................................................ 61

3.2 Self-Determination Theory ................................................ 61

3.2.1 The continuum of motivation .......................................... 63

3.2.2 Autonomous motivation .................................................. 67

3.3 Organisational Culture ....................................................... 68

3.4 Definitions of Organisational Culture................................ 69

3.4.1 University culture ............................................................ 70

3.4.2 The levels of university culture ....................................... 71

3.5 Confucian Moral Standards and Organisational Culture ... 73

3.6 A Framework for Organisational Culture .......................... 77

3.6.1 Competing Values Framework ........................................ 79

3.7 Assessment of Organisational Culture ............................... 84

3.8 Empirical Studies in University Culture ............................ 85

3.9 Empirical Studies in Competing Values Framework ........ 87

3.10 The Framework of the Study ............................................. 88

3.11 Summary ............................................................................ 91

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Chapter 4: Methodology and Methods ...................................... 93

4.1 Overview ............................................................................ 93

4.2 Methodology ...................................................................... 93

4.3 Research Design................................................................. 97

4.4 Participants ......................................................................... 98

4.5 Measures ............................................................................ 99

4.5.1 Demographic questionnaire ............................................. 99

4.5.2 Research questionnaires ................................................ 100

4.6 Procedure ......................................................................... 106

4.7 Data Analysis ................................................................... 111

4.7.1 Preliminary analyses ...................................................... 111

4.7.2 Primary analyses ............................................................ 112

4.8 Reliability and Validity .................................................... 114

4.9 Ethics................................................................................ 117

4.10 Summary .......................................................................... 117

Chapter 5: Quantitative Data Analysis .................................. 119

5.1 Preliminary Analyses ....................................................... 120

5.1.1 Demographics ................................................................ 120

5.1.2 Descriptive analyses ...................................................... 123

5.1.3 Correlation ..................................................................... 126

5.2 Primary Analyses ............................................................. 127

5.2.1 Research question 1 ....................................................... 127

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5.3 Summary .......................................................................... 138

Chapter 6: Qualitative Data Analysis ...................................... 141

6.1 Profile of Interview Participants ...................................... 142

6.2 Findings from the First Round of Interviews................... 144

6.2.1 Need for competence ..................................................... 145

6.2.2 Need for autonomy ........................................................ 149

6.2.3 Need for relatedness ...................................................... 153

6.3 Findings from the Second Round of Interviews .............. 160

6.3.1 Dominant characteristics ............................................... 161

6.3.2 Management of employees ............................................ 165

6.4 Summary .......................................................................... 171

Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusion .................................... 177

7.1 Purpose of the Study ........................................................ 177

7.2 Conceptual Framework and Methodology ...................... 178

7.3 Summary of the Key Findings ......................................... 180

7.4 Discussion of the Findings ............................................... 186

7.4.1 The influence of personal experiences on motivation ... 187

7.4.2 The influence of social contextual culture on motivation190

7.4.3 The impact of organisational culture on motivation ...... 194

7.5 Implication for Theory ..................................................... 198

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7.6 Implications for Practice .................................................. 199

7.6.1 Enhancing the salary of TEFL academics ..................... 200

7.6.2 Professsional Development ........................................... 201

7.6.3 Teaching and Learning resources .................................. 202

7.6.4 Recognition andRemuneration ...................................... 203

7.7 Limitations of the Study................................................... 203

7.8 Future Research Direction ............................................... 205

References .................................................................................. 207

Appendix A: Demographic questionnaire ...................................... 237

Appendix B: The Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers ...... 239

Appendix C: Basic Psychological Needs Scales at Work ............. 241

Appendix D: Subjective Vitality Scales (SVS) .............................. 244

Appendix E: Aspirations Index (AI) .............................................. 246

Appendix F: Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument ....... 250

Appendix G: Letters to the leaders in two research sites ............... 254

Appendix H: Information sheet ...................................................... 256

Appendix I: Example of the coding system ................................... 258

Appendix J: Demographic information of participants in interviews259

Appendix K: The follow-up letter of invitation ............................. 259

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Appendix L: Consent form ............................................................. 261

Appendix M: Semi-structured interview schedule—Round 1 ....... 262

Appendix N: Semi-structured interview schedule—Round 2 ........ 265

Appendix O: Summary of interviews ............................................. 267

Appendix P: Feedback from COE and students ............................. 269

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Organisational Structure of Northern University ............ 27

Figure 3.1 Self-Determination continuum showing types of motivation with

their regulatory styles .................................................................... 65

Figure 3.2 Levels of culture and their interaction .............................. 72

Figure 3.3 Competing Values Framework Organisational Culture Model

.......................................................................................................... 81

Figure 3.4 Conceptual framework for the study ................................. 90

Figure 4.1 Research design.................................................................... 98

Figure 4.2 Boxplot and whiskers plot for wellbeing ......................... 109

Figure 5.1 The organisational culture profile plot of Northern University

........................................................................................................ 131

xi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Universities in China ......................................................................... 10

Table 1.2 Feedback from COE and students (N=100) ...................................... 30

Table 4.1 The research questionnaires ............................................................ 102

Table 4.2 Procedure of the study ..................................................................... 106

Table 4.3 Theme categories in qualitative data ............................................... 114

Table 4.4 Tests for the reliability and validity of a case study ........................ 115

Table 5.1 Demographic characteristics of participants in the study (N=100) 121

Table 5.2 Descriptive statistics ......................................................................... 125

Table 5.3 Correlation matrix ............................................................................ 128

Table 5.4 Median, maximum, minimum and percent of the measures in

WTMST-T ................................................................................................. 129

Table 5.5 Mean scores, standard deviation and Alphas for measures in OCAI

................................................................................................................... 130

Table 5.6 Culture types in two research sites .................................................. 132

Table 5.7 Tests of canonical dimensions ......................................................... 133

Table 5.8 Standardised canonical coe fficients ................................................ 135

Table 5.9 Dimension reduction analysis ......................................................... 136

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Table 5.10 Standardised canonical coe fficients for covariates ...................... 137

Table 6.1 Demographic information for the participants in the interviews ... 143

Table 6.2 Scores of scales for the participants in the two rounds of interviews

.................................................................................................................... 144

xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABC Australian Broadcasting Corporation

AI Aspirations Index

AM Amotivation

BPNS-W Basic Psychological Needs Scales at Work

CCP Chinese Communist Party

CSC China Scholarship Council

CVF Competing Values Framework

EM Extrinsic Motivation

ESL English as a Second Language

IM Intrinsic Motivation

OC Organisational Culture

OCAI Organisational Culture Assessment

Instrument

PRC People’s Republic of China

PRP Performance Related Pay

RSU Northern University

SDT Self-Determination Theory

SET Self Efficacy Theory

SVS Subjective Vitality Scale

TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language

WTMST-T The Work Tasks Motivation Scale for

Teachers in Teaching

xiv

DECLARATION

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a

degree or diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my

knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or

written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature:

Date

xv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my principal supervisor, Associate Professor Jim

Watters and my associate supervisors, Dr Louise Mercer and Dr Karen Dooley.

Their crucial comments, input and continued support have been invaluable to the

completion of my study.

I also express my deep thanks to the Chancellors of Northern University

and the director of Foreign Languages College who gave me support and

flexibility during my study in Australia. Furthermore, I express many thanks to

all participants for their contribution to this research.

I appreciate my beloved husband, Donghui Zhang, and my beloved

daughter, Xinyue Zhang, who supported and understood me throughout my

research. Moreover, I thank my parents, my brothers, sisters-in-law and my sister,

who gave me their support.

I would like to express my appreciation to all the people who have kindly

given me support and encouragement during my doctoral learning journey.

Without them, this dissertation would not have been completed successfully. I

will remember all your kindness and support.

xvi

Chapter 1 Introduction

1

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Overview

The slogan “Education needs modernisation and modernisation needs

education” (Ross, 1991, p. 67) reflects the dilemma facing China as it undergoes

a rapid transition from a largely agrarian society to a modern globalised

economy. Although education has always been held in high regard in China, the

force of globalisation and the emergence of a new era of technology, driven by

internationalisation, has accelerated the process that began with the Third

Conference of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party

in 1979 (Yong & Campbell, 1995). The process of modernisation depends

heavily on the development of an economy that focuses on the production of

goods for foreign trade. In order for China to develop such an economy and

respond effectively to the forces of globalisation, the education system must

develop students’ knowledge and skills to international standards (Ross, 1992).

Accordingly, education has become strongly linked to the economy.

Given the situation described above, English has acquired a new status as

an essential skill in China. English proficiency has become indispensable for

linking international trade, science and technology (Ross, 1991). As a result,

English language has become a compulsory subject in both secondary and

tertiary education in China. With the exception of mother tongue studies, English

is the course with the most learning hours and the longest term (Yu & Wang,

2008). As a consequence, the quality of English teaching and the performance of


2

teachers1

The attributes expected of a qualified TEFL teacher are various and

include a suitable personality, good language skills, research competence, rich

knowledge, good skills for classroom management and communication, and

professional dedication (Shu, 2005). Given these expectations, many university

administrators have speculated that TEFL lecturers are struggling to meet the

demands placed on them by their institutions, as well as the demands placed on

them by their daily lives in contemporary China. Concerns have been expressed

about the commitment of TEFL teachers, with the perception that in the context

of higher education, teachers are not sufficiently dedicated to their teaching jobs

(Wu, 2005; Lu, 2004; Lu, 2005b; Zhang, 2007; Gao, 2008; Zhang & Zhu, 2008)).

As recently as 2008, Gao claimed that lecturers’ professional vulnerability might

be in fact worsen before it can improve on the Chinese mainland in the near

future. And the factors that contributed to dissatisfaction were factors related to

pay and promotion (Yu, 2010).

teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) are major concerns

(Wu, 2008). This research focuses on the motivation, attributions, and conditions

for those who teach English in tertiary institutions of education, specifically in

departments within universities.

An extensive analysis of the literature in relation to the problem of

academic commitment, however, has yielded very little empirical research. Only

one study has been identified, which explicitly examines the motivation and

1 In this thesis the terms ‘teacher’ and ‘lecturer’ are used interchangeably. In Chinese, the same

word “教师” （jiaoshi）, which means ‘teacher’, is used to describe an educator irrespective of

the sector in which he or she works.


3

engagement of teachers in Chinese institutions of higher education (Lu, 2004). In

this study, Lu investigated intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among 80 English

language lecturers in Zhejiang Province. The results showed that 80% of the

teachers were dissatisfied with their jobs and 50% said that they would not be

English lecturers again if they had a choice. Furthermore, 30% of the lecturers

were trying to change their profession by engaging in further graduate education.

The lecturers reported that increased pressure for academic performance, a lack

of challenge, no sense of self-growth, no sense of self-efficacy, and limited work

autonomy, were having a negative impact on their teaching. The study concluded

that 大学英师教学中师含着师重的教师师机危机 (Lu, 2004, pp. 60-61), which

means that there was a serious crisis in motivation among Chinese English

language lecturers.

Given this apparent crisis among teachers in higher education in China, the

present study has adopted a mixed method approach to investigate the

motivation of TEFL lecturers towards teaching and working in a Chinese

university. The study has utilised surveys to examine TEFL teachers’ motivation,

as well as interviews to explore the academics’ perceptions of issues that have

contributed to their motivation.

1.2 Background to the Study

It is widely acknowledged that “[t]eachers’ work is complex, and located

in contexts that are both demanding (of knowledge, classroom management and

teaching skills) and emotionally and intellectually challenging” (Day, 2005, p.

13). Throughout the world, teachers confront a number of external imperatives

that lead to contradictory demands: “on the one hand, there is a growing


4

recognition of the importance to the economy, to life-long education, and to the

society, of teamwork and co-operation, tolerance and mutual understanding; on

the other, there is an increase in alienation of students from formal schooling,

increasing emphasis on competition and material values, and growing

inequalities, deepening social differences and a breakdown in social cohesion”

(Day, 2005, p. 473). It could be argued that similar pressures confront university

teachers.

In the 21st century, although higher education systems have their own

characteristics, higher education has become internationalised through more

complex combination of global exchange and networks of words and technology,

ideas, knowledge, finance, and inter-institution dealings than ever

before(Marginson, 2006). Relationships in higher education are structured by

cooperation, competition (Marginson, 2006) and change (Altbach, 2000).

According to Lee (2008), there are five changes that have occurred within higher

education in recent years; namely, changes in the university students (e.g.,

greater diversity, higher proportion of women, and greater concern for future

employment); changes in the professoriate (e.g., greater diversity and increase in

vulnerability due to increases in part-time and sessional appointments); changes

in academic administration (e.g., administrators increasingly professionally

trained as administrators rather than as academics); internationalisation (increase

in the number of foreign students as well as closer links among universities) and

assessment of academic work (i.e., both teaching and research performance).

As a result of these changes, institutions of higher education have had to

make significant adjustments to their policies and practices. First, in response to


5

a more demanding student population resulting from the changing nature of the

employment market and requirements for new skills, universities have adopted

more flexible courses of study that can meet the practical needs of the market

(Lee, 2008). These changes require academics to be more responsive in

developing new courses (Dai, 2001).

Second, appointment systems in higher education have changed. Whereas

once all positions were full-time, permanent and tenured, there is now an

increasing number of part-time, non-permanent, and contract positions (Altbach,

2000). The resultant casualisation of the workforce can affect the sense of

security among staff (Wu, 2008).

Third, academic leaders have become professional managers focussed on

the management of universities as businesses (Day, 2005). The power of these

leaders has been increased as universities reform their management strategies. In

addition, as universities attempt to position themselves in a global educational

market place, there is less focus or interest in social and community orientated

institutions (Lee, 2008). These changes in institutional culture are seen as threats

to established conventions of academic work by many teachers (Lu, 2004).

Fourth, in response to globalisation and the need for expanded links within

and amongst academic institutions, there are increased student and staff

exchanges among universities (Lee, 2008). Thus, “basic social arrangements

within and around the university become disembedded from their national

context due to the intensification of transnational flows of people, information

and resources” (Beerkens, 2004, p. 24). This can create a pervasive sense of

unfamiliarity for teachers who have lived their lives in those contexts. Finally,


6

omnipresent assessment of academic work in relation to teaching and research

performance is becoming a constant within the life of a career academic (Altbach,

2000). Whereas performance assessment in higher education in China previously

focussed primarily on teaching, university academics are now assessed on both

their teaching and their research performance. This dual focus assessment has

contributed to the increasing pressure on academic staff (Yu, 2005).

These five changes are not unique to china and variants of them exist in

many countries with implications for teacher motivation in China. China is

already major global force in higher education (Altbach, 2007). As China moves

towards international norms of access to higher education, China is expected to

account for the main part of the global increase in student numbers. This will

mean a dramatic expansion in the academic equipment and facilities, advanced

computer technology and other infrastructure (Altbach, 2009; Marginson, 2006).

At the same time, other issues related to the history, the governmental

bureaucratic controls, the internal differentiation between the east and west, the

north and south and funding (Altbach, 2009) compound the problems of staff

motivation. The following section will describe the context of higher education

in China. The importance of issues such as appointment, promotion, salary,

workload, working conditions and further education of Chinese academics will

be discussed.

1.3 Higher Education in China

This section provides an overview of the development of Chinese

education as well as an introduction to the structure of the higher education


7

system in China and the working conditions of English language lecturers

employed in universities.

1.3.1 Overview of the development of Chinese education

Since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949,

higher education has moved from a centralised system focussed on national

development and socialist ideology for the benefit of Chinese citizens, to a

decentralised system in which largely autonomous institutions confront a

globalised world in which China is committed to playing a major role. There

have been two main educational eras since the establishment of the PRC in 1949.

The first spans the years from 1949 to the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976;

and the second, the years from 1977 to the present.

Education from 1949-1976

Education in the years 1949-1976, under the leadership of Mao Zedong,

was highly politicised. The purpose of education during this period was to equip

the Chinese people to work for the development of the newly established

socialist society and to strengthen proletarian politics for the national good. As a

result of this ideology, educational policy advocated that studies should be

integrated with labour on farms and in factories (Shirk, 1977) so that scholars

and intellectuals would learn to embrace rather than to despise manual labour

(Bergen, 1990). This politicised educational ideology was especially emphasised

during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976).


8

Education from 1977 to the present

Since the economic reform and the “opening-up” policy embraced in 1978,

the Chinese government has switched its focus from political ideology to

economic reconstruction (Wang, 2010). During this era, the education system in

China has undergone three distinct periods of reform (Wang, 2010). The first

period, from 1978 to the early 1980s, saw the restoration of the higher education

system following its decimation during the Cultural Revolution. This restoration

was characterised by an unprecedented expansion in higher education, including

increases in student enrolment and the establishment of new institutions of

higher learning.

The second period, from 1985 to 1992, saw the first wave of reform in

education, including higher education. The Chinese government embarked on a

series of educational reforms in basic education, vocational education and higher

education including: (1) devolution of administrative power and financial

responsibility from the central government to regional governments and to

schools and universities; (2) establishment of new sources of funding to raise

financing for education; and (3) transformation of the employment system of

graduates (Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, 1985). These

reforms focussed mainly on the devolution of administration from central

government to regional and local governments; a change of governance

arrangements in institutions giving institutional leaders greater decision-making

powers; curriculum change; and a stronger emphasis on improving the quality of

education for all students.


9

The third period, from 1992 to the present, has been characterised by many

policies focused on the structural and financial reform of higher education.

Currently, the core tasks for the development of Chinese education are to:

guarantee appropriate funding to schools and universities; transform the

educational administrative system; enhance the capacity of educators; and

improve the quality of education including moral education (Programme for

Educational Reform and Development in China, 1993). As a result, managers

within higher education have assumed greater responsibility for the appointment

of teaching staff, academic assessment, promotion, salary, workload and

professional development. Before discussing management reform in higher

education and the impact of this on staff morale, the structure of the

contemporary system of higher education in China is described.

1.3.2 Structure of the higher education system in China

The system of higher education in the PRC has four sectors (see Table 1.1):

regular higher education (which, as of 2004, included 1607 universities that are

funded by the government and admit students from high schools); adult higher

education (which includes government universities with adult students); private

regular higher education (which includes 197 private universities for high school

graduates); and private adult higher education (which includes 548 private

universities with adult students). Colleges and universities are also divided into

four types in accord with research capacity: research-oriented; research and

teaching-oriented; teaching and research-oriented; and teaching-oriented.


10

Table 1.1 Universities in China

Higher education

sectors Number of

universities Source of

institutional funding Sources of

students

Regular higher

education 1607 Government High schools

Adult higher education 2 Government Adults

Private regular higher

education 197 Private High schools

Private adult higher

education 548 Private Adults

Source: Ministry of Education of People’s Republic of China, (2004).

The workforce in each university is made up of lecturers, administrative

personnel, and management personnel. Lecturers are ranked as professors,

associate professors, lecturers and assistants.

At the site of the present study (‘Northern University’), academic teaching

staff are ranked as professors, associate professors, lecturers and assistants. This

university is funded by the Chinese government and admits students from high

schools. It is identified as an institution of higher education within the “regular

higher education” sector and as an institution with a “teaching-oriented” focus.

The present study explores the perceptions of lecturers from two departments

responsible for the teaching of English within Northern University; namely, the

Foreign Languages College (FLC) and the College English Department (CED).

To provide a context for understanding these perceptions, an introduction to the

work of TEFL academics in China is now presented.


11

1.3.3 TEFL academics in Chinese universities

Teachers are the heart of every university. Without their commitment,

effective teaching and learning could not take place. Research suggests that

people often enter a teaching career because of their passion for teaching (Day,

2005). This has been a crucial issue to consider in the Chinese context because,

as a result of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), graduates from the early

1970s to the mid-1990s had little freedom to choose their career and were

allocated jobs by the government. Since the last period of reform, especially

since 1992, the teaching workforce of each university has consisted of two

groups of lecturers: lecturers hired prior to this period, who were not able to

choose their careers, and those hired since 1992, who were able to choose their

careers as educators.

In the following section, important issues relating to lecturers’ teaching

careers and lives will be discussed. This includes lecturers’ social and political

status, appointment, assessment, promotion, salary, workload, working

conditions and further education. The social and political status of teachers will

be discussed first.

1.3.4 Social and political status of academics

As mentioned earlier, modernisation has resulted in English becoming a

very important subject in secondary and tertiary education in China. Moreover,

English teachers hold high social status. Historically, however, this has not

always been the case. Teachers’ social status in the PRC has changed over time

from a period when traditional values held sway through the upheaval of the


12

Cultural Revolution to the present era of reform, modernisation and the opening

up of the nation, which began in the 1980s.

In traditional Chinese cultural discourses, teachers enjoyed high social

status and were regarded as key figures in society (Cleverley, 1991; Fu & Wang,

2002; Ross, 1993; Schoenhals, 1993). Influenced by Chinese traditional culture,

especially Confucian writings, Chinese people revered teachers deeply. There is

an old saying:师者，师道授师解惑也 (Shizhe, chuandao shouye jiehuoye),

which means that teachers were regarded as the persons who instruct students

regarding moral qualities and intellectual competence (Cleverley, 1991; Hu,

2002; Lee, 2000), and resolve students’ doubts. During the Cultural Revolution

(1966-1976), however, teachers and intellectuals were attacked by young people

and persecuted. In short, teachers were held in low esteem during this period.

In the 1980s, Deng Xiaoping, the then leader of the Chinese government,

instituted a number of reforms and introduced policies that reinstated teachers’

social prestige and improved teachers’ economic conditions (Li, 1999; Li, 2004).

At that time, teachers were described metaphorically as 春蚕 (chunchan), which

means ‘silkworm’, a term which can be defined as one “who diligently spins silk

thread till death” (Boyle, 2000; He, 2002; Hu, 2002; Ouyang, 2003). Teachers

were also described metaphorically as 蜡师 (lazhu), which means ‘candles’, a

term which can be defined as one “who burns themselves in order to light others”

(Boyle, 2000; He, 2002; Hu, 2002; Ouyang, 2003); and 灵魂的工程师

(linghunde gongchengshi), which means ‘soul engineers’, a term which can be

defined as one “who instructs moral qualities among students” (Boyle, 2000; He,


13

2002; Hu, 2002; Ouyang, 2003). The use of these expressions indicated a

renewed respect for teachers.

With the reforms, it was not only the case that teachers’ social status was

re-established, but also that their political status improved. In his talk on

National Educational Affairs, Deng Xiaoping stated that, “teachers are key to a

university’s capacity. They nurture qualified students for the development of the

country” (Deng, 1983, pp. 101-106). Deng went on to state: “We should enhance

teachers’ political and social status. Not only students, but also the whole society

should revere teachers” (pp. 101-106).

Under Deng Xiaoping, policies were formulated to improve teachers’

conditions. In 1985, the Ninth Conference of the Sixth Central Committee of the

Chinese Communist Party unanimously passed a bill establishing an annual

Teachers’ Day (10th September). In 1986, the Compulsory Education Law of the

People’s Republic of China legislated that all in society should respect teachers.

In 1993, the Eighth Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party passed

the Teachers’ Act, in which teachers’ rights and responsibilities, qualifications

and appointment, benefits and rewards were stipulated. These three initiatives —

Teachers Day, the Compulsory Law and the Teachers Act — were instrumental

in enhancing teachers’ social and political status.

1.3.5 Appointment of academic staff

During the present period of rapid economic development, universities

have been given more autonomy and flexibility in employment practices (Wong,

2004). Before the mid-1990s, lecturers in universities were employed in

permanent positions by local educational authorities across the country and


14

worked in these positions until they retired. Every university had to conform to

the state retirement policy, with males retiring at age 60 and females retiring at

age 55 (National People’s Congress of PRC, 1978).

In the mid-1990s, however, some universities were able to launch an

appointment system which entailed the independent contracting of employees.

Under this new system, lecturers are appointed according to their potential

research output: staff who perform poorly may be fined, demoted or relegated to

contract employment. The official retirement age, however, remains in place.

1.3.6 Academic staff assessment

There is a two-fold system for assessing teaching in Chinese universities.

First, lecturers are assessed by a committee of experts, which is made up of

professors, associate professors and deans. Each semester, the committee

observes the lecturer at work in the classroom. Second, students also evaluate

their lecturers’ teaching through questionnaires administered each semester. In

other words, both the experts and the students evaluate lecturer’s teaching.

Lecturers who fail their assessments may be forced to leave their teaching

positions and take up other work within the university.

Consistent with global changes in academic assessment procedures,

lecturers’ research performance is also assessed. The assessment results have a

significant impact on promotion and generate additional financial rewards for

staff. For example, lecturers who publish an article in an international journal are

awarded ¥5,000; whereas if they publish in a national academic journal or

provincial journal, they are only awarded ¥1,000 and ¥200 respectively.

Conversely, in some universities, lecturers who do not produce sufficient


15

research output are fined from ¥200 to ¥1,000 while in other universities, they

may not be fined, but they will not receive any rewards. These policies reveal the

considerable pressure on academics to be not only effective teachers, but also

productive researchers.

1.3.7 Promotion

There are three criteria for promotion in universities in China. One is based

on seniority; the second on the research output; and the third on completion of

required teaching hours. The first criterion, seniority, is measured as the period

of time that is mandatory at a particular rank before promotion to the next. For

instance from assistant to lecturer. This period is five years. The second criterion

for promotion is research output. In order to be promoted from lecturer to

associate professor, several kinds of outputs are needed including at least one

published national journal article among all articles published, one translation

from English to Chinese of at least 120, 000 words in total published, and one

academic project. To meet the third criterion, each lecturer must complete a

required teaching workload. Academics at different ranks have to complete

different workloads. Junior ranked academics do more teaching than senior

lecturers. It is important to note, however, that not all the lecturers who meet the

set criteria can be promoted to the upper levels because the numbers of

academics at each level is capped. Applicants are ranked according to the points

acquired for their seniority, research output, and workload. Applicants of the

highest rank will be promoted. Each year, the number of lecturers promoted

differs because the quota changes.


16

1.3.8 Academics’ salaries

According to Wang’s (2003) investigation of academic salaries, lecturers’

mean gross annual salary in 1985 was ¥1,200.00. By 2002, the salary had

increased by 1653% to ¥21,039.00. Then in 2003, another increase of 10% was

awarded to bring lecturers’ salary to ¥23,300.00. This means that lecturers’

salaries were increased by the Government about 17.8 times from 1984 to 2004.

Yet, they are only at a middle or lower-middle position among the salaries of all

occupations in Chinese society.

The salary of lecturers was made up of two parts: one was the allowance

from the Chinese government while the other was from the school. In September

2009, there was a salary reform in universities and hospitals in China. After this,

lecturers in the university could earn Performance Related Pay (PRP), which

consists of school-merit pay and the government pay. Because some universities

did not make a profit, however, the part of lecturers’ salary contributed by the

school was decreased because some universities did not have money to pay that

part of lecturers’ salary. Thus, lecturers in universities that did not have profits

were only paid the part of their salary from the Chinese government. In addition,

there are great differences in the level of development of universities across the

western, middle, and eastern parts of China (Li & Huang, 2010) and universities’

salary scales vary with level of development.

The study university is an institution where the only source of lecturers’

salaries is the allowance from the Chinese government; the university is not

among those which have earned profits. Accordingly, salaries are low. Due their

comparatively low salary levels, some English language lecturers at this, and at


17

other universities, have chosen to work for the lucrative remuneration paid by

foreign companies while still holding on to their university positions. Although it

is unusual, some lecturers have even taken on a third job in order to boost their

salaries.

1.3.9 Workload

As education reform unfolded, the number of newly enrolled students in

China’s universities has increased. According to Zhang (2007), there were

5,040,000 newly enrolled students in 2005. This was 4.7 times the number of

new enrolments in seven years earlier. The total number of university students

was 6,430,000 in 1998, but increased to 25,000,000 by 2006 (Mooney, 2006). At

that time the teacher student ratio was 1:40, which is far higher than the

preferred standard of 1:18 (Ministry of Education, 2004). The number of

students attending university was close to 35,500,000 in 2006 (Su & Xue, 2010).

Nonetheless, at the Fourth National Education Conference which was held in

July 2010, education planners hoped to increase the number of student

enrolments in colleges and universities a further 40 percent by 2020 (Mooney,

2006).

Since the mid-1990s, there has been a substantial increase in lecturers’

teaching hours to accommodate the increasing numbers of students. Each

academic year is made up of two 17-week semesters. At present, the workload

for English lecturers’ varies from 240 to 270 hours each year (over two

semesters) to meet the demand given the growth in student numbers. Thus

teachers are expected to teach between 8 and 16 hours per week. In addition,

English teaching in China has its own characteristics. For example, according to


18

the curriculum for English Majors in the first two years in universities in China,

English majors must be trained in five abilities: listening, speaking, reading,

writing and translation (English-Chinese and Chinese-English). Accordingly,

lecturers are required to prepare and teach many courses. TEFL lecturers in

universities are required to teach between one and four different courses per

semester. The textbooks for these courses change every two to three years

according to the requirements of the university. This situation increases the

pressure and workload of TEFL lecturers.

1.3.10 Working conditions

Although investment in education increased as the economy developed,

limited resources are still a major issue in language teaching (Shu, 2005). For

example, in universities, the use of audio-visual equipment and language

laboratories is only permitted in listening classes; there is only one computer

shared by more than 15 TEFL lecturers in each office; moreover, there is no

multi-media equipment in classrooms. Additionally, TEFL lecturers have limited

access to texts and other materials for lesson preparation.

Teacher control of the curriculum is also limited. In some universities in

China, the choice of textbooks and curriculum planning and design, are managed

in a top-down fashion (Li & Bo, 2004). High level managers rather than teachers

control curriculum decisions with implications for daily classroom practice.

1.3.11 Academics’ professional development

In China, there are two ways for lecturers to pursue their professional

development; one is in-country post-graduate study and the other is overseas


19

study. This latter option is especially important for TEFL lecturers given that the

content they teach is a foreign language. Both options bring challenges of

competition for English lecturers’ professional development.

Until recently, teachers in Chinese universities were required to have a

minimum of a Masters degree as a condition of employment. To gain entry to

masters-level work, language teachers had to pass the academic post-graduate

entry examination, which includes not only their English major area, but also a

second foreign language which all students are required to study (e.g., Russian,

French or Japanese). All the applicants who passed the examination were ranked

according to their marks and only the top applicants were accepted because of

the limited number of vacancies.

The opportunity to go overseas for further learning also brings challenges.

In recent years, the China Scholarship Council (CSC) has provided opportunities

for lecturers in higher education to study or undertake research abroad.

Applicants who meet the criteria, which include age, professional rank, and

research output, pass the expert evaluation and are given a rank. Those who

secure the first few positions are sponsored by the CSC to go overseas for further

study. However, the competition is very intense. For example, in 2008, there

were only 12,000 positions available across the whole country for all disciplines

(China Scholarship Council, 2008).

In summary, this section has described conditions that reflect the specific

development of Chinese higher education in a context of global change. The

issues discussed potentially affect staff morale and motivation. Lecturers

experience great pressure because of the workload, the system of appointment,


20

promotion, and assessment. At the same time, lecturers’ salaries, facilities for

teaching, professional development, and working environment do little to release

the pressure. A combination of these factors presents a dilemma for higher

education in China. As pressure on lecturers is becoming increasingly intense it

is important to consider English lecturers’ motivation in teaching.

There are a number of issues related to lecturers’ work motivation, such as

socio-economic circumstances, student sources, resource constraints, policy

factors and the lecturers’ own commitment, “Teacher commitment is closely

associated with job satisfaction, morale, motivation…” (Day, 2005, pp. 62-63).

Day went on to argue that lecturers’ work motivation, “may be enhanced or

diminished by factors such as student behaviour, collegial and administrative

support, resource constraints, parental demands, national education policies, and

their own professional histories and career phase” (p. 63). Thus, personal and

professional experiences have the potential to contribute to lecturers’ motivation.

In the following chapters, I will explore the literature in detail that examines the

influence of factors such as organisational culture and experiences on the

motivation of English language lecturers in China. This includes three basic

psychological needs (for autonomy, competence and relatedness), goals and

wellbeing. The following chapter also identifies potentially significant

contributors to staff morale and the motivation to teach.

1.4 The Study

This mixed methods study was conducted at a large regional university

where the TEFL lecturers are involved in teaching a range of English language

courses. The study involved two phases. In the first phase, academic staff


21

completed a series of questionnaires that allowed for an examination of their

motivation in relation to teaching and perceptions of the working environment.

In the second phase, purposely selected participants were interviewed in order to

explore their experiences of working in the institution as well as the influence of

issues that potentially impact morale.

Northern University is one institution among the 1607 regular higher

education universities in China. There were two grounds for selection. First, the

university is conveniently located for this researcher. Second, the participants in

this university are representative of lecturers teaching English in higher

education. They are from two English departments in two colleges within one

university. Although the TEFL lecturers in these departments are responsible for

teaching English, they have different clientele. The difference between them is

that the lecturers in one college teach English majors, whereas the lecturers in

the other college teach university students who are not English majors, but

require English for their courses. In this sense, the participants represent the

range of TEFL lecturers in China.

1.5 Significance of this Research

As noted earlier, China is undergoing a period of rapid modernisation. As

part of this process, China needs to integrate into global society through

communication and trade. Globalisation has increased the significance of the

English language in China and the demand for proficiency in English. During the

implementation of national economic reforms, English teachers and English

teaching have been impacted profoundly. The Fourth National Education

Conference, which was held in July 2010, presented an outline of China’s


22

education reform and development with mid-term and long-term projections.

The aim is to build a modern education system and to become a strong society

through increasing the quality of education (Han, 2010).

To achieve the required quality of education, policies have been introduced

that have two primary foci: enhancing the teaching capability of lecturers and

further implementing educational reform. That is, on one hand, personnel,

lecturers and administrators must change their methods of teaching and

conducting administration. On the other hand, from the perspective of the

institutions, the management system must be transformed to be consistent with

educational reforms.

Following the institution of the new national policies, educational leaders

and administrators have been encouraged to adopt management policies in which

traditional Chinese culture, socialist values, and modern entrepreneurial values

are integrated (Fu & Tsui, 2003; Gao, Su, & Hu, 2006). Contemporary policy

guidelines were issued by the Fourth National Education Conference held in July

2010. The strategic plan, the Outline on National Education Reform and

Development Plan Within Mid-term and Long term (2010-2020), focussed on

enhancing the quality of education, building a community of lecturers with high

morals and high levels of professionalism, improving lecturers’ professional

training, and increasing investment in education lecturers’ salaries (Zhang, Wu,

Zhao, & Liu, 2010).

Within the context of educational reforms in China, this study is significant

for four reasons. First, teachers’ motivation is associated with student

achievement because teachers play an important role in enhancing or


23

diminishing student self-esteem, achievement, and visions of present and future

possibilities for learning (Day, 2005). Teachers are knowledgeable about their

subjects; they create a learning environment which engages and stimulates

students to learn (Day, 2005). Dinham and Scott’s (1996) study on teacher

satisfaction, motivation and health has shown that student achievement and

professional self-growth are two major satisfiers of teachers. Atkinson (2010)

reported the positive link between pupils’ motivation and teacher motivation,

curriculum design and curriculum process after his investigation into the

relationship between teacher motivation and pupil motivation in his study.

Bernaus and Gardner (2008) also claimed that language teachers’ by using

strategies of motivation were able to improve students’ skill development and

promote cooperation and a good classroom atmosphere. The results of the study

by Filak and Sheldon in 2008 have reinforced the finding that the level of teacher

autonomy directly affects student motivation.

Second, the study is an empirical investigation of a problem that is widely

recognised, but not researched: that Chinese lecturers’ motivation to teach is

problematic (Lu, 2004). This study will contribute to the growing body of

findings in the context of China on lecturers’ motivation.

Third, the study is significant because there is a need for leaders and

managers in the domain of education to implement policies that ensure optimal

working environments. A critical component of the learning environment is the

passion and commitment of teachers. The present study has the potential to

provide the information from situational analyses that is necessary in order to

consider the empowerment of academic staff in China.


24

Fourth, the study has theoretical significance because it draws on a key

motivational theory, namely Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which will be

applied in a cultural context different from that in which it was developed. SDT

was developed in the United States and has been applied to a number of studies

cross-culturally (e.g., Canada and Bulgaria) (Chirkov, Ryan, & Willness, 2005;

Deci, Ryan, Gagne, Leone, Usunov, & Kornazheva, 2001). The cultural

assumptions underpinning the theory, however, are not necessarily appropriate

for China. Historically, China has been heavily influenced by traditional culture

and social values such as Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism (introduced from

India in Tang Dynasty and influential in China for over a thousand of years) (Lu,

2001). In their current modern society, the Chinese have synthesised the three

great traditions of thought with concepts of Western countries, formulating their

own ways of treating life and work despite the addition of global entrepreneurial

values. Thus, this study will advance understandings of the cultural dimensions

of the motivation theory, SDT.

1.5.1 The researcher’s position

Besides the above-mentioned reasons, another driving force for the study

stems from the personal experience of the researcher. In 2003, as the researcher,

I was promoted to Dean of the English Department in the Foreign Languages

College of a university in China. As a head of the department, I was concerned

about commitment to language teaching and learning. In 2005, I passed the

evaluation of the China Scholarship Council (CSC) and studied in the School of

Cultural and Language Studies in the Education Faculty within the Queensland

University of Technology as a visiting scholar. There, I completed research on

teaching English as a second language in the Teaching English to Speakers of


25

Other Languages (TESOL) unit. In 2006, when I came back to China, I did a

survey of the learning motivation of English majors in the university. The

research found that students’ English teachers had a great influence on their

motivation (Ma, 2008). How to motivate English teachers thus became a crucial

issue. The current study, then, builds upon this earlier research. It does this by

exploring factors affecting the motivation of the TEFL academics in higher

education in China.

1.6 Northern University

The research site university is a multi-disciplinary university authorised by

a provincial government. It is located in the capital city of the province and

includes three campuses. In 1997, Northern University passed the Chinese

Education Ministry’s Undergraduate Teaching Evaluation successfully. In 2006,

the University won the honour of being the National Outstanding University of

Undergraduate Teaching. Currently, the university has an enrolment of 40,000

undergraduate students.

There are 17 institutes in the university offering 46 undergraduate degree

majors. The teaching team consists of over 707 lecturers, including 110

professors and 318 associate professors. At present, there are 3 national level

science research centres, 1 provincial key academic discipline, 1 provincial key

science lab, and 2 provincial key humanities and social sciences research bases.

The scope of offerings encompasses Philosophy, Economics, Law, Education,

Literature, Language, History, Science, Engineering, Agriculture, Medicine and

Management.


26

1.6.1 Organisational structure of Northern University

Figure 1.1 presents the organisational structure of Northern University.

According to The Higher Education Law (1998), the university president

functions under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

Committee. The duties of the university-level CCP Committee as follows:

It carries out the guidelines, principles and policies of the

CCP and follows the socialist way of university management.

It directs the ideological, political and moral work of the

university. It discusses and decides the setup of the internal

organisations of the university and the selection of

corresponding personnel. It discusses and decides the reform,

development and basic management system of the university.

It ensures the completion of various tasks that centre on the

cultivation of specialised and talented human resources.

(Chinese Communist Party, 1998)

The university president is the legal representative of the university and is

in charge of the execution of administrative issues such as teaching, research and

the employment of teachers. However the president has a limited role in the

organisation of internal functions including teaching, scientific research, and

administrative organisations and drafting plans.

In Northern University, under the university president, there are 16

colleges, two departments, one research centre and 31 administrative

departments. For Figure 1.1, which illustrates the organisational structure for the

purposes of the present study, only details regarding the two related colleges,

which are the research sites are provided. The 31 administrative departments are

combined into a single unit, which represents all these administrative


27

departments. In each college and administrative department, directors are in

charge of the work across the colleges or departments.

Each college contains a number of departments. In the Foreign Languages

College (one research site of the present study), there are three departments:

English, Japanese and Russian. In the College English Department (the other

research site of the present study), there are two sub-departments: English and

Japanese.

In the departments of the colleges, deans are in charge of the work across

departments. They assign subjects, select textbooks, review lecturers’ teaching

plans, deal with management affairs, as well as engage in some daily teaching.

Under the direction of the deans, the lecturers in each department teach the

subjects allocated to them and according their timetables.

Figure 1.1 Organisational Structure of Northern University

CCP=Chinese Communist Party

Secretary of CCP

Committee

Administrative Departments

Lecturers

Departments

Colleges

President


28

1.6.2 The two research sub-sites

This study was conducted at two sub-sites within Northern University

namely the English Department in the Foreign Languages College and the

English Department in the College English Department.

Research Sub-Site One: The English Department in the Foreign Languages

College

The Foreign Languages College was founded in 1987. There are three

departments in this college: English, Japanese and Russian. In the English

Department, there are 50 lecturers. The team consists of 1 professor, 11 associate

professors, 33 lecturers, and 5 assistant teachers. Of these, 7 lecturers either have

or are presently completing a doctoral degree and 33 lecturers have a Master’s

degree. Since 1987, the Foreign Languages College has graduated 2,776 students.

Research Sub-site two: The English Department in the College English

Department

There are two offices in the college: English and Japanese. In the English

department, there are 50 lecturers. Lecturers in this department teach college

English for the undergraduates whose majors are not English. The teaching team

consists of 1 professor, 10 associate professors, 28 lecturers and 11 assistants.

Two of the teaching team have doctoral degrees while another 48 have Master’s

Degrees.

1.6.3 English teaching at Northern University

At Northern University, lecturers at the Foreign Languages College are

responsible for language teaching for English, Japanese and Russian majors.


29

Lecturers in the English Department take the responsibility for the

undergraduates whose major is English. Lecturers at the College English

Department are responsible for English or Japanese for non-foreign language

majors.

The specialties of language teaching for English majors

The curriculum for foreign language teaching in China specifies that the

university must ensure three conditions for teaching English majors. First, there

should be fewer than 25 students in each class so that the students will have

enough time to practice their language abilities. Second, in each language

classroom, there should be facilities with modern technologies such as tape-

recorders, TV sets and CNN, VOA, BBC or ABC on cable for receiving English

programs. Third, there should be teachers who come from English-speaking

countries to teach oral English or English Literature.

The sense of competence for TEFL lecturers

As stated previously, there is a two-fold system for assessing teaching in

Chinese universities. Northern University adopts the same system for assessing

TEFL lecturers’ teaching. That means both the committee of experts and

students evaluate lecturers’ English teaching each semester. According to the

mark in the feedback from both the committee of experts and students in the first

semester in 2008 (See Table 1.2), 19% of the lecturers got above 90 points; 47%

of the lecturers got between 80-90 points; 31% of the lecturers got between 70-

80 points; 3% of the lecturers got below 70 points. 58% of the lecturers scored

below 85 points (See Appendix P). This result indicated that students were


30

dissatisfied with the English teaching of 58% of the TEFL lecturers in Northern

University.

Table 1.2 Feedback from COE and students (N=100)

Number of

lecturers

Above 90

Points

80-90 Points 70-80 Points Below 70

Points 80-85 Points

100 19 47 31 3

24

COE=Committee of Experts

1.7 Aims of the Study

The present study aims to investigate the extent to which organisational

culture and TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences were related to academic

motivation in the Chinese universities. Such a study is necessary because,

although there has been widespread speculation by university and government

officials that lecturers’ motivation is a problem (Wu, 2005), no empirical

evidence has been gathered which confirms these speculations or which explores

those factors that might contribute to low levels of motivation. In the research

site university, students were dissatisfied with the teaching of 58% of the TEFL

lecturers. Therefore, a study that examines the reasons for lecturers’ apparent

problematic motivation is timely.

The present study explored lecturers’ motivation with both quantitative and

qualitative methods. In addition, factors underlying motivation, especially

lecturers’ experiences as well as the culture and institutional culture in which the

lecturers work, were examined to identify possible contributing factors. The


31

study was framed by Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985,

2002) and Competing Values Framework (CFV) (Cameron & Quinn, 1999).

SDT and CFV are explained in further detail in Chapter 2 and 3.

1.8 The Research Questions

In order to investigate the general research problem of TEFL lecturers’

motivation, the following research questions were addressed in this study:

To what extent do the organisational culture and TEFL lecturers’ personal

experiences contribute to their academic motivation to work in the Chinese

universities?

In particular, three research sub-questions were asked: (1) What types of

motivation do TEFL lecturers appear to have? (2) How do academics

perceive the organisational culture within the universities in China? (3) What

experiences do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work practices?

1.9 Structure of the Thesis

There are seven chapters in this thesis. In this introductory chapter, I have

highlighted a problem related to the morale of TEFL lecturers in Chinese

universities where English is taught. In contextualising this problem, I have

presented the background of higher education in China, illuminating issues that

potentially influence teacher morale and motivation to work in higher education.

I have provided a context of the study with regard to the pressures within higher

education in China. The significance of the study has also been argued from

theoretical and practical perspectives. The literature informing these issues is

reviewed in Chapter 2. In that chapter, I review theories of motivation in relation


32

to teachers’ motivation and studies examining lecturers’ motivation, particularly

with regard to language lecturers.

An important issue contributing to academic morale is workplace or

institutional culture. In Chapter 3, I present the conceptual framework of the

study drawing in particular on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and the

Competing Values Framework (CVF) on organisational culture. Chapter 4

describes the research methodology and justifies the adoption of a mixed-method

case study approach. The research methods, participants, research procedure, the

data collection and analysis procedures are described in detail. Chapter 5

presents the results of the quantitative data analysis. Chapter 6 presents the

results of the qualitative data analysis. Chapter 7 concludes the thesis by arguing

the significance of the findings and directions for further research.

Chapter 2 Literature Review

33

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Overview

This study investigates the extent to which the organisational culture

and TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences contribute to academic motivation

to work in Chinese universities. Chapter 1 described the context of the study,

highlighting the rapid changes that are occurring in higher education in China

and the expanding demand for English language competence. In this chapter,

it was argued that there is a need redress the perceived lack of empirical

evidence about factors that might contribute to low levels of motivation. This

study has four objectives:

1. to draw on Self-Determination Theory to measure the motivational

attributes of TEFL academics working in Chinese universities;

2. to document the experiences and commitment of TEFL academics

working in Chinese universities;

3. to document TEFL academics’ perceptions of the organisational culture

of the institution in which they work;

4. to analyse and draw conclusions from these findings to explain the

affective commitment and continuance commitment of academics

working in TEFL institutions in Chinese universities.

This chapter explores the literature informing this research, including:

theories of motivation, especially in relation to teachers’ motivation; studies

investigating the motivation of TEFL academics in China; research on


34

institutional culture that influences work practices; and the influence of a

Confucian heritage on workplace practices. This review provides a framework

on which to answer three research sub-questions:

1. What types of motivation do TEFL lecturers appear to have?

2. How do academics perceive the organisational culture within the

universities in China?

3. What experiences do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work

practices?

The chapter begins with an overview of theories of motivation with

particular reference to their applicability in studying the motivation of teachers

or university lecturers.

2.2 Theories of Teachers’ Motivation

There are well-established theories that have been applied extensively in

the study of motivation. Given that the focus of this study is motivation to teach,

an examination of theories associated with this form of motivation is of primary

concern. This section will review studies related to teachers’ motivation and then

argue for the adoption of one theory as a framework for developing an initial

understanding of lecturers’ types of motivation in this study.

Little systematic, theory-driven research has been conducted on teacher

motivation (Butler & Shibaz, 2008). It has therefore been proposed that “one

potential fruitful strategy could be to extrapolate from theories that have

suggested useful in studying motivation in educational contexts, albeit for


35

learning rather than teaching” (Butler & Shibaz, 2008, p. 454). These theories

include: Achievement Goal Theory, Self-Efficacy Theory, Expectancy-Value

Theory, Attribution Theory and Self-Determination Theory. The following

paragraphs will discuss each of these theories respectively.

2.2.1 Achievement Goal Theory

Achievement Goal Theory emphasises that setting goals is the engine that

promotes and motivates people to adopt certain actions (Elliot & Dweck, 2005).

Early studies on motivation to achieve distinguished between varieties of

mastery, learning, or task goals (Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1984).

Achieving a sense of competence is the core of the achievement goal construct

(Elliot & Dweck, 2005). This theory has been widely applied in explaining

students’ learning motivation (Midgley, 2002). Recently, however, some

researchers such as Malmberg (2008) and Butler and Shibaz (2008) have used it

to successfully explore teachers’ goal orientation and the relation between

teachers’ motivation and students’ outcomes, such as help-seeking and cheating.

Butler and Shibaz (2008) in a study of middle school teachers in Israel found that

teacher mastery and ability-avoidance goals were associated with their

communication and behaviour in the classroom. “[T]eaching, like learning, will

be more effective when teachers strive to learn and acquire competence than

when they are concerned mainly to avoid failure and the demonstration of

inferior ability” (Butler & Shibaz, 2008, p. 465). Another finding was that

teacher achievement goals were influenced by context (Butler & Shibaz, 2008).

Malmberg (2008) studied beginning teachers in Finland and found that

achievement goal orientations and especially mastery goal orientations were


36

found to increase over time. The interpretation was that teachers became more

reflective about their teaching, increased in confidence and developed an

improved sense of wellbeing. In part, the findings were explained by a lack of

normative assessment in the practicum context.

Therefore, these researchers argued that schools should provide support for

teacher development, because such support promotes mastery goals for teaching.

All these findings suggest the potential of an achievement-goal framework for

conceptualising qualitative differences in teachers’ motivation for teaching and

the importance of context on teacher development.

2.2.2 Self-efficacy Theory

The second theoretical perspective can be drawn from Self efficacy

Theory. This theory emphasises that people make decisions based on their

beliefs about their own capabilities to achieve success (Bandura, 1977, 1994,

1997). Bandura (1994) argued that cognitive processes influence the

establishment of goals. If a person has strong perceptions of self-efficacy they

will set, and persist with, more challenging goals. Confident individuals

anticipate successful outcomes. The higher the sense of efficacy, the greater the

effort, persistence and resilience they have in achieving those goals. Self-

efficacy is not concerned with the skills one has, but rather with judgements of

what one can do with those skills (Bandura, 1994). Self-efficacy Theory focuses

significantly on perceptions. An example would be a teacher’s perceptions of

teaching ability in a particular task, such as teaching English reading or the

teaching of particular aspects of a subject.


37

Researchers such as Pajares (1996), Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy and

Hoy (1998), and Eslami and Fatahi (2008), have conducted research on teachers’

motivation from the perspective of self-efficacy in academic settings. Their

research reveals that teacher efficacy is one of the most important variables

relating to positive teaching behaviour and student achievement. Furthermore,

meta-analysis research by Stajkovic and Luthans (1998), which examined the

results of 114 studies with 21,616 participants, showed there is a 72% probability

that persons with high self-efficacy on a task have better performance than those

with low self-efficacy. Their findings suggest Self-Efficacy Theory is useful for

the present study: the theory can account for the development of teachers’ self-

confidence and sense of agency in their teaching. In contrast, if teaching staff do

not have confidence in English, they might have low self-efficacy to teach

English, teach inadequately, and hence be poorly motivated.

2.2.3 Expectancy Value Theory

The third theory which offers some explanation of teachers’ motivation,

for school teaching, is Expectancy Value Theory. This theory emphasises a

person’s expectancy of success in a certain task and the values the person puts on

the task (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995, 2002). The expectation of success is based on

beliefs of competence. A number of studies that focused on the relationship

between ability-related beliefs and career-choice were conducted to investigate

motivational factors influencing the choice to teach among beginning pre-service

teachers (Richardson & Watt, 2006; Watt & Richardson, 2007, 2008). These

studies presented a comprehensive understanding of teachers’ motivation for

choosing teaching as a career among school teachers at two times: on entry to

teacher education and immediately prior to completion of their qualification.


38

Motivation factors in their studies included: social influences: positive prior

teaching and learning experiences; perceived teaching abilities; intrinsic values;

personal utility values including job security, time for family and job

transferability; social utility values including shaping the futures of

children/adolescents, enhancing social equity, making a social contribution, and

working with children/adolescents; and the negative motivation of having chosen

teaching as a “fallback” career (Watt & Richardson, 2008). The results of these

studies enabled participants to be categorised into three types according to their

differences in motivation: “highly engaged persisters”, who had an interest in

teaching due to its intrinsic rewards and their enthusiasm for working with

children and adolescents; “highly engaged switchers” who were contemplating

another job when they completed their teacher education; and “lower engaged

desisters” who perceived minimal rewards from career prospects and teaching

(Watt & Richardson, 2008). There were two limitations of the studies: first, their

participants were beginning teachers, and so do not represent the whole body of

teachers; second, the motivation factors investigated in their studies were not

systematically incorporated into any motivation theory. There is a necessity to

conduct a study that investigates motivation factors systematically among

teachers with careers of different lengths.

2.2.4 Attribution Theory

The fourth theory to be considered is Attribution Theory. Attribution

Theory views past successes and failures as important factors when individuals

attempt actions in future (Weiner, 1986). Perceived control over competence is

the central focus of the theory. A key argument is that attributions are perceived

causes of outcomes (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Kelley and Michela


39

(1980) described the consequences of attributions for an individual’s motivation

and behaviour as the attributional process. This process includes three

dimensions: stability, locus and control (Weiner, 1986). Causes can be divided

into internal or external (locus) to the person, and controllable or uncontrollable

(Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Weiner (1986) argued that an external and

controllable attribution is possible if it is made by the person who is instrumental

to the success of the action. This theory has been used to demonstrate the link

between teachers’ feedback and student attribution in the classroom (Schunk,

Pintrich & Meece, 2008). The implication of this research for higher education is

that if TEFL lecturers adopt practices that provide effective feedback on students’

learning, students may well be motivated towards learning.

All theories discussed above in relation to teachers’ motivation are drawn

from social cognitive psychology. These theories emphasise that people

undertake actions and maintain them on the basis of their beliefs about their

competence. There was one study that utilised Expectancy Value Theory to

investigate motivation for choosing teaching as a career among beginning school

teachers: the motivation types in that study were intrinsic, extrinsic and altruistic

(Brookhart & Freeman, 1992). In contrast, the aim of the present study is to

investigate types of motivation and their impact on lecturers.

The final theory that offers purchase on TEFL lecturers’ motivation for this

study is Self-Determination Theory (SDT). The SDT model was chosen as one

of the frameworks for this study for three reasons. First, the model is particularly

pertinent in the context of China where lecturers typically fall into two groups:

one in which self-determination was not an option (older lecturers assigned to a


40

career teaching English language within a university) and one in which career

choice was self-determined (younger lecturers who chose a career teaching

English language within a university). Second, the SDT model of motivation

allows for identification of types of motivation, from amotivation through

extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation, which is relevant to sustaining

motivation over the course of a career. Third, the model facilitates an exploration

of a number of psychological and environmental factors that the SDT model has

characterised as being essential to motivation formation, regulation and support

among individuals, at least in North America and the West.

2.2.5 Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002) has two

strengths in explaining people’s motivation. First, the theory categorises

motivation into three broad types: amotivation, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic

motivation. Further, SDT argues that people's motivation is a developmental

process across time and place. Ryan and Connell (1989) argued types of

motivation can be examined at a level and arranged in a continuum according to

the levels of self-determination. In SDT, self-determination means the process of

autonomy, which “refers to being the perceived origin or source of one’s own

behaviour” (deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989; Ryan

& Deci, 2002, p. 8). From lower to higher levels, motivation is designated as:

amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation,

integrated regulation and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Connell, 1989).

Furthermore, SDT emphasises that three basic psychological needs － a need for

competence, a need for autonomy and a need for relatedness － are the


41

nutriments of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1991). Thus, as SDT not only concerns

the type of motivation, but also the circumstances that promote and maintain

motivation, it would be an appropriate framework for examining lecturers’

motivation. Therefore, this attribute of the theory makes it more powerful than

the other four theories previously discussed in explaining teacher motivation.

Second, SDT explains human motivation in a social context. SDT

emphasises the influence of social culture and context on motivation, behaviour

and experience (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Thus, SDT argues that social support,

especially autonomy support, is important to individuals’ motivation (Deci &

Ryan, 1991). Further, SDT emphasises that individuals’ extrinsic motivation can

be transformed into self-determined motivation if the conditions for the three

basic psychological needs are satisfied and a supportive social climate is

established (Ryan & Deci, 2000c). As discussed in Chapter 1, this study is

conducted in China, where teaching in higher education is in a transition period.

Therefore, social context and institutional culture are likely to play an important

role in lecturers’ motivation. Motivation, integrated with personal experiences

such as goals, beliefs and wellbeing, in a changing social context, might be

expected to be affected by social context and institutional culture. For that reason,

SDT assists in explaining lecturers’ personal experiences, such as goals, beliefs

and wellbeing.

SDT appears to offer insight to the nature of TEFL lecturers’ motivation

and will be reviewed again in more depth in Chapter 3. Accordingly, attention

turns now to a detailed explanation of the theory.


42

2.3 Application of Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory has been proposed as a fruitful avenue to

understand the motivational dispositions of TEFL academics working in Chinese

universities. This section now explores the ways in which SDT contributes to an

understanding of motivation through: (1) the identification of basic

psychological needs; (2) the role of goal setting; the achievement of a sense of

wellbeing with particular reference to Chinese cultural heritage; (3) cross-

cultural studies using SDT; and (4) perceived limitations of SDT.

2.3.1 Basic psychological needs

The fundamental psychological needs of humans have long been a source

of speculation; they have been addressed by psychologists including McDougall

(1908), Freud (1920), Murray (1938), Maslow (1954) and contemporary

researchers (Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001). The concept of needs was

widely used in early empirical psychology to research motivation (Deci & Ryan,

2000). In early need theories, researchers defined needs from the perspective of

physiology and psychology being innate (Hull, 1943) or learned (Murray, 1938).

When new theories appeared around the 1960s, the research on basic

psychological needs was repudiated. Furthermore, needs were replaced by goals

as the dominant motivational concept (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

SDT posited that needs are innate rather than learned. The definition of

needs is congruent with Hullian thought (Hull, 1943). Both approaches specify a

set of innate or essential nutriments. However, SDT’s approach is quite different

from previous theories because it is embedded in an organismic-dialectical

metatheory” (Deci & Ryan, 2002, p. 229). Further, Deci and Ryan (1991) stated


43

that the three psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness are

essential to humans’ growth, integrity and health.

The need for competence involves a feeling of effectiveness when a person

interacts with the social environment experiencing opportunity to exercise and

express one's capability (Deci, 1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959). The need for

competence will lead people to seek challenges that are optimal for their

capability, and to enhance that capability through activities. The more competent

individuals perceive themselves to be at a particular task, the more intrinsically

motivated they are in pursuing their goals, and a greater sense of wellbeing will

be achieved.

Competence in SDT is different from sense of self-esteem, as described in

Maslow’s theory of personality (1954). Maslow’s theory postulated five

fundamental needs in terms of their importance for human development:

physical health, security, self-esteem, love-belongingness and self-actualisation.

Competence in SDT “is not, then, an attained skill or capability, but rather is a

felt sense of confidence and effectance in action” (Ryan & Deci, 2002, p. 7); “it

refers to attaining or exceeding a standard in one’s performance, whereas self-

esteem refers to a more global evaluation of the self” (Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, &

Kasser, 2001, p. 326).

Competence in SDT is also different from self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986).

Self-efficacy has some similarity with task-specific self-concept and self-

perceptions of competence (Pajares & Schunk, 2002; Schunk & Pajares, 2002).

“Self-efficacy represents people’s judgements of their capabilities to organise

and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances”


44

(Bandura, 1986, p. 391). In contrast, need for competence in SDT involves a

feeling of capability to perform tasks and to produce a desired outcome (Deci,

1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959).

Autonomy refers to how individuals endorse their actions (deCharms, 1968;

Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989). As conceptualised by SDT, it is

quite different from self-actualisation in Maslow’s theory of personality (1954).

Autonomy in SDT “refers to a quality of self-involvement in momentary

behaviour, whereas self-actualisation refers to a sense of long-term growth”

(Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001, p. 326).

From the perspectives of anthropological research and constructionist

research, there are two views about the issue of autonomy. Anthropological

researchers posit that autonomy, which is understood as actions that emanate

from one’s self, is one of the human universals (Brown, 1991; Pinker, 2002). In

contrast, constructionists posit that autonomy is a moral value which is

associated with a social construction in a particular society and culture

(Schneewind, 1998).

SDT is generally consistent with the view of anthropology on autonomy. It

understands human beings’ autonomy as a natural and universal tendency to

enact behaviours willingly (Ryan, Deci, & Grolnick, 1995) and regards

autonomy as a universal psychological need. SDT further argues that although

different cultures value autonomy at different levels, autonomy and support for

autonomy are universal. The concept of autonomy support (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

involves “one individual (often an authority figure) relating to target individuals

by taking their perspective, encouraging initiation, supporting a sense of choice,


45

and being responsive to their thoughts, questions, and initiatives”(Deci & Ryan,

2008, p. 17). This means that the more support people experience, the more

autonomous they are. SDT further suggests that an autonomy-supportive context

tends to maintain or enhance intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2002).

Relatedness describes feelings of connectedness to others with a sense of

being cared about and respected, and having a sense of belongingness with

individuals and with one’s community (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby,

1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). Researchers such as Anderson and Chen

(2000), and a number of social psychologists (Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Gabriel

& Gardner, 1999; Smith, Murphy, & Coats, 1999) have stated that the need for

relatedness may operate and manifest at two different levels: the interpersonal

level and the level of the group. Further, McAdams et al (1996) identified four

main themes of relatedness in life stories: friendship and love; interpersonal

dialogue or sharing; connection with groups, society or humankind; and caring

for or helping others. In the present study, relatedness refers to relationships with

peers, family members and friends, students and the university. By belonging to

a community and being aware of what is going on, persons feel secure and

develop a sense of harmony with the group. They feel supported when they

pursue their personal commitments and interests. This “secure relational base

appears to provide a needed backdrop – a distal support – for intrinsic motivation”

(Deci & Ryan, 2000, p. 235).

The concept of psychological needs has been used to explain behaviour for

many decades. During the past decade, SDT has been concerned also with the

what of individuals’ motivation, that is, people’s goals (Ryan & Deci, 2000c). In


46

the following paragraphs, the role of goal setting as a contribution to motivation

will be discussed.

2.3.2 Role of goals in achieving needs

Most contemporary theories of motivation posit that people initiate and

persist with some behaviour because they believe the behaviour will result in

desired outcomes or goals (Deci & Ryan, 2000). In the research on goal-directed

behaviour, researchers distinguished types of goals or outcomes. Researchers

compared ability-development goals with ability-demonstration goals (Dweck,

1986; Nicholls, 1984), as well as approach goals with avoidance goals (Carver &

Scheier, 1998; Elliot & Church, 1997; Higgins, 1996). All these studies

suggested that different types of goals lead to different behaviour and outcomes

(Deci & Ryan, 2000).

SDT also differentiates goal-directed behaviour according to the content of

goals. In SDT, goals are divided into intrinsic goals and extrinsic goals. Goals

like personal growth, meaningful relationships and community contributions are

labelled intrinsic goals (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Intrinsic goal pursuits are

expected to be positively related to wellbeing. Intrinsic goals pursue the natural

growth of humans, and they can enhance satisfaction of the basic psychological

needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness: thus, they have positive effects

on wellbeing (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001).

Goals such as wealth, fame and image are orientated to external signs of self-

worth. These goals are extrinsic goals (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Extrinsic goal

pursuits entail an emphasis on external manifestations of worth rather than basic

needs satisfaction (Vansteenkiste, Lens, Soenens & Deci, 2006). People who


47

pursue extrinsic goals tend to be more oriented to interpersonal comparisons

(Patrick, Neighbours, & Knee, 2004; Sirgy, 1998), contingent approval (Kernis,

2003), and acquisition external signs of self-worth (Kasser, Ryan, Couchman, &

Sheldon, 2004). The implication that extrinsic goal pursuits lead to poorer

wellbeing is captured by Deci and Ryan’s (2000) assertion “Thus are, on average,

expected to be less likely to yield direct need satisfaction and may even distract

from it” ( p. 244). According to SDT, extrinsic goal pursuits are expected to lead

to poorer wellbeing (Kasser & Ryan, 1996).

The concept of extrinsic goals has also been introduced by achievement goal

theorists (Ames, 1992; Maehr, 1984; Patrick, Ryan, & Pintrich, 1999; Urdan &

Maehr, 1995). In Achievement Goal Theory, an extrinsic goal is defined as a

desire to engage in tasks to attain external consequences such as to receive

rewards or avoid punishment (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006). The theory

had been found to predict a variety of negative outcomes, including cheating,

avoidance of help seeking, the use of self-handicapping strategies, and less use

of regulatory and cognitive strategies (Anderman, Griesinger, & Westerfield,

1998; Midgley & Urdan, 1995; Patrick et al., 1999). From the perspectives of

SDT, however, this conceptualisation of ‘extrinsic goals’ is limited because it

emphasises the reasons or motives for tasks, not the content of goals. For

example, studying is extrinsically motivated, therefore it involves external goals.

But this is a limited perspective. It is crucial to look also at the content of goals;

for example, that one is studying in order to amass wealth in the future

(Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006).

SDT distinguishes goals as intrinsic and extrinsic. The pursuit of intrinsic


48

goals like personal growth, meaningful relationships and community

contributions can enhance satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for

competence, autonomy and relatedness; thus, these goals have positive effects on

wellbeing. In contrast, the pursuit of extrinsic goals like wealth, fame, and image

emphasises external manifestations of worth rather than basic need satisfaction,

and so are expected to lead to a poorer sense of worth and wellbeing. In the

following paragraphs, the construct of wellbeing as a contributor to motivation

will be discussed with particular reference to the influence of Confucian heritage.

2.3.3 Wellbeing

In general use the term wellbeing describes a person’s state of happiness

(Diener, 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2001b). Current research on wellbeing has been

derived from two general perspectives: hedonism (Kahneman et al. 1999) and

eudaimonism (Waterman 1993). Hedonism posits that wellbeing is pleasure

attainment and pain avoidance. Eudaimonism focuses on self-realisation and

emphasises that wellbeing is the personal fully functioning (Ryan & Deci,

2001b). The happiness and pleasure of hedonism are obtained from the

successful pursuit of human goals, while the happiness and pleasure of

eudaimonism arise from integrity to one’s true self.

SDT subscribes to the concept of eudaimoni, thereby viewing “self-

realisation as a central definitional aspect of wellbeing” (Ryan & Deci, 2001a, p.

146). This means that SDT regards human wellbeing as originating in the true

self, which is understood to be natural and universal. Thus people’s wellbeing is

seen as a psychological state. Perspective psychological wellbeing (PWB), which

is interpreted as a fulfilment of a natural human potentiality, needs to be nurtured


49

by society and culture in order for individuals to feel happy (Nussbaum, 2000;

Ryan & Deci, 2001b; Sen, 1985). Therefore, people’s wellbeing is dependent on

their adjustment to the values and norms of their culture. Diener and Suh (2000)

formulated this cultural relativistic position in the following way: “If societies

have different sets of values, people in them are likely to consider different

criteria relevant when judging the success of the society” (p. 3). By the success

of the society they mean the ability by which the society provides for conditions

for people to accomplish their own values and goals (Chirkov, 2007). As the

values and goals are predetermined by their society, the better people are

adjusted to their social environment, the better their sense of wellbeing (Oishi,

Diener, Lucas, & Suh, 1999).

The present study is conducted in the context of China, therefore the TEFL

lecturers’ values and goals are shaped by the Chinese culture. It might be

expected that the better TEFL lecturers are adjusted to their social environment,

the better their sense of wellbeing. Consequently, the sense of wellbeing of

TEFL lecturers’ in Chinese culture might play an important role in understanding

their motivation and satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs. The

following paragraphs will describe wellbeing in Chinese culture.

The Chinese concept of wellbeing and happiness

Concepts are moulded by culture (Bruner, 1990). Chinese culture has its

own cultural perspectives on wellbeing. 福 or 福气 (fu or fu qi) is the happiness

in Chinese ancient thoughts (Lu, 2001). Fu appeared as early as the bone

inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty. It meant “presenting the filled wine container


50

at the altar” (Bauer, 1976). The original meaning of Fu was the desires expressed

by humans when they worshiped a god.

Later, in the Shang Shu (a book of documents) in Zhangguo phase (475-

221 BC) in the history of China, the word “fu” meant “longevity, prosperity,

health, peace, virtue, and a comfortable death” (Wu, 1991). In another important

ancient work, Classic of Ritual, “fu” meant “fortunate, lucky, smooth and free of

obstacles”. This suggests that the Chinese people’s conception of happiness

seems to include material abundance, physical health, virtuosity and peaceful life.

In the history of folk philosophies of China, there were three philosophies

which influenced Chinese concepts of happiness: Confucianism, Taoism and

Buddhism (Lu, 2001; Cheng, 2001; Wong, 2001, 2006; Zhang, 2004). These are

now addressed in turn.

Confucius was the first Chinese philosopher to formulate a thought system

(Lu, 2001). In The Book of Conversations, which records dialogues with his

disciples, Confucius did not talk about 福（fu）, rather, he proposed 礼 (li),

meaning ritual, as the most important concept of his system. Confucians valued

ritual more than mundane happiness. Confucius spent his life touring countries,

introducing his thoughts on Chinese humanism to each ruler. He suggested that a

wise ruler should rule with “virtue” and treat people equally by using 礼 (li).

People can then regard virtue and 礼 (li) as matters of personal concern in their

social categories. Confucian philosophy postulates that happiness is integral in

accomplishing life goals; accumulating material resources by hard work and

frugality; obtaining respectable social status by intellectual labour; having a


51

virtuous life by suppression of selfish and earthly desires; and ultimately,

fulfilling one’s social duties. In summary, “Confucians regarded happiness as

spiritual, not material; as moral, not circumstantial; as self-identified, not other-

judged” (Lu, 2001, p. 411; Hwang, 1998). This discussion turns now to Taoism

－another of the three major systems of Chinese thought.

Taoism rejects the philosophy that material happiness leads to satisfaction

and the Confucian idea of happiness as constant self-cultivation to achieve moral

greatness. Taoists advocate that everything in the universe must follow 道 (tao),

which was interpreted as a great natural force that made everything start in the

first place. Taoism posits 无师 (wu wei)，which means not-doing, and asserts

that perfect happiness is the absence of happiness, and perfect glory is the

absence of glory (Chiang, 1996). Happiness in Taoism is to liberate human

beings from all desires, through following the natural force of not doing anything,

accepting fate calmly and facing life with a peaceful mind. They called this state

天人合一 (tian ren he yi). Taoists have a lifestyle of withdrawal, isolation and

quietness. Happiness in Taoism, therefore, “is not an emotional feeling of joy,

rather, it is a cognitive insight and transcendence” (Lu, 2001, p. 411).

In contrast with Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism is not an indigenous

Chinese philosophy. However, it influenced Chinese beliefs for over a thousand

years after it was introduced from India during the Tang Dynasty. Buddhism

argued that “there is no such thing as absolute, lasting happiness in life, all

existence on earth was poisoned by unhappiness from the very start, and only

‘nirvana’ can offer salvation” (Lu, 2001, P. 412). After nirvana, humans can not

only turn away from the world, but also from happiness itself. Buddhism posits


52

that humans lift their souls to reach nirvana and eternal happiness through

physical exercises, meditation, doing charitable deeds and eliminating all human

desires (Lu, 2001; Cheng, 2001; Wong, 2001, 2006; Zhang, 2004).

A qualitative study conducted by Lu (2001) has shown that happiness in

China can be regarded as a mental state of satisfaction and contentment: as

positive feelings/emotions; as a harmonious homeostasis; as achievement and

hope; and as freedom from ill being. Lu also suggested that happiness is a state

of being where one maintains a harmonious relationship with oneself, and with

the environment. This harmonious relationship is of fundamental importance to

one’s survival and wellbeing. In the later part of the article, the author thought

that happiness can be achieved through:

the wisdom of discovery (means having faith, and knowing

what one is searching for); the wisdom of contentment and

gratitude (means being content with one’s lot, and feeling

sincerely thankful for whatever life brings); the wisdom of

giving (means learning to be grateful, and finally giving out

to other people) and the wisdom of self-cultivation (means to

surpass selfish desires, to break out of the constraints of here

and now, and to gear one’s mind to a broader and higher

horizon). (Lu, 2001, pp. 425-427)

SDT proposes that the three basic psychological needs of autonomy,

competence and relatedness must be satisfied throughout life so that an

individual can experience a sense of integrity; that is, a eudaimonic state of

wellbeing (Ryan & Frederic, 1997; Waterman, 1993). The three basic

psychological needs are not only innate and essential to humans, but are also

universal to all cultures (Deci & Ryan, 2002). According to Deci and Ryan


53

(2002), this means that the three basic psychological needs are relevant in both

Western culture and Eastern culture. This claim warrants elaboration.

Accordingly, the following paragraphs will introduce cross-cultural studies of

SDT.

2.3.4 Cross-cultural studies of Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) has evolved over the past 30 years due

to psychological research done by Deci, Ryan and collaborators from around the

world. Deci and Ryan’s extensive research programs have spawned a substantial

number of studies focused on SDT. Several significant cross-cultural studies of

SDT have been conducted examining the applicability of the theory to many

cultural contexts, China included. Studies undertaken in China have focused on

two areas. One aspect is the three basic psychological needs which are:

autonomy; competence and relatedness; and culture and wellbeing. The other

area is goals and cultures. These studies are briefly described.

Bao and Lam (2008) investigated personal choice, autonomy and

relatedness in children’s motivation. The authors collected data from 261

Chinese children by using questionnaires to investigate how relatedness, choice

and autonomy were related to Chinese children’s motivation. The finding was

that children who had freedom of choice were much more positively motivated

than those who followed their teachers’ or mothers’ choices. This study makes

an important contribution to the claims for the cultural universality of the

concept of autonomy. It shows that autonomy is important for children from a

culture that emphasises interdependence and interconnectedness.


54

In another study, Vansteenkiste, Lens, Soenens and Luyckx (2006)

explored autonomy and relatedness among Chinese sojourners. The authors

collected data from 121 Chinese students who temporarily moved to Belgium to

study, for periods of eight months. They used questionnaires to investigate the

relationship between autonomy, relatedness and wellbeing. The finding was that

satisfaction regarding autonomy and relatedness are positively correlated,

explaining the independent variance in Chinese students’ psychological

wellbeing, depression and vitality (p. 279). This study shows that the same three

basic psychological needs found in studies in Western countries also occurred in

studies in participants from an Eastern country, China. Other studies done by

Rudy, Sheldon, Awong, and Tan (2007) and Vansteenkiste, Zhou, Lens and

Soenens (2005) have reported similar results. In summary, these studies provide

evidence of the cross-cultural viability of SDT in relation to basic psychological

needs and wellbeing attributes. In the following paragraphs, I will review the

studies on goals and cultures.

A study by Grouzet et al. (2005) utilised a questionnaire to examine the

content and dimensional structure of goals set by 1,854 undergraduates from 15

different cultures, including Australia, Canada, China, South Korea, Egypt and

the United States. The findings supported previous work in Self-Determination

Theory, suggesting that goals can be divided across a primary dimension of

intrinsic/extrinsic. Intrinsic goals can provide people with the satisfaction of

psychological needs (e.g., self-acceptance and affiliation), while pursuing

extrinsic goals (e.g., self-image and financial success) can lead to a feelings of

pressure and stress. The findings were generally consistent across the 15 cultures.


55

Cross-cultural studies of SDT have been conducted worldwide. Most

studies have explored the three basic psychological needs of competence,

autonomy and relatedness, as well as wellbeing and goals in different cultural

settings. The findings of these studies reveal that the relationship between the

three basic psychological needs, goals and wellbeing is similar in Western

countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States, and Eastern countries

such as China and South Korea. Since SDT studies have been conducted

successfully in China on children’s and adolescents’ motivation to learn, I

assume that SDT can be applied to explain academics’ motivation in the context

of China.

2.3.5 The limitation of Self-Determination Theory

A possible limitation of the SDT as an exploratory model concerns the

presumed universality of the three basic psychological needs (competence,

autonomy and relatedness) described by the model. To explain, although

considerable research has supported the universality of the need for competence

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1988)and the need for relatedness (Baumeister & Leary,

1995), research in relation to the need for autonomy has been controversial

(Chirkov, Ryan, Kim, & Kaplan, 2003).

Oishi (2000) argued that autonomy can only produce benefits for people in

Western nations, where autonomy is valued. Miller (1999) similarly argued that

“lack of autonomy, as SDT conceives, is not likely to be cross-culturally

detrimental, especially within cultures based in authority or tradition” (Chirkov,

Ryan, Willness, 2005, p. 425). Karran (2009) regarded academic freedom in the

sense that academics have the right or obligation to research and speak out about


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social issues in their areas of expertise. However, Ryan (1993) and Kagitcibasi

(1996) suggested that such interpretations regard autonomy as independence.

SDT explicitly differentiates independence and autonomy. Independence means

not depending on others, while autonomy refers to being volitional on taking

one’s actions (Ryan, Deci, & Grolnick, 1995; Ryan & Lynch, 1989).

Accordingly, in a comparison of Russian, South Korean, Turkish and US

students, Chirkov et al. (2003) found that autonomy can predict wellbeing in all

cultures. Another study done by Sheldon et al. (2004) on goals and wellbeing

also found that the level of autonomous goal pursuit in the People’s Republic of

China, South Korean, Taiwan and the United States predicted wellbeing in all

these countries.

2.4 Studies on the Motivation of TEFL Academics in China

In this section, I will review studies on the working experiences of

lecturers in China. The studies consider lecturers’ commitment to teaching

(including second-job hunting), professional vulnerability and career

perspectives.

Zhang and Zhu (2008) examined the role of teaching and its effects on

teacher burnout and job satisfaction. They collected data from 164 full-time

English language lecturers from ten universities in central mainland China. They

used questionnaires to investigate emotional labour, burnout and teacher

satisfaction. On the basis of Hochschild’s work (Hochschild, 1983), they divided

emotional labour into three kinds: surface acting, which means feigning unfelt

emotions; deep acting, which means attempting to involve and actually feel the

displayed emotions; and authenticity, which means the feeling of spontaneous


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and genuine emotion. The results indicated that Chinese lecturers engaged more

often in deep acting emotional labour than in surface acting labour. In other

words, they preferred to display their emotions rather than feigning unfelt

emotions during their teaching. Deep acting emotional labour was suggested to

be an effective predictor of satisfaction and a buffer against burnout (Zhang &

Zhu, 2008).

In a study within higher education institutions, Lu (2005a) surveyed 268

randomly selected university lecturers. The statistics showed that having a

second job was a common phenomenon, with 53.4% acknowledging they had

one. The three main reasons given by the teachers for taking a second job were

economic factors, self-image and reputational factors. Lu’s study also indicated

that taking a second job had a deleterious effect on the lecturers’ functioning

within their home institution.

Zhang (2007) collected data from 144 department faculty members in one

university in China. She investigated the association between stress from

working and the participants’ teaching style. In this study, the author divided

stress into five factors: role ambiguity; role overload; unreasonable group

pressure; powerlessness; and peer relationship issues. The results indicated that

stress from working was an effective predictor of teaching style. Role overload

and psychological strains led to a less creative and more conservative teaching

style. Role overload relates to the range of tasks or roles that a person engages

with. When individuals find it difficult to successfully execute their range of

roles it creates tension and negative consequences for effective functioning and

relationships (Bolino & Turnley, 2005).


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Gao (2008) explored issues of Chinese TEFL lecturers’ professional

vulnerability by examining some messages from an online community. He

defined lecturers’ professional vulnerability as: experiences of feeling threatened;

“being questioned by others such as chancellors and parents about their

professional identity and moral integrity”; and “losing control of the processes

and tasks they felt responsible for as teachers” (Gao, 2008, p. 97). The researcher

stated that there is a paradox. On the one hand, the government, seeing education

as a social engineering tool (Lee, 2000), often exhorts lecturers to deliver quality

education and foster students’ positive personal qualities and skills, rather than

emphasising examination results. On the other hand, lecturers felt pressured to

ensure students achieved good exam results because the success of students in

national exams maintains universities’ reputations. The conclusion of this study

was that lecturers’ professional vulnerability might in fact worsen before it can

improve on the Chinese mainland in the near future due to the one child for one

couple policy (an act issued by Chinese Government in 1982 to control the

increase of population) (Gao, 2008).

The results of Lu’s (2005b) survey of 268 randomly selected university

teachers in China on their perspectives on their careers revealed that teachers in

institutions of higher education saw the major problems currently confronting

them as: lack of opportunity to improve their skills (39.2%); low income (23.1%);

relatively poor work environment (22.8%); no sense of achievement in their

work (8.2%); and disharmonious interpersonal relationships (2.6%) (Lu, 2005a).

In this section, I have reviewed studies on academics, especially TEFL in

China. Studies conducted in China on TEFL academics addressed: the


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relationship between teaching style, burnout and job satisfaction; commitment to

teaching, including second-job hunting; professional vulnerability; and career

perspectives. However, little research has been done on the relationship between

lecturers’ experiences and motivation. The present study will fill the gap. This

study therefore has potential to contribute to understanding this significant issue

in higher education in China.

2.5 Summary

In this chapter, I have introduced theories of motivation, especially in

relation to teachers’ motivation. These theories include: Achievement Goal

Theory, Self Efficacy Theory, Expectancy Value Theory, Attribution Theory and

Self-Determination Theory. The power of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to

explain teacher motivation and limitation of the theory were discussed. Finally,

studies related to lecturers’ motivation conducted in China were also reviewed.

Self-Determination Theory argues that social context has considerable

influence on motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2002). The social context of TEFL

lecturers in this research is the academic setting. The following chapter explores

the role of organisational culture in fostering effective social contexts for work.

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Chapter 3 Conceptual Framework

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Chapter 3: Conceptual Framework for the

Study

3.1 Overview

This study seeks to investigate the extent to which the organisational

culture and TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences contribute to their academic

motivation to work in Chinese universities. In Chapter 2, Self-Determination

Theory (SDT) was briefly introduced and its usefulness in exploring

motivational aspects of the research aims of this study was argued. The

importance of social and cultural context was also identified in Chapter 2. In this

chapter, a conceptual framework for the study will be developed through the

integration of two theoretical perspectives: Self-Determination theory (SDT) and

Competing Values Framework (CVF). Thus, the chapter will explore the critical

attributes of SDT to form an understanding of motivation and CVF, considering

the influence of context. Following this exploration, the conceptual framework

for the study will be presented.

3.2 Self-Determination Theory

In this section, I will describe SDT, the theoretical framework chosen for

this study. SDT predicts there are three types of motivation affecting the level of

personal self-determination to engage in a task: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic

motivation and amotivation. Connell and Ryan (1990) arranged these three types

on a continuum (see). In this section, this continuum will be discussed.

Subsequently, factors that are claimed to influence motivation such as basic


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psychological needs, goals and wellbeing will be discussed. However, to begin

with, I will describe the general assumptions of Self-Determination Theory.

Self-Determination Theory is claimed to be one of the most influential

theories in contemporary motivation psychology (Noels, Pelletier, & Vallerand,

2000; Dornyei, 2001, 2003). It is a macro-theory that focuses on personality

development and the self-regulation of behaviour (Deci & Ryan, 2002). SDT has

been used in research across a range of domains including business, health and

education. In education SDT has been used extensively to understand student

learning motivation, and to explain how different goals and motives produce

qualitatively different patterns of thought, emotion and behaviour (Butler &

Shibaz, 2008).

As was studied in Chapter 2, SDT has been described by Ryan and Deci

(2002) as “an organismic-dialectical meta-theory” (p. 3) which assumes that

individuals construct an increasingly complex but unified sense of self over time.

Since its formulation, SDT has continued to evolve and includes four sub-

theories: (1) Basic Needs Theory, which focuses on the relationships between

health, wellbeing and the fulfilment of basic needs; (2) Organismic Integration

Theory, which focuses on the internalisation from extrinsic motivation to

intrinsic motivation; (3) Cognitive Evaluation Theory, which focuses on the

effects of social context on intrinsic motivation; and (4) Causality Orientation

Theory, which focuses on one’s motivational orientations toward the social

world – autonomous, controlled and impersonal causality orientation. Although

these connected sub-theories have important explanatory power for describing

motivational characteristics in the work setting, this study will focus upon Basic


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Needs Theory in relation to the continuum of motivation and Cognitive

Evaluation Theory in relation to the cultural climate in the institution. This focus

is taken because competence, autonomy and relatedness are essential nutriments

for life, and for the development of motivation. Before considering Basic Needs

Theory, however, it is important to return to the SDT model to discuss the

underlying continuum of motivation.

3.2.1 The continuum of motivation

Ryan and Connell (1989) presented motivation along a continuum that

ranges from amotivation through extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation.

The principle inherent in this continuum is that of level of self-determination

(see Figure 3.1). Amotivation (AM), extrinsic motivation (EM) and intrinsic

motivation (IM) respectively entail low, medial and high levels of self-

determination (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).

Amotivation (AM) refers to a state in which there is resistance to engaging

in an activity. Behaviour corresponding to this type of motivation is neither self-

determined nor self-regulated. For example, if a student says “I do not want to do

the assignment, nothing about it interests me, and nothing can push me to do it”,

then this student is amotivated.

Extrinsic motivation (EM) refers to motivation to act that is largely driven

by sources outside of the individual. Ryan and Connell (1989) divided extrinsic

motivation into different types which they termed “regulations” (or the value

underlying an action) and arranged these along a continuum. In ascending order

of level of self-determination, these are external regulation, introjected


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regulation, identified regulation and integrated regulation. The following

paragraphs will discuss each of these forms of extrinsic motivation in turn.

External regulation is the least self-determined type of extrinsic motivation

as it is reinforced by specific external rewards or punishment. External

regulation is considered to control extrinsic motivation behaviour; it is promoted

and maintained by the contingency but will disappear when the rewards and

punishments are withdrawn. Consider the student who initially does not want to

finish an assignment, but does so in order to obtain the teacher’s reward or avoid

punishment. This student is externally regulated. A lecturer may not be

intrinsically motivated to meet research performance requirements and may have

no interest in doing research, however may undertake a study to obtain reward,

such as funds, or avoid punishment, such as demotion. In this case, the lecturer’s

motivation to conduct research could be considered as being controlled

externally. In short, these individuals have little self-determination.


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Figure 3.1 Self-Determination continuum showing types of motivation with their regulatory styles (Ryan & Deci, 2000a, p. 72)


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Introjected regulation involves the process in which external demands

become a strategy to generate an internal response. Thus, to make sure they

perform an activity, they place pressure on themselves through internal

reinforcement, such as shame or guilt. Introjected regulation describes how a

person unconsciously incorporates the values and qualities of others into his or

her own personality to avoid hostile feelings (Edgerton, 1994). A case in point

would be a lecturer who does not like to mark students’ assignments, but does so

in order to avoid feeling guilty. In this situation, the lecturer marks students’

assignments because of introjected regulation, driven by feelings of guilt or

obligation.

Identified regulation, a more self-determined type of regulation, exists

when an individual’s motivated behaviour is consciously driven by their values

and goals (Vallerand & Ratelle, 2002). Because this regulation is so closely

identified with self, motivation can be explained as a way to maintain

particularly motivated behaviour and thus achieve high quality performance. An

example would be a TEFL lecturer who listens daily to the English programs on

the ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). The reason for doing so is to

practice English listening ability. This lecturer may not be interested in listening

to the English program, but does so because he or she values it and thinks it is

important for his or her career. In this case, motivation can be termed identified

regulation.

Integrated regulation is the fullest, most complete type of self-determined

regulation across the continuum of extrinsic motivation. This type of regulation

is driven by a strong sense of self, and is likened to intrinsically motivated


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behaviour. However, it is still regarded as extrinsic because the desired

behavioural outcomes are not driven by internal factors. Consider a TEFL

lecturer who has taught his or her students the skills for English speed reading

and then gradually finds that her students have made progress in this skill. In

looking at his or her students’ achievement, this TEFL lecturer has a sense of

satisfaction. In this case, the motivation for teaching English speed reading skills

is integrated regulation.

The last type of motivation in SDT is intrinsic motivation (IM). IM refers

to disposition to engage in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction that is

inherent in the activity (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Ryan and Deci (2000d)

argued: “When intrinsically motivated, a person is moved to act for the fun or

challenge entailed rather than because of external prods, pressures, or rewards”

(p. 56). An example would be a lecturer who is interested in teaching, likes to

see the growth of her students, and gets enjoyment or pleasure from student

achievements. This form of motivation is the most autonomous or self-

determined motivation. It is associated with persons who are acting

autonomously and with self-determination towards achieving a task.

3.2.2 Autonomous motivation

SDT is concerned primarily with the effects of a specific social context on

motivation and behaviour. SDT argues that a person’s motivation and behaviour

in a particular situation is a result of integration of the immediate social context

with the person’s inner resources such as individual differences. Thus causality

orientations are described as being due to individual differences in one’s

motivational orientation towards the social context. SDT specifies three


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orientations that differ in the degree to which they represent self-determination:

autonomous, controlled and impersonal causality orientations (Ryan & Deci,

2002).

Autonomous orientation defines behaviour on the basis of interests and

self-endorsed values. Therefore it “serves to index a person’s general tendencies

toward intrinsic motivation and well-integrated extrinsic motivation”, identified

regulation and integrated regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2002, p. 21). Controlled

orientation involves regulating behaviour towards controls and how one should

do something. Therefore it relates to external and introjected regulation. The

impersonal orientation concerns not behaving intentionally. Therefore, it relates

to amotivation.

SDT not only emphasises the types of motivation, but also emphasises the

maintenance of motivation. SDT postulates that the satisfaction of the three

psychological needs and a supportive social context are the nutriments or

contributors that can optimally maintain the function of the types of motivation

(Deci & Ryan, 2002). The three basic psychological needs have been described

in Chapter 2. The following paragraphs will discuss the social context.

3.3 Organisational Culture

Motivational theorists (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Sivan, 1986) have

suggested that motivation is social in nature. People’s motivational goals, values,

standards and interests are socially structured. They emerge and develop from

social interactions, and are manifested in collaborative and individual action

(Walker, 2010). Perry, Turner and Meyer (2006) maintained that although


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people’s commitment to motivation is an individual phenomenon, it is important

to acknowledge the role of social factors, or context, as influences on motivation.

In the present study, TEFL lecturers are working in the university

academic setting, where their goals, values, psychological needs and experiences

are influenced by the culture of the university. Therefore, organisational culture

plays an important role in TEFL lecturers’ motivation.

3.4 Definitions of Organisational Culture

The concept of organisational culture has been discussed and researched

for many years. Anthropology and organisational sociology have had a

considerable influence on the development of the theory. Therefore, the concept

of organisational culture has its roots in these two disciplines. Various

researchers have conceptualised organisational culture from different

perspectives.

Hofstede (1997) defines organisational culture as “the collective

programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one organisation

from another” (p. 180). Hagner (2000) focussed on social interactions within a

defined organisational culture as a set of group expectations, behavioural norms

and social customs that govern what goes on and how it is interpreted. Hagner

(2000) argued that some aspects of culture develop within the workforce and are

not directly associated with management. They evolve informally, unofficially

and, to some extent, unconsciously.

Schein (1990) defined culture as “a pattern of basic assumptions；invented,

discovered, or developed by a given group； as it learns to cope with its


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problems of external adaptation and internal integration；that has worked well

enough to be considered valid and, therefore is to be taught to new members as

the (f) correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems” (p.

111).

A review of organisational culture literature suggests that organisational

culture (OC) includes: what is valued; dominant leadership style; language and

symbols; procedures and routines; and the definitions of success that characterise

an organisation. These principles can be applied to educational organisations or

institutions such as universities (Sanderson & Watters, 2006).

3.4.1 University culture

The culture of a university is one of the important themes to have emerged

in educational research. Waller (1932) stated that universities “have a culture

that is definitely their own” (p. 103). Waller (1932) further argued that “there are,

in the university, complex rituals of personal relationships, a set of folkways,

mores, and irrational sanctions, a moral code based upon them” (Waller, 1932, p.

103). In the 1970s, further attention was paid to the construction of a framework

for understanding educational change processes in schools (Goodlad, 1975;

Sarason, 1971). By the 1980s, culture was widely recognised as an important

feature in the functioning of universities (Deal, 1985; Deal & Kennedy, 1983;

Kottkamp, 1984).


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3.4.2 The levels of university culture

Many scholars in the field of educational administration conceptualised the

cultural levels of the university by adopting Schein’s (1985) classification of

cultural levels (see

Figure 3.2). The Schein’s model identified three layers which existed within

universities and teaching staff. The “deepest” layer, indicated as Level 3,

represents the basic assumptions shared by teachers, which are the essence of the

university culture. Assumptions refer to taken-for-granted beliefs that staff

members perceive to be “true”, such as “the way the environment of the

organisation is perceived, the nature of reality and truth, the nature of human

nature, the nature of human activity and the nature of human relationships”

(Maslowski, 2006, p. 8). In other words, when there is a well-established

organisational culture that establishes boundaries for normal practices, teachers

have clear understanding of what constitutes daily duties and functions.


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Figure 3.2 Levels of culture and their interaction (Schein 1985, p. 14)

Level 2 involves values and norms. Values are interpreted as what teachers

believe to be good, right or desirable. These values reflect what is perceived

conceived as important to pursue or worth striving for in the university

(Maslowski, 2006). For instance, teachers may consider collaboration as their

core value and guide to their behaviour (Rossman et al., 1988). Values like

collaboration or respect are often “translated” into norms for behaviour. These

behavioural norms are unwritten rules which others are expected to follow.

Conversely, values also indicate what is not done in the university (Gonder &

Hymes, 1994; Stolp & Smith, 1995).

Level 1 includes the artefacts and practices that exist within the university.

Through cultural artefacts, basic assumptions, values and behavioural norms of a

university are “visualised”. They include: physical objects created by members

of a culture, such as the physical layout of the buildings; language, both written

and spoken; and behaviour, such as the traditions and communication patterns.


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Organisational culture in the university represents the values, underlying

assumptions, expectations, collective memories and definitions present in the

organisation (Schein, 1992; Cameron & Quinn, 1999, 2006). In its most positive

sense, culture plays a critical role in creating a work environment where

employees are committed and contribute to the success of the organisation.

3.5 Confucian Moral Standards and Organisational Culture

Organisational culture is defined as the values, beliefs and assumptions

shared by employees in an organisation. Organisational culture is a powerful

motivating force, embodying values sanctioned by the organisation, framing the

boundaries of acceptable attitudes and behaviour in the culture, and creating a

shared ethos. According to Mahal (2009), there were four elements which were

thought to promote job satisfaction and increase motivation at individual and

organisational levels. The four elements are: (1) a supportive climate, (2) a

climate of risk taking, (3) a climate of cohesiveness, and (4) a climate with the

motivation to achieve. As a social force, organisational culture controls patterns

of organisational behaviour by shaping members’ cognition and perceptions of

meanings and realities, providing affective energy for mobilisation.

Organisational culture influences employee’s work attitudes (e.g., job

satisfaction, organisational commitment), service quality, and staff turnover

(Gilsson & James, 2002). Work attitudes also mediate the effects of climate on

employee performance and motivation (Brown, 1995; Pheysey, 1993).

In summary, motivation emerges from the level of cooperation, consistency,

achievement and inspiration in the organisation (Trukie, 1999). These


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phenomena define an effective organisational culture, which in turn contributes

to employee motivation.

As the present study is conducted in China, Chinese traditional cultural

heritage of Confucian of moral standards may affect the organisational culture.

According to Lockett (1988) and Bjorkman and Lu (1999), Child and Warner

(2003), Zhang et al. (2006) and Wang et al. (2005), Confucian moral standards

regulate Chinese behaviour in the following six aspects: harmony; group

orientation; guanxi (relationships); self-learning; diligence and thrift. These

Confucian moral standards will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

Harmony

Confucianism emphasises harmony as a social standard (Ginsberg, 1975).

This can be traced in some old sayings in China. For example, 国泰民安

(guotaiminan), refers to the country being prosperous and people living in peace.

安居师师 (anjuleye) refers to people who live and work in peace and

contentment. 家和万事师(jiahewanshixing) refers to harmony between family

members and how this makes everything prosper. These sayings express social

harmony in Chinese society. In the workplace, employees view their

organisation as a big family and try to build and maintain harmonious

relationships (Chinese culture connection, 1987; Liu, 2003). Chinese believe that

harmony contributes to unity in resolving problems. 同舟共师 (tongzhougongji)

refers to working together with harmony and faithfulness in times of difficulty in

the workplace. Employees are expected to go through “thick and thin” with their

organisation (Han, 2010).


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Group orientation

Collective outcome or group orientation is another Confucian social moral

standard (Earley, 1989). Confucianism emphasises that a human being is not an

individual, but rather a member of a family; people in the society are

interdependent. The family in Chinese can be translated into 家 (jia). A group is

a big family, which in Chinese means 大家 (dajia). Country refers to national

family, which in Chinese means 国家 (guojia). Therefore, being a member of a

family, one is expected to contribute to the betterment of the family (Liu, 2003).

Conformity to group orientation means individuals are subordinate in their

personal interests with respect to the goals of the group (Earley, 1989; Triandis,

1988; Hwang, 1987; House et al., 2004). In the workplace, high levels of group

orientation can enhance employees’ collective identity; thus increase the group

potency and performance (Han, 2010).

Guanxi

Guanxi means “relationships”. It can be found in 师（lun）, which “are

moral principles regarding interactive behaviours of related parties” (Chen &

Chen, 2004, p. 308). In the present study, it has a similar meaning to “relatedness”

in SDT, which was discussed in section 2.3.1 in the previous chapter.

Diligence

The next social moral standard in the Analects of Confucius (Yuan, 2001),

which is a record of the words and behaviours of Confucius and his students, is a

diligent work ethic. Confucian thought postulates that “when a person is given a

great responsibility, heaven may test him with hardship and frustrated efforts in


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order to toughen his nature and show up his inadequacies” (Han, 2010, p. 40).

Consequently, a sense of diligence transcends the whole life of the Chinese

individual. Confucian thought states that diligence brings fortune. Therefore,

those people who are diligent and endure the hardship of favourable or

unfavourable conditions are respected (Li, 2002). In the workplace, employees

are likely to be diligent and persistent in work so that they may contribute to the

betterment of the organisation.

Self-learning

Self-learning or education is another social moral standard emphasised by

Confucian thought (Yuan, 2001). Influenced by Confucians, Chinese employees

develop themselves in order to achieve their educational goals. Employees learn

knowledge and skills to adapt changes in the external environment. Thus, self-

learning plays an important role at work in acquiring, reflecting, contributing and

carrying out knowledge to reach spiritual and moral development (Chen, 2005).

Thrift

Thrift is one of the Chinese virtues. The value of thrift leads to savings,

which means availability of capital for reinvestment, an obvious asset to

economic growth (Hofstede & Bond, 1988, p. 18; Hofstede, 1991, p. 68). To be

thrifty and dislike waste is a major virtue in the PRC. Therefore, Chinese are

likely to save and dislike borrowing to maintain a financially stable situation.

The sense of being thrifty contributes to the finances of the organisational

economy.


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In the section above, Confucian moral standards of harmony, group

orientation, diligence, self-learning and thrift were discussed. Influenced by

these moral standards, employees regulate their performance and behaviour to

co-operate in teamwork, self-development and hard work to achieve the

betterment of the organisation.

3.6 A Framework for Organisational Culture

Generally, approaches to organisational culture can be classified into three

categories: (a) dimensions approach (e.g., Chatterjee, Lubatkin, Schweiger, &

Weber, 1992; Hofstede et al., 1990;Sagiv & Schwartz, 2007), (b) interrelated

structure approach (e.g., Allaire & Firsirotu, 1984; Hatch, 1993; Homburg &

Pflesser, 2000; Schein, 1985), and (c) typology approaches (e.g., Cartwright &

Cooper, 1993; Handy, 1993). The dimensions approach strongly focuses on

measuring organizational culture empirically along (in some cases bipolar)scales

that can be related to other, mostly dependent, variables of interest (Tsui et al.,

2007). Interrelated structure approaches concentrate on linking the concept of

organizational culture to other constructs or characteristics of organisations and

less to single variables. Therefore, they often represent the theoretical

underpinning for empirical research designs. This approach tends to be

multidisciplinary in nature, which commonly characterises configuration models

(Meyer et al, 1993). Typology approaches are based on predefined key

characteristics that divide and cluster organisations into certain categories, not

necessarily defining the relationship of these characteristics to each other.

There are many frameworks that have drawn on the concept of

organisational culture to understand the social meaning, structure and


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effectiveness of an organisation. The measurement and dimensions of

organisational culture remain debatable with several approaches proposed. These

include: (1) Detert et. Al.’s (2000)’s eight dimensions of organisational culture,

which are the basis of truth and rationality in the organisation, the nature of time

and time horizon, motivation, stability vs. change/innovation, orientation to

work/co-workers, isolation vs. collaboration, control vs. autonomy, and internal

vs. external; (2) The Theoretical Model of Culture Traits (Denison & Mishra,

1995) and its matched scale: the Organisational Culture Survey, including 6

items; (3) the Organisational Culture Inventory (Cooke & Rosseau, 1988),

including 3 dimensions and 120 items; (4) the organisational Culture Profile 9O’

Reilly, Chatman & Caldwell, 1988), including 7 dimensions and 54 items; (5)

the Multidimensional Model of Orgnaisational Cultures (Hofstede et. Al., 1990),

including 6 dimensions and 135 items; (6) Values in Orgnaisational Culture

Scale (Zheng, 1990), including 9 items. Compared with the above models and

scales, the Competing Values Framework (CVF, Cameron & Quinn, 1999; 2006)

was employed to understand the culture of the institutional entities explored in

this study. The reasons for that were the following. First the model consists of

four dimensions addressing broad implications. The CVF includes the two

dimensions of control vs. autonomy and internal vs. external influences.

Furthermore, three dimensions (stability vs. change; orientation to work/co-

workers; isolation vs. collaboration) are explicitly combined in the CVF model.

In addition, another three dimensions are addressed in this model. Second, the

CVF has been empirically validated in cross-cultural research: Many empirical

studies have established the reliability and validity of the CVF and its

measurement (Howard, 1998; Ralston et. Al., 2006). Third, the CVF has been


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most extensively applied in the context of China. Among the organisational

culture models, the CVF is the only one that has been extensively used with

Chinese and Asian samples (Deshpande & Farley, 2004; Kwan & Walker, 2004).

Fourth, most succinctly, the CVF measurement instrument includes only 24

items thus is very convenient for practical operations.

3.6.1 Competing Values Framework

The Competing Values Framework (CVF) was initially developed from

quality-culture theoretical discourses of the 1970s, through research on

identifying and characterising organisational effectiveness (Quinn & Rohrbaugh,

1983) and extended by Quinn and Kimberley (1984) to define organisational

culture. CVF sought to account for tensions experienced by members of the

organisation dealing with the conflict between the internal organisation and the

external environment, and the dialectics of stability and change.

The theory attempts to connect the strategic, political, interpersonal and

institutional aspects of organisational life by categorising the different patterns of

shared values, assumptions and interpretations that define an organisation's

culture. Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) initially identified two major dimensions

underlying concept of organisational effectiveness.

The first dimension represents organisational focus, from internal focus on

the wellbeing of employees, to external focus on the wellbeing of the

organisation. The second dimension differentiates the organisation’s focus

between control for stability and flexibility for change. These two dimensions

can be represented as a matrix (see Figure 3.3), producing four quadrants, each

representing a distinct cluster of criteria.


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Drawing on the work of Campbell (1977) who identified 30 different

criteria for effectiveness, Cameron and Quinn (1999) subsequently invited 52

organisational researchers to order the criteria listed by Campbell. They derived

three sets of criteria representing organisational values: internal-external;

control-flexibility; and means-ends. They separated the third set of criteria into

two new ones, reflecting goals and purposes, and consolidation and expansion.

These criteria were developed in the context of business organisations. The

framework can be adapted for a higher education context by considering means-

ends in terms of a focus on persons, such as emphasising a scholarly community,

and products include the quality of teaching and research/service outputs.

Figure 3.3 shows the dimensions of Internal/External represented on the

horizontal axis and Flexibility/Control on the vertical axis. The four core values

representing opposite or competing assumptions related to Persons/Products and

Consolidation/Expansion are represented by the diagonals in Figure 3.3.

Flexibility implies an organisation such as a faculty or school that leans towards

decentralised or differentiated control, with distributed responsibilities for

decision making and management. Control is reflected in a centralised and

integrated management system. The Internal/External dimension highlights

either an internal orientation with a focus on the establishment of an academic

community, or an orientation towards competitiveness and external reputation.

The Persons/Products dimension would be seen through the balance of concerns

for relationships among staff against goal setting, performance and productivity.

Finally, the Expansion/Consolidation dimension is a contrast between systems

supporting innovation and autonomy, and those supporting stability, control and

continuity of existing practices.


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Figure 3.3 Competing Values Framework Organisational Culture Model (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991; Zammoto, et al., 2000)

Each quadrant highlights a core value and represents one culture type.

Thus four organisational culture types emerged from the framework: Clan

culture, Adhocracy culture, Performance culture and Hierarchy culture. Each

type of culture has its own characteristics. The characteristics of each type of

culture will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

Clan culture

Clan culture is also referred to as the human relations model (Zammuto,

Gifford, & Goodman, 2000) or group culture (Denison & Spretizer, 1991). It is


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characterised as reflecting an organisation that promotes shared values and

common goals. There is emphasis on flexibility and a primary focus is on

maintaining good relationships within the organisation. There is an atmosphere

of collectivism, dialogue and mutual help under this culture type. It is based on

cohesion and morale building, with an emphasis on human resource and training.

People are seen not as isolated individuals, but as cooperating members of a

common social system, with a common stake in what happens. The Clan culture

puts an emphasis on empowerment and employee engagement. This culture type

concentrates on internal maintenance, with flexibility and concern for people.

People share a lot of themselves in the workplace. In this culture type,

commitment is high, and the emphasis is on development, teamwork and

participation. Leaders tend to be participative, considerate and supportive, and

they facilitate interaction through teamwork (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991).

Adhocracy culture

Adhocracy culture, also known as the open-systems model (Zammuto, et

al., 2000) or developmental model (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991), is characterised

by a dynamic, entrepreneurial and creative workplace where people take risks

and leaders are visionary and innovative. The emphasis is placed on adaptability,

readiness, growth, resource acquisition and external support. These processes

bring innovation and creativity. In Adhocracy culture, commitment to

experimentation and innovation holds the organisation together, and readiness

for change and meeting new challenges is important. The emphasis in this

culture is on being at the leading edge of new knowledge, services and products.

People are not controlled but inspired. In this culture, leaders provide resources,


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and place importance on attaining a reputation, visibility and external

recognition.

Performance culture

Performance culture, which in the business context is described as Market

culture, draws on establishing rational goals (Denison & Spreitzer, 1991;

Zammuto, et al., 2000). It is characterised by a results-oriented, driven

organisation, where leaders orient the organisation toward productivity, results

and profit. It assumes that planning and goal setting results in productivity and

efficiency. Tasks are clarified, objectives are set and action is taken. The

emphasis is on winning or gaining a reputation in a market. Performance culture

holds the organisation together. The prime motivation is the successful

achievement of predetermined outcomes. The priorities that influence this

culture are focussed on competitiveness, and achieving goals and targets that

increase competitive advantages over other similar organisations.

Hierarchy culture

Hierarchy culture, or the internal process model (Zammuto et al., 2000), is

characterised as a formalised and structured workplace where formal rules and

policies hold the organisation together, and procedures govern what people do.

Emphasis is placed on measurement, documentation and information

management. These processes bring stability and control. Hierarchies seem to

function best when the task to be done is well understood, and when time is not

an important factor. Effective leaders are good coordinators and organisers in

Hierarchy culture. Maintenance of a smooth running organisation is regarded as

important, and the long term concerns are stability, predictability and efficiency.


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In summary, a balance between the four cultural types is assumed to be

necessary for an effective organisation. Although university organisations are

essentially different from private sector or business organisations on a number of

dimensions, including profit orientation, access to resources, the nature of

organisational constraints (economic versus political) and public accountability.

However, in the context of the knowledge economy and rapid change in higher

education, fundamental issues regarding workplace harmony and cultures are

crucial to job satisfaction and motivation in this sector as well (Jacob, Bond,

Galinksy, & Hill, 2008). Research utilising the CVF has produced useful insights

into the cultures of higher education institutions (Berrio, 2003; Ramachandran,

Chong, & Ismail, 2011; Sanderson & Watters, 2006).

3.7 Assessment of Organisational Culture

The OCAI assesses respondents’ perceptions of 6 key characteristics of

their organisation’s culture; namely, Dominant Characteristics: Organisational

Leadership; Management of Employees; Organisational Glue; Strategic

Emphases; and Criteria that Define Success. Respondents are presented with 24

sets of statements (four for each characteristic) and are asked to rate each set in

relation to their perceptions of their organisation’s present culture as a Likert

scale from 1 (Not at all true) to 7 (Very true). Respondents can also be asked to

complete the scale a second time, indicating their perceptions of a preferred

culture for their organisation. To illustrate, the four sets of statements relating to

Dominant Characteristics include: (1) The organisation is a very personal place.

It is like an extended family. People seem to share a lot of themselves; (2) The

organisation is a very dynamic and entrepreneurial place. People are willing to


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stick their necks out and take risks; (3) The organisation is very results oriented.

A major concern is with getting the job done. People are very competitive and

achievement oriented; and (4) The organisation is a very controlled and

structured place. Formal procedures generally govern what people do.

The results of the OCAI are obtained by calculating the average response

scores across the 6 key characteristics and developing an organisational profile.

The profile can be used to indicate respondents’ perceptions of the present

dominant culture, the strength of the present dominant culture, any discrepancy

between present and preferred dominant culture, and congruency among the 6

key cultural characteristics. CVF and OCAI have become the dominant models

in quantitative research in organisation culture. CVF and OCAI have been used

successfully in research in academic settings (Berrio, 2003; Sanderson &

Watters, 2006; Shepstone & Currie, 2006; Fralinger, Olson, Pinto-zipp, &

DiCorcia, 2010). In the following paragraphs, studies on CVF and OCAI in

academic settings are presented.

3.8 Empirical Studies in University Culture

Fralinger, Olson, Pinto-zipp and DiCorcia (2010) adopted Competing

Values Framework (CVF) to explore the concepts of culture at the university

level, and determine whether changes in environmental conditions, such as

expansion of departmental programs and new building construction, affected

student perceptions of departmental culture. The Organisational Culture

Assessment Instrument OCAI was used to investigate how departmental culture

affected the perceptions, thoughts and feelings of all 70 students from Health and

Exercise Science Department at Rowan University in the United States. The


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results showed that the current and preferred departmental culture perceived by

the students was a Clan culture. Furthermore, the study yielded an overall

consensus that students felt that faculty and staff were meeting departmental and

university goals and objectives, and wanted that to continue and improve in the

future.

Shepstone and Currie (2006) undertook research at the University of

Saskatchewan Library using CVF and OCAI to examine how the library’s

culture influenced the work of library staff and the effectiveness of the library. In

Phase 1 of the study, librarians were asked to describe the current cultural

environment of the library, such as identify subcultures, and to describe the

extent to which librarians, both new and established, were able to participate,

influence and affect change. In Phase 2, the study was extended to include the

perceptions of organisational culture, both existing and desired, of all other

library staff, to provide a complete picture of the library’s organisational culture.

The results showed that the culture that existed in the library was identified as

Market culture. The preferred culture was an Adhocracy culture. The study

concluded that a new culture was desired. Under the new culture, changes were

introduced to the organisational structure and leadership. The new management

could facilitate a positive, creative and rewarding working environment for

library staff.

In the study of Berrio (2003), CVF and OCAI were used to analyse the

organisational culture exhibited in an Ohio State University extension program.

The sample for the study was 965 professional, paraprofessional and support


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staff. The results of the study showed that the dominant current culture of the

university was Clan culture. The preferred culture was also Clan culture.

Sanderson and Watters (2006) investigated the organisational culture of an

Australian university. Their findings supported their assertion that changes in the

Australian higher education sector have seen universities move from a corporate-

collegial model towards a corporate-mercantile model, thus compromising

aspects of core functionality.

3.9 Empirical Studies in Competing Values Framework

The Competing Values Framework (CVF) has been extensively applied in

the context of China. For example, Despande and Farley (2004) compared the

impact of organisational culture on firm performance in business-to-business

markets across several Asian countries including China, Hong Kong, India and

Japan. The results showed that organisational culture had an impact on firm

performance over countries.

Ralston et al. (2006) and his colleagues undertook research to compare

state-owned enterprises with private-owned enterprises and foreign-owned

enterprises in the context of current organisational culture in China by using

CVF and OCAI. They found that state-owned enterprises in China have

substantially transformed to become globally competitive organisations.

Yu and Wu (2009) have added further convincing arguments for the

applicability of CVF in China. Although it is apparent that many studies have

been conducted using CVF and OCAI in Chinese business organisations,


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literature searches conducted for such studies found no research conducted in a

Chinese academic setting that used CVF and OCAI.

3.10 The Framework of the Study

As previously discussed, SDT can examine not only the basis of

motivation within a context, but can also provide insights into how that

motivation might be maintained (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002). The theory posits

that the contributors to motivation can be described in terms of different types of

motivation. These range along a continuum from lower to higher self-

determination. Amotivation and low self-determination are at one pole; intrinsic

motivation and high self-determination are at the other. Between the poles is

external motivation which consists, in ascending levels of self-determination, of

external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation and integrated

regulation.

According to SDT, motivation needs nutriment to be maintained (Ryan &

Deci, 2000c). The theory postulates that the key nutriments required for

sustaining motivation are the need for competence, autonomy and relatedness.

The satisfaction of these three basic needs provides the growth and development

of the self, and thus will lead to a sense of wellbeing.

Goals provide the components of motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000b).

Intrinsic goals are associated with the growth of self and contribution to the

society; they can lead to wellbeing. On the contrary, pursuit of extrinsic goals

will lead to ill being because of the emphasis on self-worth (Kasser & Ryan,

1996). The proposed research hypothesises that Self-Determination Theory

(SDT) can be applied in the presumed eastern Chinese culture. SDT postulates


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that the three psychological needs are universal and can have functions in any

culture. The studies conducted cross-culturally have supported that assertion.

People’s motivational goals, values, standards and interests are socially

structured. They emerge and develop from social interactions and are manifested

in collaborative and individual action (Walker, 2010). Organisational culture

affects people’s motivation. In the present study, a university’s dominant

characteristics and management of employees might be expected to influence

TEFL lecturers’ goals, wellbeing and the three basic psychological needs.

As no conceptual framework exists to describe and theorise on the

relationships proposed in the current study, the purpose of this section has been

to propose a preliminary theoretical framework. Figure 3.4 shows the theoretical

relationship between lecturers’ experiences and motivation. A TEFL lecturer’s

experience in a working environment will be influenced by: his or her personal

history; the culture of the workplace, what is valued and appropriate in that

culture; and the way the institution operates and its culture. The institutional

culture or climate can be captured through Competing Values Framework (CVF),

which is the institutional focus (individual vs. collective institute), combined

with the willingness to reform (stability vs. flexibility), as described in Chapter 3.

The influence of the institutional culture is on the left of Figure 3.4, impacting

the nature of work experienced by lecturers in the institution. The influence of

Chinese culture on a broader level also influences attitudes towards work,

performance in the work and outcomes of the work.

An individual establishes goals for achievement in life. As previously

discussed, these include the pursuit of personal growth, relationships, community


90

affiliation, wealth, fame or self image. Self Determination Theory would suggest

that work experiences should contribute to the motivational dimensions

described in Chapter 2. These are: building a sense of autonomy, competence

and relatedness, which are the three basic psychological needs; and establishing

a sense of wellbeing. Work experiences can also influence the framing of

personal goals.

Achieving these dimensions will affect the level of self-determination.

According to SDT, if achieved through internal sources or drives; namely,

intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, the person is considered within an

SDT framework to display autonomous motivation.

Figure 3.4 Conceptual framework for the study


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The conceptual framework of this study presents the extent organisational

culture and TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences contribute to academic

motivation to work in Chinese universities. This model can answer the research

sub-questions:


2. How do academics perceive the organisational culture within


3. What experiences do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work

practices?

3.11 Summary

In this chapter, the critical attributes of Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

were explored to form an understanding of motivation. The continuum of

motivation and autonomous motivation were discussed. This was followed by

discussion of the relationship between organisational culture and motivation. The

Competing Values Framework (CVF) was presented as a framework of

organisational culture. It was argued that this framework provides a way to

document and analyse the competing operational structures and cultures within

an institution. This knowledge provides a contextual picture to the conditions

under which TEFL lecturers work. An assessment tool for quantifying

organisational culture, OCAI, was described. Empirical studies undertaken in

academic settings and in the context of China were presented to provide

confidence in the use of this instrument. Finally, the conceptual framework for

this study was presented to describe the ways in which organisational culture and


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TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences relate to their motivation to work in

Chinese universities.

Chapter 4 Methodology

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Chapter 4: Methodology and Methods

4.1 Overview

This study was designed to investigate how organisational culture and

personal experiences are related to lecturers’ motivation to work in TEFL

institutes in Chinese universities. In the previous chapter, Self-Determination

Theory (SDT) and Competing Values Framework (CVF) were discussed and

integrated to provide a conceptual framework for the study. In this chapter, the

methodology and methods adopted to conduct the study are presented. The

following sections describe: methodology, design, participants, measures,

procedure including ethics approval, analyses of data, consideration of the

validity and reliability of case study design, and a concluding summary.

4.2 Methodology

To address the research questions posed by the study, a mixed method

collective explanatory case study was undertaken in which both quantitative and

qualitative data were collected (Berg, 2001). Historically, the use of quantitative

data in research has been framed by positivist assumptions about the

relationships between quantifiable variables. In this methodological tradition,

researchers hypothesise relationships between independent and dependent

variables consistent with a theoretical framework. This is achieved by highly

controlled experimental or quasi-experimental studies, which ultimately seek to

make knowledge claims in terms of how statistically generalisable support for

the theoretical framework is provided by the experimental data.


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In contrast, qualitative methodology emerges from research traditions with

quite different assumptions, rejecting the quantification of variables and

recognising the relative and subjective nature of knowledge. Its strengths, in the

words of Maxwell, “derive primarily from its inductive approach, its focus on

specific situations or people, and its emphasis on words rather than numbers”

(1996, p. 17). Qualitative research methodology enables researchers to:

understand the meaning of events, actions and situations of participants;

understand the context within which participants act; identify unanticipated or

anomalous phenomena and influences, and in response, generate new theories;

explain processes by which events and actions occur; and hypothesise causal

explanations, particularly of a process of variety (pp. 17-20).

Some scholars in the social sciences have recognised that the synergies and

complementarities provided by quantitative and qualitative research traditions

can provide more answers and greater insights in relation to typical research

questions than either approach singly, and are applying both methods in their

research. Therefore, in recognising that quantitative and qualitative data can

bring deeper understanding to the problem (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004) this

study integrated both paradigms where appropriate. The adopted methodology is

founded on Creswell’s (2003) framing of quantitative and qualitative research

strategies.

The design of the present study comprised a sequential explanatory strategy

that commences with the collection and analysis of the quantitative data. Next,

qualitative methods are employed to clarify and elaborate on the initial

quantitative findings (Creswell, 2003). These data were drawn from one


95

institution in China and hence the study was bounded by the situation to be

found in that institution. Although 50 lecturers from each of two colleges

participated in the study, there were no significant differences between the two

departments across the range of dependent variables of interest in this research.

Accordingly, it was assumed that there were more issues in common than

differences between the two departments. Hence, it would be justifiable to

consider the case as the research site university.

A case study design was selected for this study because such a

methodology has the potential to give a richer and more detailed picture of the

phenomenon under study than other research methods (Marshall & Rossman,

1999). As noted by Yin (2003b) a case study approach is “an empirical inquiry

that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within a real-life context,

especially when phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p. 13).

In terms of the present study, the real-life context was two colleges within

Northern University. Within this context, a case study approach was utilised to

explore and to develop a deep comprehensive understanding of the influence of

the university’s organisational culture as well as the personal experiences of the

TEFL lecturers on their motivation to teach in higher education in China.

Although case study has a long history in clinical research, it has been the

subject of debate in the Social Sciences (Runyan, 1982); for example, Shadish,

Cook and Campbell (2002) have critiqued case study research primarily on the

grounds that as a methodology, it lacks controls. Nonetheless, these authors have

acknowledged that case studies “are very relevant when causation is at most a

minor issue” (p. 501).


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While some qualitative researchers consider cases as objects of study (e.g.,

Stake, 1995), others (e.g., Merriam, 1998) have argued that it is an approach to

inquiry. Recently, case study design has had some refinements and intensive

promotion when applied to Social Science research (Stake, 1994, 2000; Yin,

2003a). Currently, there are two primary perspectives that dominate case study

methodology and they are generally attributed to Stake (1995) and Yin (2003b).

Case studies, as proposed by Stake (2003), can be divided into three types:

an intrinsic case study, an instrumental case study and a collective case study.

The intrinsic case study allows the researcher to better understand a particular

case because the case is of interest. The instrumental case study provides

“insight into an issue or to redraw a generation” (p. 137). In the collective case

study, the researcher extends the instrumental case study to several examples;

they “may jointly study a number of cases in order to investigate a phenomenon,

population, or general condition” (Stake, 2003, p. 138). The individuals in a case

study are not necessarily known in advance; they are selected because “it is

believed that understanding them will lead to better understanding, perhaps

better theorising, about a still larger collection of cases” (Stake, 2003, p. 134).

According to Yin (2003a), case study methodology is “the preferred

strategy when ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions are being posed in order to explain,

describe and explore a phenomenon” (Rowley, 2002; Yin, 2003b). Further, case

study design may have explanatory, exploratory and descriptive purposes (Yin,

2003b). Exploratory cases are considered when conducting social research that

investigates a phenomenon with a limited prior understanding, in order to

generate hypotheses for future research (Marshall & Rossman, 1999).


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Descriptive case studies are used to document or describe a phenomenon

(Marshall & Rossman, 1999). Descriptive case study requires that a descriptive

theory is developed before the researchers start the project. Explanatory case

studies are applied in the investigation relating to a phenomenon and seek to

identify the rationale or reasons for the phenomenon (Marshall & Rossman,

1999). Yin (2003b) also argues that case studies are useful when you cannot

manipulate the behaviour of those involved in the study, but want to explain

contextual conditions contributing to the phenomenon of interest. Hence, the

present study adopted an explanatory case study methodology (Yin, 2003b) in

the investigation of TEFL lecturers’ motivation towards teaching at one

university in China. The study sought to explore the influence of organisational

structure and other issues such as personal experience of staff on that motivation.

4.3 Research Design

As noted in the preceding section, a mixed methods collective explanatory

case study design was utilised to try to explain or theorise about the relationships

among motivation, culture and experiences. The case study drew on the

theoretical frameworks of motivational research and organisational culture to

analyse participant behaviours and beliefs and sought to explain these behaviours

within the SDT framework and the structure of organisational culture.

The study included a pilot study to develop and assess Chinese versions of

the five research measures (questionnaires) as well as the semi-structured

interview schedules. The main study (see Figure 4.1) used a sequential design in

two phases. In Phase 1, quantitative data were collected by means of the five

questionnaires to provide a general picture of motivational attributes of TEFL


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academics working in a Chinese university. The data from these questionnaires

were used to answer research sub-questions 1, 2 and 3: What types of motivation

do TEFL lecturers appear to have? How do academics perceive the

organisational culture of the universities in China? What experiences do TEFL

lecturers perceive as affecting their work practices?

In Phase 2, qualitative data were collected through two rounds of interviews

to refine and explain previous findings in relation to motivation and

organisational culture. The first round of interviews explored participants

experiences that contributed to their motivation, while the second round of

interviews was on their perceptions of the organisational culture of the institution.

The data in Phase 2 addressed the third sub-question: What experiences do TEFL

lecturers perceive as affecting their work practices?

Sub-question 1

Sub-question 2

Sub-question 3

Phase 1

Phase 2

Main study

Quantitative data

Qualitative data

Figure 4.1 Research design

4.4 Participants

The participants in the pilot study and the two phases of the main study were

all university lecturers aged from 20 to 50 years. Six academics participated in


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the pilot study conducted in Australia. The first three (two associate professors,

one lecturer) who assisted with the development and evaluation of the surveys,

were academics of Chinese heritage with experience of working in universities

in China. These academics were fluent in both English and Chinese. The other

three academics who participated in the pilot study were Australian. These

lecturers participated in the interview portion of the pilot study.

The participants in the main study were 100 TEFL lecturers from two

colleges in a large university in China. All of the lecturers were responsible for

teaching English; 50 were teaching English majors and 50 were teaching

university students whose majors were not English. All 100 of the lecturers

agreed to participate in the study.

4.5 Measures

The measures utilised in the present study consisted of a demographic

questionnaire, five questionnaires developed by previous researchers and semi-

structured individual interview schedules.

4.5.1 Demographic questionnaire

This questionnaire (see Appendix A) required participants to indicate their

gender, age, years of teaching, professional rank, freedom of choice of jobs,

educational background and overseas study experience. The item concerning

freedom of choice in relation to job was included in the demographic

questionnaire in order to assess whether this experience had a significant impact

on the lecturers’ motivation for teaching. Recall from Chapter 1, the Chinese

Government assigned graduates to jobs from the early 1970s to the mid-1990s.


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After this time, graduates were able to choose their own career paths. It was

expected that freedom of choice regarding career might well have an influence

on lecturers’ current motivation.

For two reasons, an item regarding experience of studying overseas was also

included in the demographic questionnaire. First, only a few of the lecturers had

been selected by the China Scholarship Council (CSC) to study English or work

overseas for over three months. It was hypothesised that this experience and

subsequent research qualification could have had a positive impact on their sense

of expertise in English. Second, the experience of studying overseas for over

three months could well have widened these lecturers’ views on pedagogy and

academic competence in English teaching.

4.5.2 Research questionnaires

Five research questionnaires were utilised to examine research questions

(see Table 4.1). The questionnaires were: Work Tasks Motivation Scale for

Teachers---Teaching (Fernet, Senecal, Guay, Marsh & Dowson, 2008), Basic

Psychological Needs Scales at Work (Ilardi, Leone, Kasser & Ryan, 1993),

Subjective Vitality Scale (Ryan & Frederick, 1997), Aspirations Index (Kasser &

Ryan, 1993, 1996, 2001) and Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument

(Cameron & Quinn, 1999, 2006).

Chinese versions of the research questionnaires were not available so it

was necessary to conduct a rigorous three-step translation process in preparation

for the pilot study. The five questionnaires were translated from English to

Mandarin Chinese and then back-translated to English (Chow, Harrison,

Lindquist & Wu, 1997). The forward and backward translations were employed


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to produce equivalency between the original language (English) and the target

language (Chinese) on content. The process of forward and backward translation

included three steps. In the first step, the translation from English to Chinese was

done by a Chinese person who was fluent in both languages. This person was the

researcher who is a lecturer in English language at a Chinese university. The

translation was revised by a bilingual speaker who was a Chinese speaker and

had lived in America for sufficient time to be fluent in English. In the second

step, the back translation was completed by a panel of experts who were fluent in

both English and Chinese. In the third step, the original version and the back-

translated version were compared and any contradictions and inaccuracies were

resolved by negotiation. The Chinese version of the measures were used in the

pilot study and assessed for validity before being utilised in the main study,

which was conducted in China.

Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers---Teaching: The WTMST-T (see

Appendix B) was developed by Fernet, Senecal, Guay, Marsh and Dowson in

2008. Although created several years before the current study was undertaken,

this instrument has only been used in one additional study. Specifically, Muller,

Andreitz and Palekèiæ (2008) adopted the scale in their study of teachers’

motivation. In the present study, this scale was used to test lecturers’ motivation

(amotivation, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation).


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Table 4.1 The research questionnaires

Questionnaires Focus Researchers

Work Tasks Motivation Scale

for Teachers (WTMST)

Motivation Fernet et al. (2008)

Basic Psychological Needs

Scale

at Work (BPNS-W)

Psychological needs Ilardi et al. (1993)

Subjective Vitality Scale

(SVS)

Sense of wellbeing Ryan & Frederick, (1997)

Aspirations Index (AI) Goals Kasser & Ryan, (1993, 1996,

2001)

Organisational Culture

Assessment Instrument

(OCAI)

Organisational

culture

Cameron & Quinn, (1999,

2006)

There are 15 items in the questionnaire and each item is repeated for each of

six tasks that relate to teaching functions. These tasks are class preparation,

teaching, evaluation of students, class management, administrative tasks, and

complementary tasks. Thus, the full instrument provides a measure of motivation

on each of these tasks. Given the aim of this study, investigating how

organisational culture and personal experiences were related to lecturers’

motivation to work in TEFL institutes in Chinese universities, the present study

only used the scale on teaching (WTMST-T). Participants respond to the items

using a 7-point type scale, ranging from (1) “does not correspond at all” to (7)

“correspond completely”. The reported Cronbach’s α values ranged from .83

to .96 (mean value = .92) for intrinsic motivation, .72 to .89 (mean value = .82)


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for identified regulation, .79 to .89 (mean value = .85) for introjected

regulation, .64 to .87 (mean value = .76) for external regulation, and .75 to .81

(mean value = .77) for amotivation (Fernet, Senecal, Guay, Marsh & Dowson,

2008).

Basic Psychological Needs Scales at Work: The BPNS-W (see Appendix C)

was developed by Ilardi, Leone, Kasser and Ryan in 1993. Several studies (e.g.,

Deci, Ryan, Gagne, Leone, Usunov, & Kornazheva, 2001; Ilardi, Leone, Kasser,

& Ryan, 1993; Kasser, Davey, & Ryan, 1992) have used the scale to make

meaningful interpretations of a wide range of phenomena relating to the three

basic needs. In the present study, it was used to measure need satisfaction in a

university.

There are 21 items concerning the three needs for competence, autonomy

and relatedness at work. Among the items, there are six items for competence,

eight for relatedness, and seven for autonomy. Participants responded to the

items using a 7-point type scale, ranging from (1) “not true at all” to (7)

“definitely true”.

Subjective Vitality Scale: The SVS (see Appendix D) was developed by Ryan

and Frederick in 1997. Vitality was considered an aspect of eudaimonic or

contented wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2001b). Studies have used the scale to assess

energy, vigour, and aliveness over the past few months (Ryan & Frederick, 1997;

Nix, Ryan, Manly, & Deci, 1999; Bostic, Rubio, & Hood, 2000). In this study, it

was used to measure wellbeing.

There are six items on the scale. Participants responded to the items using a

7-point type scale, ranging from (1) “not true at all” to (7) “definitely true”. The


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Cronbach’s α is .91. The validity of the scale was established by Ryan and

Frederick (1997).

Aspirations Index: The AI (see Appendix E) was developed by Kasser and Ryan

in 1993, 1996 and 2001 and measures aspirations. Aspirations refer to people’s

goals and values (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Many studies have used the scale to

assess people’s aspirations (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996; Kasser & Ryan, 2001;

Ryan, Chirkov, Little, Sheldon, Timoshina, & Deci, 1999; Sheldon & Kasser,

1998; Kasser, Ryan, Zax, & Sameroff, 1995; Williams, Cox, Hedberg, & Deci,

2000). In the present study, it was used to assess lecturers’ goals and values

related to working in higher education.

In the original version of the AI, there were seven categories of aspirations

which include wealth, fame, image, personal growth, relationships, community

and health. Altogether there are 105 items. In each category, three perspectives

including importance, likelihood and attainment of goals and values are

addressed. Because the present study utilised this scale to measure the types of

goals in personal life, only the importance of goals scale was utilised in the study.

In addition, health in the original version would not be used because it had no

relationship with the research questions in the present study. Thus, there were 30

items in the AI to test the intrinsic and extrinsic goals of the TEFL lecturers.

Participants responded to the items using a 7-point type scale, ranging from (1)

“not at all” to (7) “very”.

Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument: The OCAI (see Appendix F)

was developed by Cameron and Quinn (1999). The OCAI has been used in more

than a thousand organisations and has been found to identify the organisational


105

culture profile based on the core values, assumptions, interpretations, and

approaches that characterise organisations (Cameron & Quinn, 1999; Berrio,

2003; Shepstone & Currie, 2006; Fralinger, Olson, Pinto-Zipp, & DiCorcia,

2010).

The OCAI consists of six dimensions, which are: Dominant Characteristics,

Organisational Leadership, Management of Employees, Organisational Glue,

Strategic Emphases, and Criteria of Success. Each dimension has four

alternatives (A = Clan, B = Adhocracy, C = Performance/Market, D =

Hierarchy). In the present study, OCAI was used to measure the current

dominant organisational culture of the research site university.

In the original version of OCAI, scores are determined for all alternatives in

both the Now and Preferred columns by 100 points. The Cronbach’s α for the

scales in this instrument are: Clan, .82; Adhocracy, .83; Hierarchy, .67; and

Performance/Market, .79. In the present study, a 7-point type scale, ranging from

(1) “not at all” to (7) “very” was used to get uniformity with the other four

instruments.

Semi-structured interview schedules

The two schedules were designed to guide the researcher in exploring ways

in which the lecturers’ personal experiences and perceptions of organisational

culture have had an impact on their motivation. The first interview, Personal

Motivation, focused on the impact of personal experiences on lecturers’

motivation. There were 46 questions relating to the background of the

interviewees, teaching motivation, interests and their perceptions of the future

(of life and work). The second interview, Perception of Organisational Culture,


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focused on the lecturers’ perceptions of the impact of the university’s

organisational culture on their motivation. There were 32 questions relating to

dominant characteristics, organisational leadership, management of employees,

organisational glue, strategic emphases and criteria for success.

4.6 Procedure

The procedure for the present study involved four stages including a

preparatory phase, the pilot study, and the main study, which was conducted in

two sequential phases (see Table 4.2).

Table 4.2 Procedure of the study

Stages Activities

Preparation Development of the demographic questionnaire Development of Chinese versions of the 5 research questionnaires

Development of the 2 Semi-structured interview schedules Permission – Directors of Colleges Ethics Approval – University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC)

Pilot Study Informed Written Consent – 6 pilot study participants Research questionnaires and interviews – 6 pilot study participants Critical analysis and review of pilot study data and procedures

Main Study – Phase 1

Informed Written Consent – 100 participants Demographic Questionnaire – 100 participants Research Questionnaires – 100 participants Selection of participants for Phase 2

Main Study – Phase 2

Interview: Personal Motivation – 9 participants Interview: Perception of Organisational Culture – 6 participants


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Stage One – Preparation: In the first stage of the study, the measures utilised in

the present study were developed and then examined to ensure that they had

good face validity and that the processes of translation maintained the validity of

the instruments (Beaton, Bombardier, Guillemin, & Ferraz, 2000). In addition,

written permission (see Appendix G) to conduct the study in China was obtained

from the directors of the two colleges within the university and ethical approval

to conduct the study was obtained from Queensland University of Technology’s

University Human Research Ethics Committee (see Appendix H).

Stage Two – Pilot Study: In the second stage of the study, a pilot study was

conducted with six participants in Australia to trial the Chinese versions of the

instruments and to give the researcher an opportunity to refine her interviewing

techniques.

Stage Three – Main Study: This stage, Phase 1 of the main study, involved

three major activities; inviting TEFL lecturers to participate in the study and

obtaining their informed written consent, requesting the participants to complete

the demographic and research questionnaires, and selecting the subset of

lecturers to participate in the individual interviews.

All the TEFL lecturers at both research sites were invited to participate in

the research study at the conclusion of a staff meeting; for example, at the

Foreign Languages College, the nature of the research was explained and

participants (50 staff) were recruited. At the second research site, the same

procedure was followed, meaning that another 50 staff agreed to participate in

the study. All of the lecturers (100) gave their informed written consent to

participate in the study.


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Each participant was given an envelope containing the demographic

questionnaire and the five research questionnaires. The five questionnaires had

been bound into a booklet with a colourful cover. The questionnaires were

administered in two different orders so that half the group received the package

with instruments sequenced in reverse to the other group.

Before completing the questionnaires, the researcher ensured that the

participants understood the nature and significance of the study, their role as

anonymous respondents, and their ability to withdraw from the study at anytime

without comment or penalty by reading from the approved information sheet.

The participants were asked to respond independently. Most of the TEFL

lecturers finished the questionnaires within ten minutes.

Although the participants’ responses were anonymous to the researcher,

the participants were asked to provide a code on the cover of their booklets that

was recognisable by the research assistant (see Appendix I). The code allowed

the research assistant, but not the researcher who was a supervisor of the

participants, to invite specific lecturers to participate in the individual interviews

(Phase 2 of the main study).

Once the questionnaires were scored and the data entered into data files for

the quantitative analyses, extreme cases/participants for each scale were visually

identified by means of a box and whiskers plot (Tukey, 1977). A box plot of the

scale ‘wellbeing’ is shown in Figure 4.2. Consent was obtained from two

participants, 09092708/FLC/R01/P A and 09092516/FLC/R01/P E. Outliers with

scores of 10 and 42 were identified as critical cases or extreme cases after re-

examination of their individual responses across all scales to ensure the


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responses were valid. One participant represented an aggregate low score and

another participant, a high score. Consent was obtained from the two participants

(09092708/FLC/R01/P A and 09092516/FLC/R01/P E) to participate in a

follow-up interview. In a similar way, a list of outliers was compiled according

to the responses across all scales. The nine participants on the list were invited to

participate in the first round of individual interviews on personal motivation. All

agreed to participate.

Well-being

10

40

30

20

09092516/FLC/R01/PE

09092708/FLC/R01/PA

Figure 4.2 Boxplot and whiskers plot for wellbeing

The participants in the two rounds of individual interviews were different

for logistical reasons. The intention in the second interviews on Perception of

Organisational Culture was to draw on individual cases to reach conclusions

about those issues that impacted the work environment and could contribute to

teacher motivation. The participants in the second round of interviews consisted

of two groups: one group included two of the participants from the first round;

the other group included four new participants.


110

The procedure for selecting the four participants in the second group was

the same as the procedure utilised for the first round of interviews. Participants

were selected according to their responses on the questionnaire of organisational

culture assessment. Extreme cases for each scale were identified. And four

participants were selected. The details of participants in the two rounds of

interviews are provided in Appendix J.

The individual interviews in Phase 2 of the study were conducted by the

reseacher and a research assistant. The research assistant received specific

training regarding confidentiality, interviewer bias, adherence to question order

and wording, non-directive probing, and techniques for interviewing reluctant

respondents.

The participants, selected in Phase 1 for participation in the individual

interviews in Phase 2 of the study, were contacted (either by phone or in person)

and invited to participate. If they consented to participate in an interview, they

were sent a follow-up letter (see Appendix K). This provided information about:

why they were invited to participate, the purpose of the second phase of the

study, the proposed time and place for the interview, and the fact that their

interview would be recorded. Before their interview, each participant was asked

to give their informed written consent (see Appendix L). The fifteen participants

were also reminded that they could withdraw from the study at any time without

comment or penalty. A list of the semi-structured interview questions used in

each round of interviews is provided in Appendices M and N, and further

information concerning the interviews is provided in Appendix O.


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4.7 Data Analyses

The data were subjected to three broad classes of analyses: (1) preliminary

analyses to visually assess the quantitative data, identify possible trends and

assess the reliability of the data, (2) primary analyses of the quantitative data to

address the three research sub-questions, and (3) analyses of the qualitative data

to address sub-question 3 and gain additional information concerning sub-

questions 1 and 2.

4.7.1 Preliminary analyses

The participants’ responses on all of the measures were scored, entered into

an Microsoft spreadsheet and imported into an SPSS 16.0 data file. The data file

was inspected visually for missing data or anomalous entries. Data were

independently checked for entry errors. Scores on the spreadsheets were in the

form of raw scores for the measures of motivation (WTMST-T), wellbeing

(SVS), goals (AI), and types of organisational culture (OCAI). Reversed scores

were computed for Questions 3, 5, 7, 11, 14, 16, 18, 19 and 20 in the Basic

Psychological Needs Satisfaction at Work scale (BPNS-W).

Descriptive analyses were then conducted to calculate the mean, the

standard deviation, and the normalcy of distribution of each variable. This

information was necessary in order to decide which variables could be included

with confidence in the primary analyses addressing the study’s research

questions.

The reliability (internal consistency) of the five questionnaires was

calculated. It should be noted that the reliability estimates of three of the

WTMST-T subscales, External Regulation, Introjected Regulation and


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Amotivation, were unacceptable. These Cronbach’s α fell within .15 to .46

ranges (see Table 6.1). The internal consistency of the other four questionnaires

(SVS, AI, BPNS-W and OCAI) and the total scale of these four questionnaires

were satisfactory with coefficients falling within .63 to .92 ranges (see Table 5.2).

4.7.2 Primary analyses

A frequency analysis and descriptive analysis were employed to address the

first research question, “What types of motivation do TEFL lecturers appear to

have?” The purpose of this analysis was to identify the types of motivation that

exist among the participants. Given the low reliability estimates for three of the

motivation subscales, only analyses involving intrinsic motivation and identified

regulation could be conducted.

The second research question, “How do academics perceive the

organisational culture of the universities in China?” was addressed by analysis

of variance (ANOVA) and descriptive statistics. The purpose of this analysis was

to identify the dominant organisational culture types perceived by the TEFL

academics at the two research sites.

Finally, the third research question, “What experiences do TEFL lecturers

perceive as affecting their work practices?” was answered by Canonical

correlation analysis and two rounds of interviews. The purpose of the Canonical

correlation analysis was to describe the relation between two sets of variables

(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007); the motivational types (intrinsic motivation,

identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation and amotivation)

and the other measures of interest (sense of well being, three basic psychological

needs, goals and perceptions of organisational culture). Given the low reliability


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estimates for three of the motivation subscales, only analyses involving intrinsic

motivation and identified regulation could be conducted.

The two rounds of interviews were to explore a deeper understanding of

the TEFL lecturers’ motivation. The data analyses were conducted in two stages.

The data analyses in the first stage took place during the data collection. It

consisted of a process of checking and tracking the data to see what inferences

were emerging from the data and identifying what should be followed-up. This

process informed the researcher’s approach to subsequent interviews (Grbich,

2007). The interview data and the interview notes were translated into English.

Microsoft Word was employed to help in organising and analysing the data.

When the data collection was completed, a more systematic data analysis was

conducted in the second stage of the data analyses.

In the second stage of the analyses of data, theoretical thematic analysis

was conducted in each separate interview. The process of analysis, suggested by

Braun and Clarke (2006), proceeded with the generation of initial codes and their

application to data extracts. Codes were derived from the theoretical framework

on Self-Determination Theory and Competing Values Framework. Data extracts

of relevance and their specific codes were collated and organised into thematic

categories (Table 4.3). The final four themes were found to thread through the

entire data, (1) organisational culture, (2) autonomy, (3) competence, and (4)

relatedness.


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Table 4.3 Theme categories in qualitative data

Main Themes Sub-themes (Level1) Sub-theme (Level 2)

Organisational

Culture (OC)

Dominant Characteristics (O-DC) Working environment

Assessment system;

reward system; and

teamwork

Organisational Leadership (O-OL)

Management of Employees(O-ME)

Organisation Glue (O-OG)

Strategic Emphases (O-SE)

Criteria of Success (O-CS)

Autonomy(A) Autonomy(A) Freedom; having choice

Competence(C) Competence(C) Know well; be good at

Relatedness(R) With Peers (R-P) Have relationship with;

being cared about With Family Members (R-FM)

With Students (R-S)

With University (R-U)

4.8 Reliability and Validity

Reliability and validity are concepts that have been associated with the

scientific approach to research (Golafshani, 2003) since its beginnings. Issues of

reliability and validity are addressed by careful attention to a study’s

conceptualisation, the way in which the data are collected, analysed and

interpreted, and the way in which the findings are presented. According to Yin

(2003b), the quality of case study design can be judged by four tests - construct

validity, internal validity, external validity and reliability (Yin, 2003b). Table 4.4

shows the tests followed by their descriptions and how they were addressed in

the study.


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Table 4.4 Tests for the reliability and validity of a case study

Tests Descriptions

Construct validity

Establishes the operational measures for the concepts being studied

Internal validity Establishes causal relationships (for explanatory or causal studies)

External validity Establishes the domain to which a study’s findings can be generalised

Reliability Demonstrates that a study can be repeated to achieve consistent results

Yin, 2003b, p. 34

Construct validity refers to selecting the correct operational measures for

the concepts being studied. It is underpinned by sound theoretical reasoning; the

phenomenon being studied are measured by the methods employed, and there is

provision of a clear rationale for the selection of methods (Yin, 2003b). In the

present study, an extensive review of the literature examined competing

theoretical frameworks, established and psychometrically sound instruments

were employed, and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Competing Values

Framework (CVF) provided a theoretical framework to explain the phenomenon.

Internal validity is of prime concern when attempting to establish a causal

relationship, which is the intent of explanatory or causal case studies (Yin,

2003b). According to Burns’ (2000) suggestion that content validity is most

often determined on the basis of expert judgment, the researcher gave out the

questionnaires to some educators in China. Their suggestions were incorporated

into the final draft of the instruments in the present study. Furthermore, validity

was inherent in the use of mixed methods strategies for data collection and data

analysis. The rigor of using mixed methods broadened, thickened, and deepened

the interactive base of the present study (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998).


116

In Phase 2 of the present study when qualitative measures were utilised,

internal validity deals with the question of how research findings match reality

(Burns, 2000; Merriam, 1998; Oppenheim, 1966). The present study adopted two

strategies to enhance the quality of the qualitative data. First, “member checking”

was adopted by the researcher to test the validity of the qualitative data

(Creswell, 2008). That was, after the transcription of the data, the researcher

presented it to the participants to check the accuracy of the account. Questions

asked were relating to the following parts: whether the description is compete

and realistic, whether the themes are accurate to include, whether the

interpretations were fair and representative (Creswell, 2008). Second,

presentation of negative information was employed to add the credibility to the

data.

External validity refers to the establishment of the domain to which a

study’s findings can be generated (Yin, 2003b). That meant that external validity

was achieved in this case study where findings verified or refuted the theoretical

propositions of the study (Yin, 2003b). The conceptual framework of this study

contributed to generalisability (Yin, 2003b). The impact of the organisational

culture and lecturers’ personal experiences on their motivation were generalised

to theoretical perspectives.

Reliability is a concept used for testing and evaluating quantitative

research. Reliability means that scores from an instrument are stable and

consistent (Creswell, 2008). To ensure reliability in relation to the present study,

several steps were undertaken. As stated previously in the section on measure in

Chapter 4, the five research questionnaires were forward translated and


117

backward translated. This kept the replicability or repeatability of the data over

time. The five research questionnaires in the present study were administered in

reverse order so that half the group received the package with questionnaires

sequenced in reverse to the other group. This process enabled the researcher to

identify any influence of fatigue on the participants in completing the surveys.

Reliability was measured by using the internal consistency method with

Cronbach’s α and its variants. The results of these are provided in Chapter 5. To

reach the same conclusions for the qualitative data, the researcher’s supervisors

were to some extent involved in corroborating and negotiating interpretations of

raw data. In particular, they raised questions about the translation of the data,

seeking to ensure that theoretical terms were not imposed on the participants’

words during translation.

4.9 Ethics

Before conducting the proposed study, ethical approval was obtained

from the Queensland University of Technology Research Ethics Committee

(Appendix H). Written permission to conduct the study in China was also

obtained from the director of the colleges (Appendix G).

4.10 Summary

This chapter presented the methodology and methods adopted to conduct the

present study, including: a description of the design, the participants, the

measures, the procedure including ethics approval, the analyses of data, and a

consideration of the validity and reliability of case study design. In the next

chapter, the results of the quantitative data analyses will be presented.


118

Chapter 5 Quantitative Data Analysis

119

Chapter 5: Quantitative Data Analysis

The aims of this study were to investigate the ways in which organisational

culture and personal experiences were related to lecturers’ motivation to work in

TEFL institutes in the Chinese universities. As discussed in Chapter 4, the study

was designed in two sequential Phases: Phase 1, in which the TEFL lecturers’

motivational attributes were assessed quantitatively; and Phase 2, in which rich

explanatory data in relation to motivational attributes was obtained through

interviews of a small subset of the lecturers.

In this chapter, the results of Phase 1 of this research are presented. This

phase of the study was designed to answer the following three sub-questions:


2. How do academics perceive the organisational culture within the


3. What experiences do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their

work practices?

The findings are presented in three sections in this chapter. The first section

(preliminary descriptive analyses) reports on demographics of the participants,

the reliability of the five questionnaires used in this study, accuracy of the data

and the relationships among the scales. The second section (primary analyses)

describes the results of the analyses that addressed the three research sub-

questions. The third section of this chapter provides an overall summary of the

findings.


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5.1 Preliminary Analyses

This section presents the demographics of the participants, details about

the reliability of the five questionnaires in the study, data accuracy, results of the

evaluation of statistical assumptions and the correlation between the data sets.

5.1.1 Demographics

Demographic characteristics of the lecturers who participated in the study

are summarised in Table 5.1 showing gender, age, choice of job, overseas

experience, length of teaching career, education background and professional

title. In the following paragraphs, demographic information is described in order

to provide further perspectives on the participants and the research site. The

analyses also enabled refinement of the propositions related to age, considered in

Chapter 1; such as the influence of government policy during the Cultural

Revolution.

Gender: Both male and female lecturers participated in the study. Table 5.1

shows that 23% of lecturers who participated in this study were male. Therefore,

the majority of the lecturers who participated in the surveys were female.

Although the proportion of TEFL female lecturers was higher than the average in

the teaching-orientated universities, which is 52% (Gao, 2009), the higher

proportion of female lecturers is idiosyncratic to this institution and not the

outcome of any specific policy initiative.


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Table 5.1 Demographic characteristics of participants in the study (N=100)

Category Conditions Percentage of sample

Gender Male 23

77 Female

Age 20-30 yrs 17

63

16

4

30-40 yrs

40-50 yrs

50+ yrs

Choice of job Government 10

90 Self

Overseas experience Yes 23

77 No

Length of teaching 5-yrs 15

39

35

8

3

5-10 yrs

10-20 yrs

20-30 yrs

30-40yrs

Education background

Ph. D 3

81

16

Master

Bachelor

Professional title Professor 2

21

61

16

Associate professor

Lecturer

Assistant

Age: There was an even balance in the age of lecturers with approximately

17% of the lecturers younger than 30, 63% between 30-40 and 20% older than

40. Nevertheless, a substantial majority of lecturers (80%) fall in the younger

than 41 years age group (See Table 5.1). Accordingly, the concern discussed in

Chapter 1, that the Chinese Government allocated jobs to undergraduates under

the influence of the Cultural Revolution would not seem to be relevant. Based on


122

the age distribution, it would appear that few of the lecturers were so assigned

jobs; most of the TEFL lecturers chose their jobs themselves.

Choice of job: Nearly 90% of the lecturers chose the teaching job

themselves and only 10% of the participants were allocated jobs by the

government (see Table 5.1). As stated in Chapter 1, after 1992, government

policy on appointments changed so that appointments to college were no longer

at government instigation. Therefore, 90% of the lecturers who worked at this

university after 1995 chose their career in teaching.

Overseas experience: 23% of the lecturers claimed to have experience

working or learning English overseas for over three months. In China, it has

been customary for lecturers to develop qualifications in English teaching, build

English teaching experience and achieve a certain status before having the

opportunity to work or study English overseas. The twenty-three lecturers who

had experience working in English overseas were senior lecturers in this

university.

Length of teaching: The teaching experience of the participants ranged

from less than five years to 30-40 years. Among the lecturers, 39% had taught

for 5-10 years and therefore were relatively novice; 35% had been teachers for

10-20 years; 8% for 20-30 years; and 3% for 30-40 years (See Table 5.1).

Education background: 3% of the lecturers held a Doctoral Degree, 81%

held a Master’s Degree and 16% held only a Bachelor Degree (See Table 5.1).

Professional title: 2% of the lecturers are professors, 21% are associate

professors, 61% are lecturers and 16% are assistants.


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The analyses of the demographic information resulted in two conclusions

regarding the participants. The first conclusion is that the influence of the

Cultural Revolution on the lecturers’ choice of jobs in the present study appears

irrelevant. As stated in Chapter 1, the Cultural Revolution occurred between

1966 and 1976 and so lecturers who were beginning their careers at that time are

now aged 50-60 years and constitute the group who have been teaching 30-40

years. As shown in Table 5.1, only 3% of the participants had taught for 30-40

years. Therefore, very few staff in the present study would have been required to

take up teaching positions, possibly against their will.

The second conclusion drawn from analyses of the demographic data is

that overseas training likely influence the TEFL lecturers’ competence in English.

As shown in Table 5.1, 23% of the participants studied and worked abroad.

Studying or working in an English speaking country should improve Chinese

lecturers’ English language abilities. Potentially, this experience would also

contribute to enhance perceptions of competence by peers and students. Finding

that 23% of the participants had overseas experience suggests that, as a group

they have had substantial experience in using English language. Therefore, it can

be concluded that the overseas experience is a potential factor influencing TEFL

lecturers’ sense of competence.

5.1.2 Descriptive analyses

As discussed in Chapter 4, five quantitative instruments were utilised in

the present study. The five measures included the Subjective Vitality Scales

(SVS), the Aspirations Index (AI), the Basic Psychological Needs Scales at

Work (BPNS-W), the Work Tasks Motivation Scales for Teachers-Teaching


124

(WTMST-T), and the Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI).

These five instruments provided measures across 19 scales.

Descriptive statistics were calculated using SPSS’s Frequency routine. The

data was screened for univariate non-normality by examining each variable for

Skewness and Kurtosis with most values falling within ±1, which means the

normalcy of distribution (Hair, Anderson, Tatham & Black, 1998). Statistical

tests such as ANOVA tolerate moderate deviations from norms (Lix, Keselman

& Keselman, 1996). The mean and SD are 28.98, 8.99 in SVS; 22.02-26.72 ,

6.21-7.31 in AI; 31.30-41.44, 5.33-7.39 in BPNS-W; 6.67-16.51,3.17-4.17 in

WTMST-T; 19.61-23.55, 6.47-8.01 in OCAI. This indicates that for most items

and the resulting scales, the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of

variance were within tolerances acceptable for the use of parametric statistics.

Cronbach’s α (Alpha), mean, standard deviations, Skewness and Kurtosis for

measured scales in the five instruments are presented in Table 5.2. One thing

should be noted that the Alphas for some scales in WTMST are not reliable. The

details are presented in the following paragraphs.


125

Table 5.2 Descriptive statistics

Instrument Scale Cronbach’s

α

Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis Range

SVS Wellbeing .92 28.98 8.99 -.10 -1.01 9-42

AI Wealth .88 22.58 7.31 .090 -.64 6-35

Fame .82 12.92 6.48 1.00 -.81 5-34

Image .79 15.49 6.37 .70 .33 5-35

P.Growth .80 25.82 6.21 -.32 -.47 9-35

Relation .79 26.72 6.25 -.32 -.65 10-35

Community .81 22.02 6.42 .30 -.57 9-35

BPNS-W Autonomy .66 31.30 7.02 -.51 .42 10-46

Competence .63 32.92 5.33 .13 -1.00 23-42

Relatedness .73 41.44 7.39 .03 -.52 24-56

WTMST-T IM .84 16.51 4.17 -.51 -.65 4-21

Intro.R .15 7.86 3.24 .58 .03 3-17

Exter.R. .16 11.13 3.17 .11 .27 3-21

Iden.R. .67 15.25 3.90 -.16 -.75 7-21

Amotivation .46 6.67 3.73 .85 -.07 3-17

OCAI Clan .86 21.94 8.01 .31 -.03 6-42

Adhocracy .80 20.80 6.88 .02 -.15 6-40

Market .75 19.61 6.47 .46 .09 8-39

Hierarchy .72 23.55 6.49 .03 .27 8-42

Note: P.growth=Personal growth IM=Intrinsic motivation Intro.R=Introjected regulation Iden.Reg.=Identified regulation Exter.R.= External regulation

Cronbach's α is commonly used as a measure of the internal consistency or

reliability of a psychometric test for a sample of respondents (Cronbach, 1951).

Internal consistency estimates how consistently individuals respond to the items

within a scale, but are not tests of the unidimensionality of items in that scale. As

can be seen in Table 5.2, the analyses yielded reliability of the scales for

introjected regulation, external regulation and amotivation in the range of .15

to .46. These estimates are well below acceptable reliability limits, meaning the

scales are invalid within the present study. The reliability of the other scales

from .63 to .92 is in an acceptable range. These estimates provide confidence

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_consistency�

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_(statistics)�

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_(student_assessment)�


126

that the scales are measuring some underlying latent construct. Given the

purposes of this study however, scales with reliability estimates between 0.6 and

0.7 were included in the data analyses (Cronbach, 1951).

Theoretically, a low Cronbach’s α implies either a low level of correlation

among those items purported to measure a latent construct or data that is

multidimensional. This researcher undertook two actions to investigate why the

reliability of estimates of three of the scales was low. First, the researcher re-

analysed the results by dividing the 100 participants into the two different

research sites. The results showed that the reliability for the scales of introjected

regulation, external regulation and amotivation were -.265, .169, and .389,

indicating a lack of reliability and validity for this study. Second, the researcher

conducted another survey in a third college within the same university. The

results showed that the reliability of the three scales was again low, ranging

from .113 to .233. These two additional above analyses indicated that the lack of

reliability of the three scales was not caused by data entry or any collection error.

Due to the limited number of participants, further investigation using factor

analysis was not possible. Further consideration of the poor reliability and

validity of these three scales will be discussed in Chapter 7.

5.1.3 Correlation

The next step of the preliminary analyses involved constructing a

correlation matrix (see Table 5.3) to ensure any collinearity fell within

acceptable limits. That means that all the variables are sufficiently correlated, not

violating the assumption of multicollinearity (See Table 5.3). The results indicate

that intrinsic motivation is correlated with wellbeing (r=.547), autonomy


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(r=.458), competence (r=.585), relatedness (r=.633), identified regulation

(r=.733), personal growth (r=.552), and community (r=.516). Identified

regulation is correlated with wellbeing (r=.493), relatedness (r=.635), intrinsic

motivation (r=.733), personal growth (r=.546) and community (r=.499).

5.2 Primary Analyses

In this section, results of the analyses conducted to address the three

research sub-questions guiding this study are provided; namely, (1) the types of

motivation that exist in the TEFL lecturers; (2) the type of dominant

organisational culture in the research site university in China; and (3)

experiences that TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work practices.

5.2.1 Research question 1

The first research sub-question posed in this study concerned the types of

motivation evident among the TEFL lecturers in the research site university. In

Chapter 4, the participants were asked to complete the Work Tasks Motivation

Scale for Teachers-Teaching (WTMST-T) on 7-point Likert scales. Five types of

motivation are measured, namely, intrinsic motivation, identified regulation,

introjected regulation, external regulation and amotivation. The participants

respond to each question on a 7-point Likert scale. Accordingly, each type of

motivation has a maximum possible score of 21 (7×3) and a neutral median is 12

(4×3).


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Table 5.3 Correlation matrix Wellbeing Autonomy Compe Related IM Iden.R Wealth Fame Image P.growth Relation Commun. Clan Adho Market Hier.

Wellbeing 1.000

Autonomy .528** 1.000

Compe. .511** .667** 1.000

Related. .522** .459** .583** 1.000

IM .547** .458** .585** .633** 1.000

Iden.R. .493** .355** .427** .635** .733** 1.000

Wealth .263** .133 .317** .192 .245* .295** 1.000

Fame .221* .050 .043 .054 .046 .104 .449** 1.000

Image .255* .203* .219* .087 .147 .200* .560** .743** 1.000

P.Growth .484** .539** .633** .569** .552** .546** .574** .201* .403** 1.000

Relation .328** .390** .427** .464** .331** .403** .498** .190 .403** .726** 1.000

Comm. .544** .532** .445** .543** .516** .499** .359** .331** .394** .679** .581** 1.000

Clan -.139 -.227* -.124 -.098 -.067 .030 .004 .006 .037 -.022 .071 -.028 1.000

Adho. -.108 -.151 -.091 -.089 -.080 -.093 -.080 -.114 -.067 -.041 .030 -.042 .864** 1.000

Market -.044 -.221* -.129 -.082 -.112 -.092 .062 .031 .044 .028 -.008 -.035 .543** .600** 1.000

Hier. .013 -.164 -.106 -.160 -.150 -.121 .011 .052 .031 -.040 -.006 -.011 .599** .625** .701** 1.000

*p<.05, **p<.01, 1 IM=Intrinsic motivation Iden.Reg.=Identified regulation ER=External regulation InR=Introjected regulation AM=Amotivation Compe.=Competence P.Growth=Personal growth Commun.=Community


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A frequency analysis of data yielded by the WTMST-T indicated that 52.5%

of the participants obtained scores at or above the neutral median score of 12 for

the intrinsic motivation scale. Furthermore, 52% obtained scores at or above the

neutral median score of 12 for identified regulation (See Table 5.4). Earlier in

this chapter, descriptive statistics analysis on WTMST-T revealed Cronbach’s α

for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. Therefore, the scales were

internally consistent (See Table 5.2). On the basis of literature, this finding

indicated that the types of motivation which existed in the TEFL lecturers were

marginally intrinsic motivation and identified regulation.

Table 5.4 Median, maximum, minimum and percent of the measures in WTMST-T

Types of

motivation Median Maximum Minimum Percent (%)

IM 16.50 21 4 52.5

Ident.R. 15.00 21 7 52

IM=Intrinsic motivation Ident.R.=Identified regulation


The second research sub-question posed in this study concerned the type of

dominant organisational culture within the university. Possible differences in

culture at two colleges within the university between the two research sites were

examined. Furthermore, the difference in demographics is described.

As discussed in Chapter 4, the participants were asked to complete one

questionnaire, the Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) to rate

the culture in the university (See Appendix F). The OCAI is divided into six

dimensions; namely, Organisational Characteristics, Organisational Leadership,


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Management of Employees, Organisation Glue, Strategic Emphasis, and Criteria

of Success. Each dimension was assessed by four statements, to which

respondents indicated their agreement on a 1-7 Likert Scale. The four statements

are linked to four quadrants, each representative of the organisational climate of

the institution. For example, the first statement relates to perceptions of the

organisational culture represented by a Clan culture and belongs in the first

quadrant. The second statement can be placed in a quadrant representing an

Adhocracy, the third and fourth statements are aligned with Performance/Market

and Hierarchy cultures respectively.

A preliminary examination of individual’s responses revealed two outlier

cases. Analyses were conducted with these outliers included and excluded. Initial

descriptive statistics on each of the culture scales revealed that no serious

violations of normality existed even with outliers included. Individual scores on

each culture were calculated and are presented in Table 5.5.

Table 5.5 Mean scores, standard deviation and Alphas for measures in OCAI

Culture Mean St Dev Cronbach alpha

N 98 100 98 100 98 100

Clan 21.53 21.94 7.55 8.01 .84 .86

Adhocracy 20.48 20.8 6.55 6.88 .78 .80

Market 19.25 19.6 6.19 6.50 .77 .75

Hierarchy 23.30 23.55 6.25 6.49 .71 .72

In Table 5.5, the difference between means of Clan and Hierarchy is only

1.77. The effect size calculation (difference in means divided by average


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standard deviation) is about 1.77/7, which is small. This indicates that both Clan

and Hierarchy culture types are marginally dominant. The average scores for

each culture type were computed and graphed on a four quadrant plot (N=100)

(See Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1 The organisational culture profile plot of Northern University

Further analysis was performed by conducting an ANOVA to examine

whether culture type differed significantly (See Table 5.6). The results of this

analysis comparing the two research sites on the four culture types are presented

in Table 5.6. The ANOVA revealed that significant differences between the first

research site and the second research site were found with regard to the culture

types of Performance and Hierarchy (F (1, 99)=8.595, p< .05; F(1, 99)=8.546,

p< .05). This finding suggests that the culture type perceived by lecturers in the

first research site (Foreign Languages College) is Hierarchy culture and in the

second research site (College English Department), Performance/Market culture.


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Table 5.6 Culture types in two research sites Sum of

Squares df

Mean

Square F Sig.

Clan Culture Between

Groups

27.334 1 27.334 .423 .517

Within

Groups

6328.306 98 64.575

Total 6355.640 99

Adhocracy

Culture

Between

Groups

5.207 1 5.27 .109 .742

Within

Groups

4682.793 98 47.784

Total 4688.000 99

Market Culture Between

Groups

333.816 1 333816 8.595 .004

Within

Groups

3805.974 98 38.836

Total 4139.790 99

Hierarchy

Culture

Between

Groups

334.694 1 334.694 8.546 .004

Within

Groups

3838.056 98 39.164

Total 4172.750 99


Research sub-question 3 posed in this study concerned the experiences

TEFL lecturers perceived as having an impact on their work practices. To

measure these relationships, canonical correlation analysis was employed. The

goal of canonical correlation analysis is to describe the relationships between

two sets of variables and to see what is common among the two sets. The

assumptions underpinning canonical correlation include normality of data and an

absence of extreme outliers. These assumptions were met in this data set.


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Chapter 2 discussed five types of motivation assessed by the motivation

measures, namely intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, introjected

regulation, external regulation and amotivation. Canonical correlation analysis

was conducted between the motivation types (intrinsic motivation, external

regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation and amotivation) and the

measures of wellbeing, wealth, fame, image, personal growth, relation,

community, autonomy, competence, relatedness, clan, adhocracy, market and

hierarchy.

Table 5.7 shows five canonical dimensions of which only the first two

were statistically significant. The first test assessed whether all five dimensions

were significant (F = 3.357), the second test assessed whether dimensions 2 and

3 combined were significant (F = 2.008), and so on. Finally, the last test assessed

whether dimension 5, by itself, was significant (F = 1.103). Dimensions 1 and 2

were significant while the remainder were not. Tests of dimensionality for the

canonical correlation analysis showed a canonical correlation of 0.76 between

the sets of variables, while for dimension 2 the canonical correlation was lower

at 0.56. Therefore, dimension 1 was significant.

Table 5.7 Tests of canonical dimensions Dimension Eigenvalue %

Contrib.

Canon

Corr

Wilks

L.

F Hypoth.

DF

Error

DF

Sig.

of F

1 1.40 61.7 0.76 .20 3.36 50.00 391.02 .00

2 0.46 20.2 0.56 .47 2.01 36.00 324.02 .00

3 0.24 10.8 0.44 .69 1.47 24.00 252.93 .08

4 0.09 4.0 0.29 .85 1.04 14.00 176.00 .42

5 0.07 3.3 0.26 .93 1.10 6.00 89.00 .37


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Table 5.8 presents the standardised canonical coefficients for the first two

dimensions across both sets of variables. For the measures of three basic

psychological needs, the first canonical dimension was most strongly influenced

by relatedness (-.56) and for the second dimension competence (-.84) and

relatedness (.53). For the motivational variables, the first dimension was

comprised of intrinsic (-.95), identified regulation (.-.90) and introjected

regulation (-.43). For the second dimension, external regulation (-.44) and

amotivation (.67) were the dominating variables. Therefore, intrinsic motivation,

identified regulation and amotivation were strongly influenced by sense of

competence and relatedness.


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Table 5.8 Standardised canonical coefficients

Covariate Dimension

1 2

Wellbeing -.24 .09

Clan .46 -.45

Adhocracy -.29 .67

Market -.09 .08

Hierarchy -.13 -.29

Autonomy .08 -.07

Competence -.11 -.86

Relatedness -.56 .53

Wealth -.08 .10

Fame .19 .38

Image -.12 -.17

Personal Growth -.30 -.26

Relation .25 -.32

Community -.21 .62

Intrinsic Motivation -.95 -.12

Identified Regulation -.90 .11

Introjected Regulation -.43 .51

External Regulation -.11 -.44

Amotivation .15 .67

Table 5.9 illustrates that, assuming one set of variables for motivation, the

set only included intrinsic motivation, identified regulation and amotivation


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which represented those scales with acceptable or marginally acceptable

reliability to Cronbach’s α statistics. Therefore, a dimension reduction analysis

was conducted among them.

Table 5.9 Dimension reduction analysis

Roots Eigenvalues %

contrib WilksL. F Hypoth.

DF Error

DF Sig. of

F

1 TO3 1.38 76.99 .29 4.46 30.00 256.04 .00

2 TO3 .32 17.93 .69 1.96 18.00 176.00 .01

3 TO3 .09 5.08 .92 1.01 8.00 89.00 .43

In Table 5.9, there are three canonical dimensions, of which only the first

two are statistically significant. The first test of dimensions tests whether all

three dimensions were significant (F = 4.46), the second tests whether

dimensions 2 and 3 combined were significant (F =1.96). The final test

determines whether dimension 3 by itself was significant (F =1.01). Therefore,

dimensions 1 and 2 were significant, while dimension 3 was not.


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Table 5.10 Standardised canonical coefficients for covariates

CAN. VAR. Covariate 1 2

Wellbeing .26 -.03 Autonomy -.08 .66 Competence .13 .57 Relatedness .54 -.35 Wealth .07 -.27 Fame -.17 -.23 Image .10 .11 Personal Growth .27 -.01 Relation -.21 .19 Community .20 -.65 Clan Adhocracy Market Hierarchy

.48 -.31 -.07 -.13

1.18 -1.15 -.07 .15

Intrinsic Motivation .96 .13 Identified Regulation .90 -.18 Amotivation -.17 -.91

Table 5.10 illustrates that a model that indicated all of the motivation types,

relatedness (.54), intrinsic motivation (.96) and identified regulation (.90) loaded

on dimension 1; while autonomy (.66), competence (.57), community (-.65) and

amotivation (-.91) loaded on dimension 2. Dimension 2 is a latent variable

accounting for autonomy and competence, but negatively associated with

community and AM. The above analyses indicated that there are two dimensions

or factors/variables that account for lecturers’ attitudes. One factor is associated

with relatedness, which appears to be associated with intrinsic and identified

regulation, making theoretical sense as both contribute to autonomous


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motivation. The second dimension was associated with the need for autonomy,

competence and Clan culture.

5.3 Summary

This chapter has presented information concerning the demographics of the

participants. The reliability of the five questionnaires used in this study; as well

as the accuracy of data and correlations among the variables assessed in this

chapter, data related to organisational culture, TEFL lecturers’ personal

experiences and their motivation were examined. Following is a summary of the

findings:

Motivation - the predominant types of motivation were intrinsic motivation

and identified regulation.

Dominant Organisational Culture - the dominant cultures within the

university were Clan culture and Hierarchy culture. There was, however, a

difference between the two research sites. The dominant culture at the first

research site (Foreign Languages College) was Hierarchy and the dominant

culture at the second research site (College English Department) was

Performance.

The impact of lecturers’ experiences - the relationships between

organisational culture and TEFL lecturers’ experiences of their motivation – was

examined. Results revealed that the need for relatedness, autonomy, and

competence, and organisational culture were strongly associated with motivation.

Taken together, the results of the quantitative study (Phase 1) suggested

that TEFL lecturers at the research site university are motivated with high levels


139

of intrinsic motivation and identified regulation in extrinsic motivation. Further,

the results suggest that the need for relatedness, autonomy and competence and

perceptions of the organisational culture are related to lecturers’ motivation

implying a high degree of satisfaction within the context of teaching at this

university. The results of reasons why these factors affected TEFL lecturers’

motivation are presented in Chapter 6.


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Chapter 6 Qualitative Data Analysis

141

Chapter 6: Qualitative Data Analysis

The aims of this study were to investigate ways in which organisational

culture and personal experiences were related to lecturers’ motivation to work in

TEFL institutes in Chinese universities. As discussed in Chapter 4, the study was

designed in two sequential phases: Phase 1, the quantitative study; and Phase 2,

the qualitative study. The research findings and analyses of data from Phase 1

(quantitative study) were presented in Chapter 5. It was shown that TEFL

lecturers exhibited high levels of motivation with high ratings on intrinsic

motivation and identified regulation, as defined in Self-Determination Theory.

Analysis also suggested that lecturers’ personal experiences of need for

competence, autonomy and relatedness and their perceptions of the

organisational culture were all strongly associated with their motivation. In this

chapter, analysis of data obtained through interviews from Phase 2 of the study

provides rich explanations of the quantitative findings. Furthermore, research

sub-question 3 is addressed: what experiences do TEFL academics perceive as

affecting their work practices?

It is important to note that the study was originally designed with one

round of interviews. However, as the interviews proceeded, an issue appeared,

that being the influence of organisational culture on lecturers’ motivation.

Therefore, a second round of interviews was conducted. According to

motivational theorists (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Sivan, 1986), motivation is

social in nature and people’s motivational goals, values, standards, and interests

are developed from the interactions between collaborative and individual action.

It is important to acknowledge the role of social factors or context as influences


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on TEFL lecturers’ motivation. Therefore, the researcher conducted a second

round of interviews to investigate the influence of the university culture on the

TEFL lecturers’ motivation. This chapter has three main sections. First, a profile

of interview participants is reported. This is followed by findings from the first

and second round of interviews. Finally, an overall summary of the findings is

provided.

6.1 Profile of Interview Participants

The interviews were conducted in two rounds. Round 1 explored aspects of

lecturers’ experiences that might contribute to motivation; whereas Round 2

explored the impact of the organisational climate of the institution on lecturers’

motivation. Thirteen participants attended the two rounds of interviews and

altogether 15 interviews were conducted. Two participants randomly selected

from the first round of interviews attended both rounds of interviews.

In the Round 1 interview, participants were deliberately chosen as

representing extreme cases based on responses to the surveys of WTSMT-T,

BPNS-W, SVS and AI. In the Round 2 interview, participants were selected on

the basis of extreme scores in the survey of OCAI. The participants’

demographic information and their scores of scales in the two rounds of

interviews are presented in Table 6.1 and Table 6.2. The two participants

(Participant F and Participant I) who attended both of the two rounds of

interviews are distinguished from the others in Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 with“*”

and “”.


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Table 6.1 Demographic information for the participants in the interviews Partici-

pant

Age

(yrs)

Gender Choice of

job Overseas

experience Teaching

experience Highest

qualification

Interview

round

A 34-40 Male Self No 10-20yrs Masters 1

B 34-40 Female Government Yes 10-20yrs Masters 1

C 30-33 Male Self No 10yrs Masters 1

D 30-33 Female Self No 10-20yrs Masters 1

E 41-50 Female Self No 10-20yrs Doctorate 1

F* 34-40 Female Self No 5yrs Masters 1 & 2

G 41-50 Female Government Yes 20yrs Bachelor 1

H 30-33 Female Self No 5-10yrs Masters 1

I 20-30 Female Self No 5-10-yrs Masters 1 & 2

J 40-50 Male Self No 20-30yrs Masters 2

K 50+ Male Self No 20-30yrs Masters 2

L 41-50 Male Government No 30-40yrs Bachelor 2

M 30-40 Male Self No 10-20yrs Masters 2

Note: * and refers to participants who attended both the first round of interviews and the second round of interviews


144

Table 6.2 Scores of scales for the participants in the two rounds of interviews P/Means WB W F I PG R C IM IdR InR ER AM A CP RL OL EM DC OG SE CS

Means(n=100) 29 23 13 16 26 27 22 17 15 8 11 7 31 33 41 14 13 14 16 15 14

A 13 11 11 11 10 10 11 17 16 6 11 6 25 25 46 11 12 17 12 17 12

B 26 33 31 22 35 33 30 13 12 6 12 3 40 36 34 9 10 11 13 7 5

C 27 14 6 6 21 24 20 10 7 7 5 3 35 23 36 17 14 17 15 16 16

D 42 6 14 13 32 32 35 21 21 13 15 9 43 36 56 6 7 13 18 17 18

E 42 34 28 31 34 34 31 21 21 16 11 10 41 36 53 15 12 13 15 22 13

F* 28 33 24 29 29 35 28 14 13 14 14 3 26 31 40 20 17 16 8 10 12

G 42 17 11 23 29 29 11 14 11 8 13 3 40 30 52 6 16 10 15 13 14

H 33 19 9 14 35 29 23 15 15 11 9 3 29 40 53 10 8 10 11 11 10

I 24 20 14 11 16 20 33 19 17 11 11 17 32 42 42 10 17 8 15 14 14

J 33 18 12 17 26 29 18 18 16 16 19 10 32 38 42 14 15 17 12 17 12

K 33 16 5 5 29 14 16 19 18 3 11 15 30 24 24 4 11 17 15 15 14

L 24 18 17 15 18 19 17 18 18 8 9 7 37 38 44 14 13 9 12 7 5

M 27 16 9 11 19 17 18 18 17 4 19 10 29 39 35 10 19 13 9 8 5

Note: * and refers to participants who attend both the first round of interviews and the second round of interviews P=Participant WB=Wellbeing F=Fame I=Image PG=Personal growth R=Relation C=Community IM=Intrinsic motivation IdR=Identified regulation InR=Introjected regulation ER=External regulation AM=Amotivation A=Autonomy CP=Competence RL=Relatedness OL=Organisational leadership EM=Employee management DC=Dominant characteristics OG=Organisational glue SE=Strategic emphasis CS=Criteria of success

Chapter 7 Discussion and Conclusion

145

6.2 Findings from the First Round of Interviews

The first round of interviews explored TEFL lecturers’ motivational

attributes. Analysis of the quantitative data showed that the personal experiences

which were related to motivation could be understood in terms of:

the need for competence

the need for autonomy

the need for relatedness.

In the following paragraphs, these experiences and their relationship with

motivation are discussed.

6.2.1 Need for competence

Need for competence involves a feeling of capability of performing tasks

and producing a desired outcome (Deci, 1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959). In

the interviews, questions were asked about the need for competence/expertise.

In Chinese, the word “competence” might be translated as 能力 (nengli). During

analysis, statements about “knowing well” or “being good at” counted as

evidence of this quality. Analysis of the data derived from the round 1 interview

showed that participants who were autonomously motivated reported that they

had a sense of competence in their teaching. In contrast, participants identified

through the surveys as not autonomously motivated (i.e. controlled motivated)

reported that they did not feel competent in their work. The following excerpts

from interviews with Participant D and I provide evidence of their sense of

achievement of competence. Table 6.2 indicates that both reported a high level

of competence in the relevant surveys.


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Researcher: How many subjects have you been teaching?

Participant D: Three subjects: Intensive Reading, Extensive

Reading and Listening

Researcher: What is the main area of your expertise? How

competent do you feel in your teaching?

Participant D: Of the three subjects I have taught, I am good at

teaching Intensive Reading. The main reasons for this are: first, I

have had five years experience teaching that course. Second, I

believe that I have good teaching methods in teaching this course.

I adopt three things in my teaching: rich knowledge, good

personality and responsibility. My students accept both my

personality and knowledge. They are active in learning the course

Intensive Reading. Furthermore, the achievement of my students

in TEM 4 exceeded that of the students in other classes.

(09100910/CED/R01/P D)

By way of background, it should be noted that TEM 4 is a test for English

Majors. It is held by the Chinese Education Ministry to evaluate English

teaching in undergraduate universities. It is administered to students who are in

their second year of studies.

In response to a direct question, Participant D nominated one of her three

teaching areas－Intensive Reading－as an area of expertise and competence.

She tendered experience, pedagogic behaviour and achievement as evidence.

Views from Participant D indicated that she was good at teaching Intensive

Reading and rationalised her competence on the basis of experience. Participant

D’s students’ performance also contributed to her sense of competence in her

teaching. This reflects claims from the literature that the need for competence

involves a feeling of capability of performing tasks and producing a desired

outcome (Deci, 1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959). Similarly, in common with


147

Participant D, Participant I, who had taught four different courses since her

graduation, and liked teaching English Poetry best, expressed a sense of

competence in her teaching. She described her expertise in response to a direct

question:

Researcher: What is the main area of your expertise? Do you have

expertise in the subject you are teaching now?

Participant I: I know well (in Chinese, means “了解”， “liaojie”)

how to teach English Poetry. I am interested in English poems.

My knowledge of English poems is rich because my

postgraduate major was British and American Literature. In

my teaching, I use methods to encourage students to think and

imagine in English; I emphasise comparisons between China and

Western countries; [I] teach students the difference between

Chinese and Western culture. My students accept my teaching

methods. The feedback on my teaching is good.

(09092813/FLC/R01/P I)

Participant I suggested that she knew how to teach English poetry well as

this was her area of expertise. Furthermore, student feedback on her teaching

methods was cited as evidence of capability. According to the definition (Deci,

1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959), Participant I had achieved a sense of

competence.

Comments made by Participant D and Participant I suggest a sense of

competence in their teaching. This finding was consistent with the quantitative

finding that both Participant D and I had high competence scores of 36 and 42

respectively (See Table 6.2). Additionally, the results of quantitative data

analysis showed that Participant D and Participant I were autonomously

motivated with intrinsic motivation scores of 21 and 19 and for identified


148

regulation, scores of 21 and 17 (See Table 6.2). Therefore, the implications are

that TEFL academics who take pleasure in lecturing in English and are satisfied

with their teaching activity, are also autonomously motivated. In this sense,

achievement of competence derived from their opportunities to teach their

specialisation and reinforced by student performance or feedback, has the

potential to enhance TEFL lecturers’ autonomous motivation. It might be

concluded that the achievement of competence is an important factor increasing

lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

Unlike Participant D and Participant I, Participant G reported a low sense

of competence. This participant, who is in her 40s, had her job assigned by the

Government (See Table 6.1). She had a low score of 30 for competence (See

Table 6.2); and the results of quantitative data analysis revealed that she was not

autonomously motivated. Participant G had lower intrinsic motivation scores,

lower identified regulation scores and higher extrinsic motivation scores than

means of the group (See Table 6.2). The following conversation gives some

insight into her low sense of competence in her teaching.

I don’t like teaching because I believe that I am not good at being a

university teacher. At present, lecturers are required to produce works of

scholarship. I am not the kind of person who can do research on teaching.

The resources in the university are too limited. There is only one

computer shared by 15 lecturers in each office. For all these years, my

approach to teaching was influenced by no other teacher. I wished that

there was someone who could influence me on any aspect of academic work.

Yet, there was no one. I am a stubborn person who cannot listen to anybody.

I live in my own world. …Actually, what I want to do is run a coffee shop.

On the one hand, I could earn more money because the salary provided

by the university is too low; on the other hand, I could relax. I really like the

quiet atmosphere in coffee shops. (09110409/FLC/R01/P G)


149

Participant G’s comments suggested that she did not like the teaching job

she had been allocated by the Government. She expressed a low sense of

competence in her teaching on the basis of a self-appraisal of her personality.

She did not communicate with her colleagues and her personality was such that

she could not accept others’ opinions. She admitted that she had neither the

capability to perform her teaching tasks nor undertake research on teaching as

required by the university. The work environment in which Participant G taught,

particularly lack of resources and her relationship with colleagues have

endowed her with low level intrinsic motivation.

The views expressed by both of the participants who were autonomously

motivated and the participant who was not autonomously motivated revealed

that achievement of the need for competence has the potential to enhance or

decrease autonomous motivation. In conclusion, it appears that need for

competence is an important factor affecting TEFL lecturers’ autonomous

motivation.

6.2.2 Need for autonomy

Autonomy refers to a feeling of “being the perceived origin or source of

one’s own behaviour” (deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell,

1989, p. 8). “Autonomy” can be translated in Chinese as 自主 (zizhu), a term

defined in the interviews as “freedom” or “having choice”. Autonomy in the

present study refers to the independence the lecturer had on how to teach, what

tasks she or he could take on in the institution and the level of independence he

or she had to make day to day decisions. In the round 1 interview, participants

were asked questions relating to their feelings of autonomy in their teaching.


150

Analysis of the data derived from the interviews, revealed that a sense of

autonomy has been both supported and questioned. The issue of its current

presence or absence was also discussed by participants. The point of distinction

between the lecturers who supported and those who questioned the need for

autonomy was seniority. The seniority of the participants seemed to explain the

difference in perceptions of autonomy between the participants who had the

freedom to choose and participants who didn’t have choice in their work in the

academy. Experienced or senior lecturers reported that they had greater freedom

in teaching than inexperienced lecturers. For example, Participant F, a Masters

qualified lecturer with five years of teaching experience, had no autonomous

motivation with low intrinsic motivation and identified regulation scores,

respectively of 14 and 13 (See Table 6.2). This participant thought that lecturers

were not given autonomy in their work.

Researcher: What do you teach?

Participant F: Intensive Reading.

Researcher: What choices do you get to make about what you

teach?

Participant F: I have no choice in what I teach. All of the subjects

were allocated for teaching by leaders of the English Department; I

had no right to help decide them.

Researcher: Explain whether you are happy with the amount of

autonomy you have in teaching.

Participant F: Although I am not satisfied with this, I try to adjust

myself to adapt to this situation because I think this is my work.

(09100910/CED/R01/P F)


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Participant F’s comments suggested that she had no freedom in her

teaching as she had no choice in the subjects she taught. Given that autonomy

refers to “being the perceived origin or source of one’s own behaviour”

(deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989, p.8), this

participant believes she has limited autonomy. This was consistent with the

participant’s low autonomy score of 26 in the quantitative data analysis (See

Table 6.2).

Like Participant F, Participant H had five year teaching experience and

was a Masters qualified lecturer. She had a low autonomy score of 29 (See Table

6.2). Participant H felt that she had no freedom in choosing textbooks:

I do not feel free in my teaching at this University. I am

required to teach certain subjects and I am not able to change the

assigned textbook. …I tried to convince myself that I would get

used to this situation. (09092814/FLC/R01/P H)

This participant’s comments suggested that she had no choice of what

textbook she used which she appeared to find frustrating. Given the definition of

autonomy (deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989), it can

be concluded that Participant H lacked a sense of autonomy. The results from the

quantitative data analysis showed that they were not autonomously motivated

with low scores in both intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, 14 and 13;

15 and 15 (See Table 6.2).

Both Participant F and H did not consider that autonomy existed for

academics. Therefore, in this study TEFL lecturers who were not autonomously

motivated were inexperienced and those with low autonomy scores had no sense

of autonomy. This reflects the literature findings of the Chinese academic


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profession survey which found that there was limited autonomy in performing

academic work in universities in China (Lu, 2004).

In contrast, Participant E, an associate professor with a Ph D, had the

opposite opinion. She thought that she had autonomy in the subjects she taught.

She describes her perceptions:

Because I am an associate professor, a Ph D invited by the

Chancellor of this university, I can choose the subjects I like to

teach at this university. I feel satisfied that I have the chance to

teach these subjects. …I also can choose the times of my lectures.

(09092514/FLC/R01/P E)

Participant E’s comments suggested a choice in subjects to teach. This

reflects accepted definitions from the literature (deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan,

1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989). As can be seen from the results of the

quantitative data analysis (See Table 6.2), Participant E was autonomously

motivated; her scores for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation were 21

and 21. Furthermore, she had a high autonomy score of 41. Therefore, the

participant who had a high autonomy score and was autonomously motivated

achieved her need for autonomy.

Views expressed by Participant E and to a lesser extent by Participant F

and Participant H, suggested they had achieved a sense of autonomy in their

teaching. Participant E’s comments suggested a sense of autonomy in contrast to

Participants F and H. The proceeding analyses showed that inexperienced

teachers who were not autonomously motivated had no sense of autonomy, while

the experienced participant who was autonomously motivated had a sense of

autonomy. According to the literature, when people’s autonomy is supported,


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they will feel free to follow their interests; the disposition to engage in an

activity for the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity will enhance intrinsic

motivation and identified regulation (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Consequently, achieving a sense of autonomy has the potential to enhance

lecturers’ intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, the need for autonomy might be

understood as a contributor to TEFL lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

6.2.3 Need for relatedness

Relatedness describes a feeling of connectedness to others with a sense of

being cared about and respected, and having a sense of belongingness with


1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). “Relatedness” can be translated into Chinese

as 关师(guanlian). During data analysis, comments about “having a relationship

with” or “being cared about” were evidence of this quality. Relatedness involves

positive relationships at the interpersonal level and at the level of the group

(Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). In the

present study, it refers to lecturers’ relationships with peers, students, friends,

family members and the university. In the context of Chinese culture issues

effecting professional relationships often involve family members. In SDT, the

need for relatedness is an important driver of autonomous motivation.

In the interviews, participants were asked questions about their sense of

relatedness. Analysis of the data showed that some staff believed they had good

relationships whereas others questioned the extent to which they had achieved

positive relations with those around them. The issue of its current presence or

absence within the academy was discussed by participants in relation to three


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domains, namely interpersonal relationships with students, with friends and

family members, the relationship with the university, and interrelationships with

peers. The responses from participants were different across and within these

domains.

All participants acknowledged good relationships with students, friends

and extended family. Relationships with family were important in the work

context; they contributed to a sense of support whereby participants could

discuss day to day problems and successes at work. With regard to relationships

with the university, the responses strongly indicated that participants believed

that there was no institutional support for their teaching.

The following excerpts provide evidence about participants’ interpersonal

relationships with students, friends, family members and peers. In response to a

question about relatedness with students, Participant A reported that she enjoyed

positive relationships. She described the relationship with her students as follows:

Researcher: How do you describe your relationship with

your students?

Participant A: I am strict on students. At the beginning,

students felt nervous in my class, later, they accepted me on

the grounds of my knowledge and personality. We had

good relationships. (09092514/FLC/R01/P A)

Participant A’s comments suggested her relationship with her students

was positive and based on their acceptance of her knowledge and personality.

This statement reflects definitions from the literature which proposes that the

sense of relatedness describes a feeling of connectedness to others entailing a

sense of being cared about and respected, and a sense of belongingness with


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1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). A sense of relatedness may emerge through

opportunities such as a positive social climate or sense of learning community

for the building of relationships. Participant A had a sense of relatedness with

her students. This finding was consistent with the quantitative finding showing

that Participant A had a high relatedness score of 46 (See Table 6.2).

When participants were asked questions about their sense of relatedness

with friends and family members, all the participants reported good

relationships; all had close friends who could understand them. The following

excerpt from Participant E, who had a high relatedness score of 53 (See Table

6.2), provides evidence that friends supported her in her academic work:

Sometimes I talk about teaching with my friends and family

members. I share with them about the students’ behaviour in

class or the issues students paid attention to. We have pleasure in

it. …When I have some difficulties in life, I usually talk about

them with my friends and family members. They give me some

advice on solving them. This makes me feel cared about.

(09092516/FLC/R01/P E)

Participant D and Participant E’s comments suggest they believe they had

a positive relationship with students, friends and family members. According to

the definition (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan,

1995), those participants had a sense of relatedness. This finding coincided with

their high relatedness scores on the quantitative measures (See Table 6.2).

Furthermore, the result of the quantitative data analysis revealed that both


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Participant D and Participant E were autonomously motivated with high scores

in intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, 21 and 21; 21 and 21 (See

Table 6.2). Therefore, the TEFL lecturers in this study who were autonomously

motivated and had high relatedness scores had a need for relatedness.

When participants were asked questions about their relationship with the

university, all participants reported that support for teaching from the university

was limited. For example, Participant B reported:

Researcher: How would you describe the relationship with your

university?

Participant B: With respect to support from the school, I think that

this university has given me limited support in my teaching.

There have been no professional development activities, such as

workshops or seminars organised by the university. There have

been no supervisors to guide me in my teaching.

(09121114/FLC/R01/P B)

Participant B’s views suggest a poor sense of relationship with the

university. She highlighted the lack of professional development and teaching

leadership provided by the institution. On the basis of the definitions of the need

for relatedness as a feeling of connectedness to others, with a sense of being

cared about and respected, and a sense of belongingness with individuals and

with one’s community (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1979; Harlow,

1958; Ryan, 1995), it can be concluded that Participant B did not have a sense

of relatedness. This finding coincided with Participant B having a lower

relatedness score of 34 on the quantitative measure (See Table 6.2). These

results also reflect the influence of Chinese traditional history which suggests

that China has depended on a strong hierarchical bureaucracy for many


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thousands of years. Universities in the modern sense are influenced by these

traditions and senior scholars and administrators rule in a very controlling way.

Therefore, lecturers received limited support from the university.

This finding which there was little support from the university is

consistent with Lu’s (2005) research that identified disharmonious interpersonal

relationships amongst academics in China. Furthermore, the results from

quantitative data analysis showed that Participant B’s scores for intrinsic

motivation and identified regulation were 13 and 12; meaning she was low in

autonomous motivation. In conclusion, it appears that TEFL lecturers without

autonomous motivation do not have a sense of relatedness.

The third domain of relatedness involves the nature of relations with peers.

Data analysis revealed that there were different opinions on this issue. Some

participants acknowledged good relationships with peers, while others did not.

For example, in the interviews, participants were asked: “Describe how your

colleagues assist you (or don’t) in your teaching?” Participant I, who had a high

relatedness score of 42 (See Table 6.2) responded:

In some ways, my colleagues were able to assist me in teaching,

especially those lecturers who were the same age as me, and

taught the same course. I thought communication with colleagues

about teaching was a learning process. Every lecturer had his or

her own strengths in teaching. When we met, we discussed

teaching problems that arose in our classes. We exchanged

ideas, and in this way, we learned from each other. Sometimes,

my ideas were accepted if they were reasonable.

(09092813/FLC/R01/P I)


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The views expressed by Participant I suggest she had positive

relationships with her colleagues. Lecturers who were the same age as

Participant I discussed and exchanged ideas which helped her teaching. This

participant was also able to help others and felt satisfied when her ideas were

accepted. This secure relationship provided a psychological sense of being

secure with others in the community (Ryan & Deci, 2002). This reflects

definitions from the literature that the sense of relatedness describes a feeling of

connectedness to others with a sense of being cared about and respected, and

having a sense of belongingness with individuals and with one’s community

(Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995).

Participant I had a sense of relatedness. This finding was consistent with her

high relatedness score in quantitative data analysis (See Table 6.2). Furthermore,

the results from the quantitative data analysis showed that Participant I’s scores

for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation were 19 and 17; meaning she

was autonomously motivated. Therefore, it appears that TEFL lecturers with

autonomous motivation have a sense of relatedness.

Some participants did not think that they had a sense of relatedness.

Participant C, who had a low relatedness score of 36 (See Table 6.2) described

her feelings:

The school did not organise professional activities to

encourage lecturers to communicate or observe other teachers

teaching. This means the lecturers have no chance to learn from

each other. In these circumstances, my colleagues cannot assist

me in teaching and my ideas on teaching cannot be discussed with

my colleagues. (09121114/FLC/R01/P C)


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This comment suggests that Participant C had no sense of relatedness with

her peers, something she attributed to a lack of leadership by the school. The

lack of opportunity to improve her knowledge of teaching was a concern. These

findings are consistent with Zhang’s (2007) survey of the academic profession

that found concerns with peer relationships in universities in China.

Furthermore, the results from quantitative data analysis showed that the scores

of Participant C for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation were 10 and 7;

meaning she was low in autonomous motivation. It might be concluded that

lecturers who are not autonomously motivated and have a low relatedness score

have no sense of relatedness.

When participants were asked about the need for relatedness with peers,

Participant I, in contrast to Participant C, reported a need for relatedness. The

main reason for the difference in a sense of relatedness between Participant C

and Participant I was their motivation. Analysis of the quantitative data revealed

that Participant I, who had a sense of relatedness, was autonomously motivated.

In contrast, Participant C with no sense of relatedness was low in autonomous

motivation. Therefore, the level of autonomous motivation seems associated

with the sense of relatedness.

The above paragraphs provided discussions about sense of relatedness.

Analysis of the data derived from the interviews revealed that the concept was

both supported and questioned. Sense of relatedness was discussed by

participants in relation to three domains, namely interpersonal relationships with

students, friends and family members; the relationship with the university; and

interrelationships with peers. Analysis also showed that participants who were


160

autonomously motivated and had high relatedness scores had a sense of

relatedness; participants who were not autonomously motivated and had low

relatedness scores had no sense of relatedness. Furthermore, some participants

reported that they had no sense of relatedness with the university. This might be

influenced by the long history of bureaucracy in Chinese traditional history.

These universities in the modern sense would be influenced by these traditions

and the senior scholars and administrators would rule in a very controlling way.

Therefore, there was limited support from the university.

Participants’ positive relatedness with students, family members and peers

provided them with secure relational support by helping them feel connected

with others. On the basis of claims in the literature that relatedness need has the

potential to give distal support for autonomous motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985,

2002; Ryan, 1995), the need for relatedness of participants who were

autonomously motivated provided a distal support for their autonomous

motivation. In conclusion, the need for relatedness seems to be an important

contributor to TEFL lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

The paragraphs above report findings from the first round of interviews.

Factors like need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, contributed to

TEFL lecturers’ autonomous motivation. The following paragraphs will discuss

findings from the second round of interviews.

6.3 Findings from the Second Round of Interviews

Findings about relationships between organisational culture (OC) and

lecturers’ motivation are presented in this section. According to the Competing


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Values Framework on OC (Cameron & Quinn, 1999), there are four culture

types which are: Clan, Hierarchy, Performance/Market and Adhocracy. The

questionnaire of OCAI used to measure OC assesses the types of culture in six

dimensions, namely, dominant characteristics, organisational leadership,

management of employees, strategic emphasis, organisation glue and criteria of

success. Analysis of the qualitative data presented in this section shows that the

dimensions measured by Cameron and Quinn (1999) on the organisational

culture were related to motivation. These dimensions are: Dominant

characteristics and Management of employees. In the following paragraphs,

these influential dimensions in organisational culture and their relationships with

motivation are reported and discussed.

6.3.1 Dominant characteristics

‘Dominant characteristics’ is one of the dimensions of organisational

culture. It relates to the working environment in the university. In the interviews,

participants were asked questions about dominant characteristics (See Section

3.7). Analysis of the data derived from the round 2 interview showed that

participants had different opinions on this issue. Some participants regarded the

university as an extended family; other participants saw the university as a

formalised and structured place to work. For example, Participant J who is in his

40s and had been teaching for 20-30 years rated highly on intrinsic motivation

and identified regulation (See Table 6.2). Additionally, he had a high dominant

characteristics score (See Table 6.2). He described his views on the working

environment in the university as follows:


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I felt that the university environment is becoming better and

better. When I teach in the newly built building, I felt so happy,

the white walls, the spacious classrooms and the bright windows,

all these make me feel comfortable. … Now it is in winter, it

snows heavily. Maybe you have seen that after snowing, the snow

on the roads was cleaned immediately. At my age, I’d like to see

that happened because that means I will not fall even after it

snows. …Anyway, I feel that the university likes to be a big

family, in which every member takes care of it. And we share a

lot of ourselves there. (101204/09/FLC/P J)

Participant J’s views indicated that he liked the working environment and

regarded the university as a family. He also acknowledged how concern for the

physical environment such as new buildings and spacious facilities contributed

to a sense of internal caring and improved human relationships. This reflects

claims from the literature that Clan culture, also referred to as the human

relations model (Zammuto, Gifford, & Goodman, 2000) or group culture

(Denison & Spretizer, 1991), is characterised as reflecting an organisation that

promotes shared values and common goals. There is an emphasis on a primary

focus on maintaining good relationships within the organisation. Participant J

perceived the university as Clan culture. This finding is consistent with the

quantitative findings that Participant J had high scores on autonomy, competence

and relatedness (See Table 6.2). Furthermore, he had a high score in wellbeing

(See Table 6.2). The implications are therefore, that TEFL lecturers’ three basic

psychological needs were satisfied under the Clan culture in the university. This

positively affected the wellbeing of lecturers. Consequently, lecturers were

autonomously motivated. In this sense, Clan culture has the potential to enhance

TEFL lecturers’ autonomous motivation. It might be concluded that Clan culture

is an important factor affecting lecturers’ autonomous motivation.


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Unlike Participant J, Participant F, who is in her 30s and had five years of

teaching experience, had low scores in intrinsic motivation, identified regulation

and dominant characteristics (See Table 6.2). This participant argued in general

that the university “is controlled by many rules” but singled out teaching as an

example of regulations controlling lecturers’ behaviours. The following excerpt

gives some insight into her thinking:

I feel the university is controlled by many rules. Everywhere in

the university you can find regulations which are made by the top

leaders to regulate lecturers’ teaching behaviour and students’

learning. For example, there are regulations on teaching

assessment; on examination and students administration; on

personnel, etc. If anything happens on the campus, leaders in the

university can judge whether it is right or not, according to the

relevant rules. Rules govern the smooth running of the

university. (09100910/CED/R02/P F)

Participant F’s comments suggest that the university is a controlled and

structured place. Formal rules and policies which are made by the top leaders

govern the smooth running of the university. This reflects the definition of

Hierarchy culture or the internal process model which is characterised as a

formalised and structured workplace where formal rules and policies hold the

organisation together and procedures govern what people do (Zammuto et al.,

2000). The leaders in the organisation are coordinators and organisers (Cameron

& Quinn, 1999). Participant F perceived the university as Hierarchy culture. This

finding is consistent with the quantitative findings that Participant F had low

scores on autonomy, competence and relatedness (See Table 6.2). Furthermore,

she had a low score in her sense of wellbeing (See Table 6.2). The implications

are therefore, that TEFL lecturers’ three basic psychological needs were not


164

satisfied under Hierarchy culture in the university. This type of culture has a

negative impact on the wellbeing of lecturers. Consequently, lecturers were not

autonomously motivated. In this sense, Hierarchy culture has the potential to

influence TEFL lecturers’ autonomous motivation. In conclusion it appears that

Hierarchy culture is an important factor regulating lecturers’ motivation.

The comments above report views about the dominant characteristic of the

university. Comments made by Participant J suggest that the university is like a

family which identifies the Clan culture. On the other hand, Participant F

suggests that the university is under the Hierarchy culture. The preceding

analyses shows that lecturers who were autonomously motivated perceived the

university as a Clan culture, while the lecturers without autonomous motivation

viewed the university as Hierarchy culture. In the first round of interviews

participants had a sense of relatedness with their students and peers. Therefore,

there appears to be a strong sense of clan in Northern University. Findings from

the first round of interviews also indicated that participants did not have a sense

of relatedness with the university because the university provided limited support

in their teaching. This may be influenced by the long history of bureaucracy in

Chinese traditional history whereby senior scholars and administrators in

universities rule in a very controlling way.

According to Cameron and Quinn (1999, 2006), an organisation often

possesses qualities in all four culture types, and any particular culture type may

shift over the course of time. In the present study, Clan culture might go hand in

hand with Hierarchy culture and reflect the Chinese sense of “big family”.

Therefore, being in a clan situation and still having a hierarchical culture might


165

be totally consistent in a Chinese context. As a result, the Clan culture and the

Hierarchy culture co-existed in Northern University. The Clan and Hierarchy

cultures in the university exerted influence on lecturers’ motivation.

Analyses above showed that under Clan culture in the university, TEFL

lecturers’ three basic psychological needs were satisfied. Therefore, Clan culture

promotes autonomously regulated motivation. Analyses also showed that under a

Hierarchy culture in the university, TEFL lecturers’ three basic psychological

needs were not satisfied. This has negative impact on the wellbeing of lecturers.

Consequently, lecturers were not autonomously motivated. Therefore, Hierarchy

culture has the potential to influence negatively on TEFL lecturers’ autonomous

motivation. This finding is consistent with the quantitative finding that

organisational culture, especially the Clan culture, was a contributor to lecturers’

autonomous motivation. This finding is also consistent with the findings of the

study which showed that Clan culture was perceived as the most effective or

preferred culture type for colleges and universities (Berrio, 2003; Fralinger,

Olson, Pinto-zipp, & DiCorcia, 2010).

6.3.2 Management of employees

Management of Employees is one dimension of the organisational culture.

In the present study, three sub-themes; assessment system, rewarding system and

teamwork in the university, were reported by the participants to be related to

their motivation. These three sub-themes will be discussed respectively in the

following paragraphs.


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Assessment system

Assessment of teaching is an important practice to evaluate the quality of

TEFL lecturers’ work. Feedback on teaching should help lecturers improve their

teaching (Jones, 2006). As stated in Chapter 1, every semester students evaluate

TEFL lecturers’ teaching. Additionally, there is a committee of experts in the

university whose duty is to evaluate and mark teaching. In the interviews,

participants were asked questions about the assessment system in the university.

Analysis of the data revealed that lecturers value this assessment and believe it

helps them improve their teaching. Participant L, aged 41-50 with 30-40 years of

teaching experience, describes his opinions on the assessment system:

Lecturers are evaluated by their students each semester. I

think it is necessary and important. Students mark us on our

teaching and give some suggestions about lecturers’ teaching.

Some of the suggestions are helpful in improving our teaching.

We can find the feedback from a website. I take it seriously.

(10120611/FLC/R02/P L)

Participant L believes assessment of teaching is important. Also, receiving

feedback helped him acknowledge how his work was going and stated his

strengths and weaknesses for further improvement. The implications are

therefore, that lecturers’ need for competence can be satisfied. According to the

literature, feedback that signifies effectiveness provides satisfaction or the need

for competence; therefore, enhancing intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1980).

This finding is consistent with the quantitative finding that Participant L had a

high score in competence (See Table 6.2). Additionally, the results of

quantitative data analysis also showed that Participant L was autonomously


167

motivated (See Table 6.2). In this sense, the assessment system in the university

might have the potential to enhance lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

Similar to Participant L, Participant I was in her 20s and had been teaching

for five years. She was autonomously motivated and had a high score in

competence, relatedness, and management of employees (See Table 6.2). She

describes her opinions on the assessment system as follows:

I think this assessment system has the function of mentoring.

On one hand, students evaluate lecturers’ work; on the other hand,

lecturers’ shortcomings in teaching can be picked out by the

experts who observe in the classroom. This is helpful for our

younger lecturers to improve their teaching skills.

(101204/CED/R02/P I)

Participant I’s comments suggest that the assessment system can monitor

lecturers’ teaching and help lecturers, especially younger lecturers, develop

professionally.

Both Participant L and I noted the importance of the assessment system in

increasing their competence. Analysis above showed that the assessment system

in the university might have the potential to enhance lecturers’ autonomous

motivation. Analyses also showed that receiving feedback helped lecturers know

how their work was going and to recognise their strengths and weaknesses for

further improvement. This contributed to a sense of internal concern by people.

According to CVF (Cameron & Quinn, 1999, 2006), the organisation with Clan

culture emphasises the long-term benefits of individual development. The

implications are that the assessment system under the Clan culture can satisfy the

need for competence, and therefore enhances lecturers’ autonomous motivation.


168

it might be concluded the assessment system under the Clan culture in the

university has the potential to enhance TEFL lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

Reward system

Rewards are management tools that hopefully contribute to an

organisation’s effectiveness by influencing individual or group behaviour

(Lawler & Cohen, 1992, p. 8). Rewards are defined as the “deliberate utilisation

of the pay system as an essential integrating mechanism through which the

efforts of various sub-units or individuals are directed towards the achievement

of an organisation’s strategic objectives” (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1992, p. 58).

In the interviews, participants were asked questions relating to management in

the university. Analysis of the data showed that the reward system for research

output was used by the university to praise high levels of performance. The

following excerpt provides evidence of the rewards:

I think giving rewards for research output is good. It can

encourage lecturers to have enthusiasm in doing research.

Although the energy and time we spend in doing research cannot

be measured by money, rewarding is a kind of recognition. I

appreciate this. In this semester, I was rewarded 2000 Yuan for the

publication of one national article and an academic project.

(10120409/CED/R02/P K)

Comments from Participant K, who had high scores in intrinsic motivation

and identified regulation (See Table 6.2) indicated that there was a reward

system within the university. He was rewarded due to a published article and an

academic project. The reward increased his interest in doing research. This

suggests that the reward system in the university increased the enthusiasm for

research; and as a result, increased lecturers’ intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan,


169

1985, 2002). It implies that the reward system in the university has the potential

to enhance lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

Participant K also acknowledged that a reward recognised his devotion to

research. This contributed to a sense of internal caring and improved human

relationships. This reflects claims in the literature that Clan culture, also referred

to as the human relations model (Zammuto, Gifford, & Goodman, 2000) or

group culture (Denison & Spretizer, 1991), is characterised as reflecting an

organisation that promotes shared values and maintains good relationships.

Analyses above showed that a reward system in the university has the potential

to enhance lecturers’ autonomous motivation. In this sense, it could be conclude

d that the reward system under Clan culture in the university might suggest

that it have the potential to enhance lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

Teamwork

Teamwork is regarded as the key to staff development and good

relationships (Beal, 2003). Work associated with teamwork can be of various

types: work, parallel, project and management (Jiang, 2010). In the present study,

participants reported on teamwork preparation for teaching and research projects.

In the interviews, participants were asked questions about management of

employees. Analysis of the data from the interviews showed that teamwork is a

management strategy emphasised by the university. Participants described

teamwork in the university as follows:

There is teamwork in my academic project group. In the project

group, different people are responsible for different academic

areas. For example, in my academic project on oral translation,


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some lecturers are responsible for collection of oral translation

data; some lecturers are responsible for these data analysis; some

lecturers are responsible for the writing up of analysis results.

Within the group, we trust each other; and learn from each other.

We cooperate and contribute to the accomplishment of the project.

(10120613/FLC/R02/P M)

Comments from Participant M, who had high scores in intrinsic motivation

and identified regulation (See Table 6.2), indicate that there was teamwork in his

academic project group. Lecturers trust and learn from each other within this

group and teamwork provides opportunities for them to develop. They had the

satisfaction of achieving their need for competence. This observation is

consistent with the quantitative findings whereby Participant M had a high score

in competence (See Table 6.2). The analysis above shows that achieving the

need for competence has the potential to enhance lecturers’ autonomous

motivation. This implies that teamwork has the potential to enhance lecturers’

autonomous motivation.

Similar to Participant M, Participant I was in her 20s and had been

teaching for five years. She was autonomously motivated (See Table 6.2).

Participant I describes the benefits she received from teamwork:

In some ways, my colleagues were able to assist me in teaching,

especially those lecturers who were the same age as me, and

taught the same course. I thought communication with colleagues

about teaching was a learning process. Every lecturer had his or

her own strengths in teaching. When we met, we discussed

teaching problems that arose in our classes. We exchanged

ideas, and in this way, we learned from each other. Sometimes,

my ideas were accepted if they were reasonable.

(09092813/FLC/R01/P I)


171

The views expressed by Participant I suggest that there was teamwork

among the lecturers. Lecturers who taught the same course communicated with

her, and they discussed and exchanged ideas which helped her teaching. This

participant was also able to help others and felt satisfied when her ideas were

accepted. They had good relationships with one another.

The comments expressed by Participant I and Participant M suggested that

there was teamwork among the lecturers. Analyses showed that teamwork has

positive effects on staff development and relatedness. This contributes to internal

caring and improved human relationships. This is consistent with the findings of

participants’ positive sense of relatedness with peers and students in the first

round of interviews. This also reflects claims from the literature that Clan culture,

also referred to as the human relations model (Zammuto, Gifford, & Goodman,

2000) or group culture (Denison & Spretizer, 1991), is characterised as reflecting

an organisation that promotes shared values and common goals. There is an

emphasis on flexibility and a primary focus on maintaining good relationships

within the organisation. Therefore, the analyses above showed that teamwork has

the potential to enhance lecturers’ autonomous motivation. The implications are

that teamwork under the Clan culture in the university has the potential to

enhance the lecturers’ autonomous motivation. Therefore, it could be concluded

that teamwork is an important contributor to TEFL lecturers’ autonomous

motivation.

6.4 Summary

The purpose of this chapter was to answer research question 3 in the

present study concerning personal experiences perceived by TEFL lecturers as


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impacting on their motivation in higher education in China. In the present study,

two rounds of interviews were conducted to collect information and achieve an

understanding of qualitative testing. The findings are as follows:

Need for competence involves a feeling of capability of performing tasks

and producing a desired outcome (Deci, 1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959). In the

present study, it was described as “know well” or “being good at”. This issue

was both supported and questioned. Analysis showed that participants who were

autonomously motivated had need for competence. Their sense of competence

and students’ achievement contributed to their pleasure in teaching English and

satisfaction with teaching; as a result, enhancing lecturers’ intrinsic motivation.

Therefore, it might be concluded that need for competence is a factor relating to

TEFL lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

Need for autonomy requires experiencing choice and feeling like the

initiator of one’s own actions (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975). It was described as

“freedom” or “having choice” in the present study. The sense of autonomy has

been both supported and questioned. Participants who were experienced or

senior lecturers reported they had freedom in teaching. Participants who were

inexperienced reported they didn’t have choice. Analysis showed that when the

autonomy of lecturers with autonomous motivation is supported, they will feel

free to follow their interests; the disposition to engage in an activity for the

pleasure and satisfaction of the activity will enhance intrinsic motivation and

identified regulation (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985). In this sense, need for

autonomy has the potential to enhance lecturers’ intrinsic motivation. Therefore,


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the need for autonomy could contribute to TEFL lecturers’ autonomous

motivation.

Need for relatedness describes a feeling of connectedness to others with a

sense of being cared about and respected, and having a sense of belongingness

with individuals and with one’s community (Baumeister & Leary, 1995;

Bowlby, 1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). Need for relatedness was mentioned

as “have relationship with” or “being cared about” in the present study. It

involved lecturers’ relationship with peers, students, friends, family members

and the university. From the participant responses, a sense of relatedness has

been both supported and questioned. With respect to interpersonal relationships

with students, friends and family members, all the participants reported they had

a sense of relatedness. On the relationship with the university, all participants

reported there wasn’t any support for teaching from the university. This was

influenced by the traditional Chinese history. Accounts of Chinese history

suggests that China has depended on a strong hierarchical bureaucracy for many

thousands of years. Contemporary universities are influenced by these traditions

and senior scholars and administrators rule in a very controlling way. On the

interrelationship with peers, responses from participants were different.

Participants who were 20-30 years old provided support on this point;

participants who were 34-40 years old and above did not. Analyses show that

participants, who were autonomously motivated and had high relatedness scores,

had a sense of relatedness; participants, who were not autonomously motivated

and had low relatedness scores, had no sense of relatedness. Participants’

positive relatedness with students, family members and peers provides them

with a secure relational support by feeling connected with others or being cared


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about. On the basis of claims in the literature that the relatedness need has the

potential to give distal support for autonomous motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985,

2002; Ryan, 1995), the need for relatedness of participants who were

autonomously motivated provided a distal support for their autonomous

motivation. It might be concluded that achieving a sense of relatedness seems to

be an important contributor to TEFL lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

Organisational culture was reported by participants in relation to their

motivation. The results of qualitative data analysis showed that Clan culture and

Hierarchy culture were the dominant culture types in Northern University. This

is consistent with the results of quantitative data analysis that organisational

culture, especially Clan culture has impact on TEFL lecturers’ motivation

(Berrio, 2003; Fralinger, Olson, Pinto-zipp, & DiCorcia, 2010). In the interviews,

dimensions of dominant characteristics and management of employees were

reported to relate to lecturers’ motivation. These dimensions were reported to

have a positive effect on the satisfaction of lecturers’ need for competence,

autonomy and relatedness; therefore, having the potential to generate lecturers’

autonomous motivation. The participants in the interviews also reported that the

assessment system, reward system and teamwork in the dimension of

management of employees, contributed to a sense of internal caring and human

relationships. The literature about Clan culture (Zammuto, Gifford, & Goodman,

2000) showed that such an organisation promotes shared values and common

goals. There is an emphasis on flexibility and a primary focus on maintaining

good relationships within the organisation. Analyses showed that assessment,

reward and teamwork have the potential to enhance lecturers’ autonomous

motivation. As a result, the assessment system, reward system and teamwork


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under Clan culture may have the potential to enhance TEFL lecturers’

autonomous motivation. Therefore, it might be concluded that organisational

culture, especially Clan culture, contributes to lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

Findings in this chapter showed that the need for competence, relatedness,

and autonomy and organisational culture were factors relating to lecturers’

autonomous motivation. In the next chapter, the implications of these findings

will be presented.


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Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusion

The aims of the present study were to investigate the extent to which

organisational culture and TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences contributed to

academic motivation to work in a Chinese university. As discussed in previous

chapters, this study was designed in two Phases: Phase 1, quantitative study;

Phase 2, qualitative study. The research findings and analysis of the data from

Phase 1 (quantitative study) were presented in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 reported the

qualitative analysis. In this chapter, findings will be discussed and

conclusions drawn about factors reported by participants that contribute to

academic motivation in Chinese universities. First, the purpose of the study and

the conceptual framework used to guide the research and its methodology will be

reported. Following, a summary of the key findings, a discussion of the findings

and practical implications are provided. Limitations of this study are also

presented and the chapter concludes with recommendations for future research.

7.1 Purpose of the Study

As was established in Chapter 1, China is undergoing a period of rapid

modernisation. As part of modernisation, China needs to integrate into global

society through communication and trade. Globalisation has increased the

significance of the English language and demand for proficiency in English.

During the implementation of national economic reforms, English teachers and

English teaching have been profoundly impacted. Although there has been

widespread speculation by university and government officials that lecturers’

motivation is a problem, prior to this study, no empirical evidence had been


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gathered which confirmed these speculations or explored factors that might

contribute to low levels of motivation. Therefore, this study with its examination

of the reasons for lecturers’ apparently problematic motivation, is of interest.

The main aims of the study were to investigate the extent to which

organisational culture and TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences were related to

academic motivation to work in Chinese universities. A case study approach was

adopted to explore this aim in one particular institution. The case consisted of

TEFL lecturers working in the university that participated in the study.

Specifically, three research sub-questions were asked: (1) What types of

motivation do TEFL lecturers appear to have? (2) How do academics perceive

the organisational culture within the universities in China? (3) What experiences

do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work practices?

7.2 Conceptual Framework and Methodology

To guide the exploration of the extent to which organisational culture and

TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences were related to academic motivation to

work in Chinese universities, a conceptual framework was developed from

broad-ranging literature in the field. This framework posits that a TEFL

lecturer’s experience in a working environment is influenced by his or her

personal history, lecturers’ social culture and what is valued and appropriate in

that culture, and the way the institution operates and its culture.

The framework drew upon the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and

Competing Values Framework (CVF) to describe and theorise about the

relationships proposed in the current study. Self-Determination Theory (SDT)


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suggested that the work experiences contributed to the motivational dimensions

described in Chapter 2, namely need for autonomy, competence and relatedness

(i.e., basic psychological needs). The institutional culture or climate is captured

through the Competing Values Framework (CVF) and is basically the

institutional focus (individual vs. collective institute) or the willingness to reform

(stability vs. flexibility) as described in Chapter 3. A general model was

proposed and presented as Figure 3.4. The influence of the institutional culture is

shown on the left side of the figure, affecting the nature of work experienced by

lecturers in the institution. The collaborative workplace under the Clan culture

and Hierarchy culture provided an atmosphere of collectivity and mutual help

and had a positive effect on the satisfaction of lecturers’ need for competence,

autonomy and relatedness. Additionally, the influence of Chinese culture on a

broader level also influenced attitudes towards work, performance in the work

and outcomes of the work (See Figure 3.4). As a result, these factors have the

potential to generate lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

In order to present a rich understanding of the relationship between the

organisational culture and TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences and their

motivation, a mixed method collective explanatory case study was employed.

The main study used a sequential design in two phases. In Phase 1, quantitative

data was collected through surveys to provide a general picture of motivational

attributes of TEFL academics working in Chinese universities. In Phase 2,

qualitative data was collected through interviews to refine and explain the

general picture.


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7.3 Summary of the Key Findings

The key findings of this study include responses to the three research

questions. They are briefly summarised below.

What types of motivation do TEFL lecturers appear to have?

The finding of the present study was that intrinsic motivation and

identified regulation were the predominant forms of motivation. This indicates

that TEFL lecturers at the research site university were generally internally or

autonomously motivated. Participants in the present study defined their teaching

on the basis of interests and self-endorsed values; therefore, their motivation to

teach was measured against their personal tendencies towards intrinsic

motivation and well integrated extrinsic motivation, or identified regulation.

Both types of motivation were evident in the population, although a higher mean

score indicated intrinsic motivation was more dominant. However, the findings

are unlike those of Lu (2004) who found that 80% of participants were

dissatisfied with their English lecturing jobs, 50% would not be English lecturers

again if they had a choice, and 30% were trying to change their profession by

engaging in further graduate education. Specifically, this study found that 52.2%

of the English lecturers had intrinsic motivation to teach and 50% had identified

regulation to teach. The difference between the two studies may be that: Lu’s

study (2004) was a survey study investigating a phenomenon; while the present

study was a case study. In the present study, the results of both quantitative

research and qualitative research have demonstrated that the Clan culture and

Hierarchy culture co-existed in the research university. Although the highly

hierarchical organisational culture might reflect a history of bureaucracy in


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China, Clan culture was also perceived to be strong, indicating a climate of

cooperation. Therefore, this sense of cooperation and relatedness was one of the

contributors to autonomous motivation in the present study.

In addition, findings from the present study were consistent with findings

from Watt and Richardson (2008). In their study, Watt and Richardson (2008)

found that teachers can be categorised into three types according to their

different motivation: “highly-engaged persisters” are those who had an interest

in teaching due to their intrinsic enthusiasm for working with students; “highly-

engaged switchers” are those who were contemplating another job as they

completed their teacher education, and “lower-engaged desisters” are those who

had minimal rewards or career prospects in teaching. Teachers in Northern

University appear more aligned with “highly engaged persisters” than

disengaged staff seeking alternative employment.

How do academics perceive the organisational culture within the


The results of the present study indicated that Clan culture and Hierarchy

culture were perceived to be the dominant types of culture at the research site

university. Clan culture, referred to as the human relations model (Zammuto,

Gifford, & Goodman, 2000), is characterised by lecturers who share values and

have common goals. There is an atmosphere of collectivity and mutual help

under this culture type. Lecturers share a lot of themselves in the university.

Under this culture type, commitment and motivation is high, and the emphasis is

on teamwork and participation. This finding is consistent with studies (Berrio,

2003; Fralinger, et al., 2010; Smart & Hamm, 1993; Smart & St. John, 1996)


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showing that the most effective culture type for colleges and universities is Clan

culture.

Hierarchy culture, or the internal process model (Zammuto et al. 2000), is

characterised by the lecturers as a formalised and structured workplace where

formal rules and policies hold the university together and procedures govern

what lecturers do. An emphasis is placed on measurement, documentation and

information management in the university. These processes bring stability and

control over teaching to the university. Leaders in the university are perceived by

lecturers as good organisers. Maintenance of smooth teaching is regarded as

important, and the long term concerns are stability.

The lecturers’ perceptions of a Hierarchy culture within the university are

consistent with historical developments and recent changes in the culture of

China. Since 1949 the PRC has been governed by a single-party, the CCP

(Guthrie, 2008). Under Mao’s regime, China was controlled by the CCP through

the hierarchical social system－ family, work units and the CCP. Although this

control has been reduced due to economic reform since 1978, a single party

system remains in existence. This governing system influences the institutions

and people within them. This hierarchical structure is consistent with Chinese

traditional history, throughout which senior scholars and administrators in

universities and similar learning institutions exercised strong control over all

aspects of operation.

Consistent with this traditional hierarchical culture, the lecturers perceived

that the university was controlled by rules regulated by the leaders in the


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university. This indicated that the channels for communication were not open

and there was no employee participation in policy making in the university.

Nonetheless, findings from the first round of interviews indicated that

participants also had a sense of relatedness with their students and peers. This

finding suggests that in addition to their perceptions of a traditional Hierarch

culture, the lecturers also perceive there to be a strong sense of Clan in Northern

University. Being in a Clan situation and still having a Hierarchical culture may

well be consistent in the context of a large university in China given the Chinese

sense of “big family” (Han, 2010).

What experiences do TEFL lecturers perceive as affecting their work

practices?

Findings from the present study show that a TEFL lecturer’s practice in a

working environment was influenced by three factors. The first factor was

lecturers’ personal history. The second was the way the institution operates and

its culture. The third was lecturers’ social culture and what was valued and

appropriate in that culture.

Lecturers’ personal history

The present study found that three basic psychological needs, namely need

for competence, need for autonomy and need for relatedness, positively affected

TEFL lecturers’ motivation (r=.573, r=.658 and r=.537 respectively) (See Table

5.3 in Chapter 5). This indicated that the satisfaction of three psychological

needs affected either intrinsic motivation or identified regulation which together

constitute an internally regulated or autonomous type of motivation. This finding


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is consistent with past research showing that autonomous motivation will be

facilitated by conditions that are conducive to psychological need satisfaction

(deCharms, 1968; Vallerand & Reid, 1984; Vansteenkiste & Deci, 2003; Frodi,

Bridges, & Grolnick, 1985; Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004; Deci & Ryan, 2000).

The present study also found that the scores of competence of 56 TEFL

lecturers were lower than the mean score of competence, which is 33. This

finding was consistent with the feedback from Committee of Experts and

students that 58% of the TEFL lecturers were below 85 points (See Table 1.2,

Chapter 1).

The way the institution operates and its culture

Findings from other studies (Berrio, 2003; Fralinger, et al., 2010; Smart &

Hamm, 1993; Smart & St. John, 1996) reported that the most effective culture

type of colleges and universities is Clan culture. This study found that Clan

culture influenced lecturers’ commitment. In addition to Clan culture, Hierarchy

culture was found to influence lecturers’ motivation. Clan and Hierarchy culture

played important roles in shaping lecturers’ cognition and perceptions of

meanings and realities, framing the boundaries of lecturers’ acceptable attitudes

and behaviour, and creating a desired performance and outcomes.

The present study found that the resources and facilities in Northern

University were too old and limited. For example, the use of audio-visual

equipment and language laboratories is only permitted in listening classes; there

is only one computer shared by more than 15 TEFL lecturers in each office;

additionally, there is no multi-media in classrooms. Further, TEFL lecturers have


185

limited access to resources for lesson preparation. The lack of good quality

resources limits TEFL lecturers’ capacity to build competence. As a result,

leaders and organisational strategies should facilitate the building of competence;

and therefore, its direct effect on motivation.

The present study also found that the TEFL lecturers perceived that their

salaries were low. This finding is revealed clearly in the interview with

Participant G and is consistent with the discussion in Section 1.3.8 in Chapter 1

in relation to the government’s policies on academic salaries. As a result of these

policies and perceptions, the TEFL lecturers indicated their need to take on a

second job additional to teaching in order to earn more money. This finding is

consistent with past research showing that taking a second job was a common

phenomenon (Lu, 2005a). In Lu’s study, three main reasons given by the

teachers for taking a second job were economic factors, self-image and

reputational factors (Lu, 2005a).

Social culture

Other studies (Cheng, 2001; Wong, 2001, 2006; Zhang, 2004) found that

traditional Chinese culture influenced the Chinese education system. This study

suggests that lecturers’ personal experiences such as their three psychological

needs might have been indirectly influenced by traditional Chinese culture. For

instance, in Chinese traditional culture, education played an important role in

social moral binding and individual mobility. The findings of lecturers’ emphasis

on competence in teaching in this study are consistent with this value of

traditional Chinese culture (Cheng, 2001; Wong, 2001). In addition, lecturers’

preference of profession might be understood in relation to the Taoism of


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Chinese traditional culture with its emphasis on things being done by following

natural forces. Moreover, lecturers’ need for relatedness reflected the

harmonious thinking that has been influenced by Confucianism and emphasises

the collectivism or group-oriented unified social configurations rather than

individual ones (Cheng, 2001; Dimmock & Walker, 2005).

Apart from the indirect influence of traditional Chinese culture, the current

social situation of the PRC seems to have influenced lecturers’ motivation. With

on-going economic reforms in the social context showing market-orientation and

integration into international competition becoming the main forces of society,

the education system experienced great changes in management. These changes

included reforms in budgeting, staff appointment and assessment of teaching.

The new management policy influenced the satisfaction of lecturers’ three

psychological needs, therefore influencing their motivation. This finding is

consistent with studies by Richardson and Watt (2006), Watt and Richardson

(2007, 2008) showing that social influences are factors in understanding teachers’

motivation for choosing teaching.

7.4 Discussion of the Findings

In this section, the findings are discussed in the light of the conceptual

framework that largely draws upon the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci

& Ryan, 1985, 2002) and Competing Values Framework (CVF) (Cameron &

Quinn, 1999). The conceptual framework for the study illustrated that a TEFL

lecturer’s experience in a working environment was influenced by their personal

history, social contextual culture and what was valued and appropriate in that

culture, and the way the institution operates and its culture. This section is


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divided into three main parts. The first part explores the influence of personal

experiences on lecturers’ motivation. The second part presents the influence of

Chinese social culture on TEFL lecturers’ motivation. The third part provides

details about the impact of organisational culture on TEFL lecturers’ motivation.

7.4.1 The influence of personal experiences on motivation

According to SDT, three basic psychological needs－need for autonomy,

need for competence and need for relatedness － are conducive to health,

motivation and wellbeing (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002).

Autonomy support involves “one individual (often an authority figure)

relating to target individuals by taking their perspective, encouraging initiation,

supporting a sense of choice, and being responsive to their thoughts, questions,

and initiatives” (Deci & Ryan, 2008, p. 17). As discussed earlier in this thesis,

the top-down model of subject teaching design and lack of choice of text-books

made teachers feel marginalised and controlled. Some participants in the

interviews also reported that there was a lack of input into the policy directions

of the institute. As a consequence, lecturers had lack of control over teaching and

curriculum. Conditions that are controlling are typically characterised as those

that pressure people “to behave, think, or feel in specific ways” (Deci & Ryan,

1991, p.335), contributing to ill-being and amotivation.

Competence is the accumulated result of one’s effective interaction with

the environment; of one’s exploration, learning, and adaptation (Deci & Ryan,

1985, p.27). In the present study, participants in the interviews reported that

there were limited opportunities for them to develop their competence.


188

Participants stated that academic seminars or workshops could provide them

with a strong basis of academic knowledge as well as adequate resources and

opportunities to support their learning process and professional development;

thereby contributing to success in the classroom.

In addition, participants argued that professional experienced supervision

was needed. Adequate professional preparation guided by an experienced

supervisor can provide insight and understanding into the nature of the learning

process and the nature of appropriate content. Therefore, before teachers go to

the classroom to teach, they know where to learn, with whom to learn and how

to solve emerging problems during teaching (Dzubay, 2001). Knowledge of all

these dimensions of language teaching and learning competence will contribute

to the development of a sense of teacher autonomy and will provide a rationale

for what they are doing and how they are doing it (Dzubay, 2001).

With new ideas and information, teachers feel competent in the classroom

facing their students. Moreover, the feedback from students will tell teachers

how successful they have been in achieving their objectives. This kind of feeling

of competence not only enhances teachers’ motivation, it also encourages

teachers to undertake further professional development to improve their

professional competence.

Relatedness describes feelings of connectedness to others with a sense of

being cared about and respected, having a sense of belongingness with


1979; Harlow, 1958; Ryan, 1995). More than half a century ago, psychologist

Abraham H. Maslow (1954) suggested that social (or belonging) needs or


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relatedness needs are the higher-level needs of human beings. Effective

relatedness is characterised by fulfilment and involvement with the social world,

and it “concerns the psychological sense of being with others in secure

communion or unity” (Ryan & Deci, 2002, p. 7) with trust, respect, caring and

concern. A social space is ‘sound’ if it is characterised by effective work

relationships, strong group collaboration and a strong sense of community

(Rovai, 2002).

Teachers, as social beings, live and work in several environmental settings,

including work contexts, college fraternal life, academic work and

extracurricular activities. In these different environmental settings, teachers

ideally accept, confirm, understand and influence each other. In this study,

participants acknowledged the strength of relationships with students, friends

and family. This interactive, social dimension of life is a key component of

teachers’ individual and collective identity.

Relationships with peers are important and to achieve good relations, the

institution has a role to play. This study produced findings which suggest that

relationships with the university were not universally satisfactory. Consequently,

the institution should provide the kinds of academic activities and interactions

which will develop the group identity of educational professionals. Through

activities, shared experiences and dialogue, teachers can express and understand

different points of view both of society more widely and of their professional

practice. Through these activities, teachers will have a sense that they are

working in a positive professional culture (Dzubay, 2001). Research indicates

that positive professional communities can enhance educators’ commitment and


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autonomous motivation to teaching and improve student learning outcomes

(Hord, 1997; Little, 1982; Louise & Kruse, 1995; McLaughlin & Talbert, 1993;

Newman & Wehlage, 1995; Rosenholtz, 1989). As Osterman remarks: “It is

commonly accepted and documented that the interaction and dialogue that are

central to the notion of collegiality not only satisfy emotional needs but also

contribute to personal and professional learning” (Osterman, 2000, p.325).

7.4.2 The influence of social contextual culture on motivation

Social context of the PRC

Since the establishment of the PRC, Chinese society has been dominated by

communism. In the first three decades of the history of the PRC, the Chinese

Communist Party (CCP) was the only political party and controlled all aspects of

society. Under the CCP led by Mao, “an ideologically based egalitarian social

order” was established (Guthrie, 2008, p. 77). However, as economic reform

began in 1978, great change took place in the PRC. Market-orientation and

further integration with international competition became the main policy force.

Unlike the uniform control under Mao’s regime, people in contemporary

Chinese society are more open to the outside world and are pursuing more

freedom as individuals. With the change in social context, education has been

reformed. There were two periods of reform: one was the restructuring in the

1950s; the other was the restructuring in the 1990s (Yang, 2000). The two

reforms will be described in the following paragraphs.


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The restructuring in the 1950s

The restructuring in the 1950s was started with the establishment of the

Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in October, 1949. The main changes were

carried out within three months. It was a radical educational transformation and

reorientation of the educational system. The main targets were to “adapt higher

education output to the urgent requirement of the industrialisation plan for

skilled personnel” (Yang, 2000, p. 326). The restructuring in 1950s was nation-

wide and directly controlled by the central government. The decrees and a

definite plan were designed by the central government. The frame of reform was

a mode of former Soviet Union from the subjects, specialities to the syllabus,

teaching methods, textbooks and to the institutional and discipline names (Yang,

2000). In the restructuring in the 1950s, private institutions were nationalised,

comprehensive universities and specialised colleges were assigned clearly fixed

tasks, and a strictly hierarchical administrative model was instituted.

The restructuring in the 1990s

The restructuring of education in the 1990s was undertaken approximately

10 years after China had begun adopting open reform policies. The changes in

China’s education system were driven in particular by international forces within

the higher education sector including a shift into an era of rapid technological

changes, the increasingly intense competition for funding (Altbach & Peterson,

1999), and a realisation that institutions of higher education were becoming

increasingly focused on ‘management and market’(Cowen, 1996; Miller, 1995;

Tierney, 1998). The education system could be described during this time as

self-remoulding and self-improving (Yang, 2000).


192

The main purpose of the reform was to improve the operational efficacy and

quality of output of the higher education system. The restructuring in 1990s was

also launched by the central government. However, different from the

restructuring in 1950s, there was no time limit for the adjustment in 1990s. The

model of this reform in 1990s was after Western universities models especially

the American model (Yang, 1998). The policies for this reform were discussed

previously in Section 1.3.1 in Chapter 1.

The restructuring of 1990s has led to significant progress in China’s higher

education sector. However, some problems can be identified (Yang, 2000).

These could be found in the leadership of CCP at the university level. Although

the Higher Education Law (CCP,1998) stipulated that the president in the

university is the legal representative of the university and is in charge of the

execution of administrative issues such as teaching, research and the

employment of teachers, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has a specific role

in managing the university. That is, the university president functions under the

leadership of the CCP Committee in contrast to a Senate or Council common in

Western Universities. A section of the Higher Education Law details the duties

of the university-level CCP Committee as follows:

It carries out the guidelines, principles and policies of the

CCP and follows the socialist way of university management.

It directs the ideological, political and moral work of the

university. It discusses and decides the setup of the internal

organisations of the university and the selection of

corresponding personnel. It discusses and decides the reform,


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development and basic management system of the university.

It ensures the completion of various tasks that centre on the

cultivation of specialised and talented human resources.

(Chinese Communist Party, 1998)

This Higher Education Law (1998) legitimised the leadership of the CCP

Committee in university management. Organisational leadership in this system

embodies the principle that the CCP governs teachers, students and

administrative personnel in the university. The CCP not only makes plans and

policies for the reform of the university management system, but also controls

the appointment and dismissal of administrative personnel. The assumption that

“the proletarian government knew little about the higher education

administration” (Yang, 2000, p. 328) led to a disregard of academic freedoms,

and imposed constraints on autonomy for academics. Academics did not have

control over their everyday practices－designing course, deciding what to teach,

and how to teach. Therefore, the lecturers in the present study complained of

little autonomy in choosing the subjects to teach and textbooks. According to

SDT, the way of maintaining motivation is to satisfy the basic three

psychological needs, namely need for competence, need for autonomy and need

for relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002). Thus, the diminished sense of

autonomy in the workplace can in part be explained by the governance structures

of the University.

In the universities in China, leadership comprises a president, academically

selected and an executive vice president chosen by the Communication Party.

This unique combination of academic and political governance arrangements


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sometimes creates administrative tension and reduces self-governance by the

academic community (Altbach, 2009). In recent years, China has begun to

follow an American academic leadership model, with leadership in universities

being strengthening (Min, 2004). Thus, more authority has been given to

departmental chairs and other administrators to implement a faculty

responsibility system in research and teaching.

7.4.3 The impact of organisational culture on motivation

With the economic reforms since 1978, the education system in China has

conducted a series of reforms in management to provide intellectual support for

the development of the economy. The present findings revealed that TEFL

lecturers’ motivation was influenced by the organisational culture and the

management practices representative of that culture. According to Cameron and

Quinn (1999), the organisation often possesses qualities of all four culture types,

and any particular culture type may shift over the course of time. This balance

was found in the present study although Clan culture and Hierarchy culture were

perceived by the TEFL lecturers as the dominant organisational culture types.

There are different groups of people; some see it as Clan and some as Hierarchy.

Averaging these groups’ perceptions would suggest that there is a dominance of

mixed Clan/Hierarchy. The organisational culture in the university under the

Clan and Hierarchy culture exerted influence on lecturers’ autonomous

motivation.

For instance, Clan might play an important role for the older lecturers.

They felt that the environment of the university was relatively stable.

Additionally, these lecturers described the university as a family. Therefore, the


195

university was a friendly place to work. Lecturers, who are younger, perceived

the university as Hierarchy culture. They viewed the university as a formalised

and structured place to work where formal rules and policies maintain the

smooth-running of teaching. Clan and Hierarchy culture played important roles

in shaping lecturers’ cognition and perceptions of meanings and realities,

framing the boundaries of lecturers’ acceptable attitudes and behaviour, and

creating desired performance and outcomes. With regard to management under

the culture, the participants reported that the assessment system, reward system

and teamwork influenced their autonomous motivation.

Assessment system

Assessment of teaching is important to evaluate the quality of lecturers’

work. In the present study, it appeared that feedback from students and experts

helped lecturers recognise their shortcomings and as a result, improve their

teaching. The feedback that signifies effectiveness provides satisfaction of the

need for competence, therefore enhancing intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan,

1980).

Reward system

Rewards are management tools that hopefully contribute to an institute’s

effectiveness by influencing individual or group behaviour (Lawler & Cohen,

1992, p. 8). Rewards are defined as the “deliberate utilisation of the pay system

as an essential integrating mechanism through which the efforts of various sub-

units or individuals are directed towards the achievement of an organisation’s

strategic objectives” (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1992, p. 58). Although some


196

research proposed that rewards could undermine productivity and performance

(Denning, 2001), Cameron and Pierce (1997) stated that rewards could be used

effectively to enhance motivation when they are offered to people for completing

work or for attaining or exceeding specified performance standards. Cameron

and Pierce further postulated that rewards increase performance and interest

when they are:

made contingent on quality or performance or are given for meeting

clear standards of performance;

made contingent on challenging activities;

given for mastering each component of a complex skill;

delivered for high effort and activity.

Therefore, in the workplace, careful arrangement of rewards, which are

given for mastering each component of a complex skill, or delivered for high

effort and activity, can enhance employees’ interest and level of performance;

consequently enhancing lecturers’ autonomous motivation.

Teamwork

Teamwork is widely regarded as a key to staff development (Beal, 2003).

Teams can work in various ways; for example, as a single work team, as parallel

teams, as a project team, and as a management team (Jiang, 2010). Within a

university, teamwork can also improve lecturers’ relationships with their

colleagues (Jin, 1993). Working as a team is consistent with traditional Chinese

moral standards and Confucianism including group orientation and a focus on


197

harmony. Teamwork requires that lecturers within a team share goals and

responsibilities for outcomes and learn from each other, thus supporting their

professional development. According to literature about the natural growth of

humans, teamwork can enhance the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs

for competence, autonomy and relatedness; as a result enhancing lecturers’

intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001).

Teamwork in the university has the potential to enhance lecturers’ autonomous

motivation. In conclusion, teamwork appears to contribute to TEFL lecturers’

autonomous motivation.

Leadership

Findings from the present study also indicated that the lecturers perceived

there to be limited channels for communication and a lack of opportunity to

participate in policy-making within the university. From the perspective of the

lecturers, this style of leadership had a considerable impact on their work

motivation.

As described in Chapter 1 in relation to global changes in the higher

education (including the Chinese context), leaders within institutions of higher

education need to display the following attributes:

• be open to and encourage the creativity of staff

• be team-oriented, i.e. be ready to rely on help from others

• be able to listen

• practice coaching (i.e. give advice and motivate)


198

• demonstrate accountability (i.e. take personal ownership and

support the changes)

• show appreciation (i.e. recognise and reward the employees’ effort

in relation to the changes) (Galpin, 1996)

In order to create a culture that is motivating and in which employees’

opinions are valued, leaders need to be open and encouraging of employee input

and participation. Employee participation in policy-making is positively

associated with organisational effectiveness and job satisfaction (Sagie &

Koslowski, 1994). In turn, organisational effectiveness and job satisfaction have

been reported to have meaningful effects on the attitudes and autonomous

motivation of employees (Locke, & Schweiger, 1979). This suggests that the

autonomous motivation of lecturers would likely be enhanced by a more open

style of leadership that encouraged authentic communication, teamwork,

professional development, participation, accountability and recognition of

successful teaching and learning.

7.5 Implication for Theory

The present study investigated the extent to which organisational culture

and TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences contribute to academic motivation to

work in Chinese universities. The study utilised a conceptual framework that

drew upon the Competing Values Framework CVF) in relation to impact of

organisational culture and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) in relation to

motivation. From this conceptual basis, the lecturers’ perspectives on their


199

academic work in the social cultural context of a large university in China were

explored.

SDT has evolved over the past three decades and studies which have

explored motivation from this perspective have utilised a range of

methodological approaches (Vallerand et al., 2008). The findings from these

studies explain the consequences of motivational processes across a variety of

contexts, including education, health care, sport, interpersonal relationships,

parenting, work, religious behaviours and environment protection (Deci & Ryan,

2008). The present study tested the multidimensional culture of SDT to examine

motivation in the Chinese higher education context. The findings support SDT as

having broad applications across cultures.

The Competing Values Framework (CVF) was initially developed out of

the quality-culture theoretical discourses of the 1970s through research designed

to identify and characterise organisational effectiveness (Quinn & Rohrbaugh,

1983). Although the CVF has been extensively applied to studies of business in

the context of China (Despande & Farley, 2004; Ralston, 2006), a review of the

literature suggested that the framework had not been used to examine employees’

perceptions in an academic setting. The findings of the present study, which

provide a rich understanding of motivation and management within an academic

setting in China, thus make a significant contribution to the field.

7.6 Implications for Practice

The findings of the present study suggest that the work motivation of

lecturers within Chinese universities could be enhanced by a consideration of a

number of factors including the provision of: opportunities for lecturers to


200

participate meaningfully within the organisation and leadership of institutions of

higher education; opportunities for lecturers to engage in professional

development activities including the development of an understanding of the

mechanisms of basic psychological needs in relation to work motivation and

satisfaction; additional resources to enhance teaching and learning; and enhanced

recognition and remuneration of TEFL lecturers.

7.6.1 Enhancing the salary of TEFL academics

Findings from the study indicated that the lecturers perceived that channels

for communication were not open and there was no employee participation in

policy making. The lecturers noted that they could not respond to the thoughts or

initiatives of the leaders on issues within the university. As a result, they did not

feel that the social values, mores, and norms of the university had personal

relevance. Nor did they feel free to follow their interests.

Previous research suggests that employee participation in policy-making is

positively associated with organisational effectiveness, lecturers’ autonomy and

job satisfaction (Sagie & Koslowski, 1994). Further, organisational effectiveness

and job satisfaction had meaningful effects on the attitudes and motivation of

employees (Locke & Schweiger, 1979). Therefore, managers need to create a

motivational environment using the leadership style of openness and employee

participation, as these practices affect lecturers’ motivation.

As noted in Chapter 2, Chinese, influenced by the tenets of Confucianism,

regard happiness as spiritual, not material; as moral, not circumstantial; as self-

identified, not other-judged (Lu, 2001, p. 411; Hwang, 1998). Accordingly,

participation and involvement in the organisation of the university could be seen

as important to the lecturers on both cultural and social grounds.


201

7.6.2 Professional Development

Findings from both the quantitative data analysis and qualitative data

analysis in the study indicated that the three basic psychological needs－need for

autonomy, competence and relatedness – played an important role in TEFL

lecturers’ motivation. Given these findings, it can be surmised that it would be

valuable to provide lecturers with more opportunities for professional

development related to teaching and learning including more opportunities to

develop an understanding of the importance of the three basic psychological

needs to work motivation and satisfaction.

The first basic need, need for autonomy, requires experiencing choice and

feeling like the initiator of one’s own actions (deCharms, 1968; Deci, 1975). In

the present study, analysis showed that when the autonomy of lecturers is

supported partially, they will feel free to follow their interests; the disposition to

engage in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity will enhance

intrinsic motivation and identified regulation (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985).

The second basic need, the need for competence, involves a feeling of

capability for performing tasks and producing a desired outcome (Deci, 1975;

Harter, 1983; White, 1959). The findings of the present study indicated that the

lecturers’ sense of personal competence and their students’ achievement

contributed to their pleasure in teaching English and their satisfaction with

teaching, thus enhancing their intrinsic motivation.

The third basic need, need for relatedness, involves what the lecturers

described as “having a relationship with” or “being cared about”. It involved the

TEFL lecturers’ relationships with peers, students, friends, family members and

the university. The lecturers’ positive relatedness with students, family members


202

and peers provided them with secure relational support, thus helping them to feel

connected with others and/or feel cared about. Satisfaction of this need for

relatedness has the potential to provide distal support for autonomous motivation

(Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002; Ryan, 1995).

7.6.3 Teaching and Learning Resources

The findings of the present study suggested that the work motivation of

lecturers within Chinese universities could also be enhanced by the provision of

additional resources to enhance teaching and learning. The lecturers noted that

the facilities and resources of Northern University were old and out of date. As

discussed in Chapter 1, although investment has increased as the economy has

developed, limited resourcing is still a major issue in language teaching (Shu,

2005).

With regard to facilities, the lecturers stated that classrooms do not provide

multi-media access and audio-visual equipment and language laboratories are

only provided for language listening classes. Further, only one computer is

provided in each office, which is often shared by 15 lecturers. With regard to

resources, the lecturers noted that they have limited access to teaching and

professional materials that would assist them with preparing for teaching. The

lecturers stated that the lack of good quality resources limited their capacity to

build competence and confidence in their teaching. These limitations in turn

were perceived to have a direct negative effect on their motivation for teaching

in the university.


203

7.6.4 Recognition and Remuneration

Finally, the findings of the present study also indicated that the TEFL

lecturers perceived that their motivation was eroded by limited recognition and

remuneration. Many of the TEFL lecturers noted that they had taken on a second

job in addition to teaching in their primary place of employment because of the

low salary provided by the University. The need for additional remuneration

revealed by the lecturers is consistent with the discussion in Chapter 1 regarding

the outcomes of the Salary Reform in 2009. As a result of these reforms, the

salaries of lecturers were decreased. As a consequence, many lecturers felt the

need to take on extra jobs. In cases where the extra job was in an unrelated field,

the lecturers’ opportunities to develop increased competence were curtailed.

Further, where the lecturers had to learn new skills and knowledge, they were

left with less time to develop as teaching professionals. From these findings, it is

surmised that TEFL lecturers’ motivation and dedication to their career would be

enhanced by increased recognition of and remuneration for the valuable role they

are playing in preparing Chinese citizens for working in an increasingly

globalised world where at present, facility in the English language is regarded of

primary importance.

7.7 Limitations of the Study

There were three limitations to the present study. The first one is related to

the generalisability of the research. The present study adopted a case study with

mixed methods to investigate the ways in which organisational culture and

personal experiences were related to lecturers’ motivation to work in TEFL

institutes in the Chinese universities. The present study drew upon the theoretical


204

insights of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Competing Values Framework

(CVF) to investigate a phenomenon--- the relationships proposed in the current

study. The findings of the present study cannot be applied in all Chinese

universities. As stated previously in Chapter 1, Northern University has its own

structure and contextual issues.

The second limitation of the study might be issues that were beyond my

control, such as not being able to interview the same groups of lecturers for both

rounds of interviews. Because the issue of influence of organisational culture on

lecturers’ motivation appeared in the first round of interviews, the participants of

the second round of interviews (except participant F and Participant I) were

different compared to the participants in the first round of interviews. This might

have had an influence on the results of interviews because of the different time,

place and lecturers.

The third limitation was the lack of internal consistency in the WTMST-T

instrument used to define the types of motivation. This instrument was designed

by Fernet, Senecal, Guay, Marsh and Dowson (2008) for use in SDT. Further the

work of Muller, Andreitz and Palekèiæ (2008) justified the use of the instrument.

In the present study, the reliability estimates of three of the WTMST-T subscales,

External Regulation, Introjected Regulation and Amotivation, were unacceptable.

These Cronbach’s α fell within .15 to .46 ranges. Further investigation on the

low reliability has been done by the researcher (presented in Section 1.5.2).

Those investigations indicated that the lack of reliability of the three subscales

was not caused by data entry or any collection error. However, the reliability for


205

the other two subscales, intrinsic motivation and identified regulation was valid

in the present study.

7.8 Future Research Direction

In the present study, the TEFL lecturers’ personal experiences contributed

to their different types of goals. Additionally, this goal led to wellbeing and

satisfaction of three basic psychological needs. This also led to different levels of

self-determination in their actions. Thus, different types of motivation were

formed. Therefore, SDT is suitable for explaining TEFL lecturers’ types of

motivation in higher education in the context of China. However, SDT cannot

explain the relationship between the three basic needs and intrinsic motivation in

higher education in the context of China. For example, SDT stated that the

satisfaction of the three basic needs will lead to intrinsic motivation. But in the

qualitative research of the study, some lecturers, who had intrinsic motivation,

did not have autonomy in choosing their textbooks; some lecturers, who had

intrinsic motivation, had no support from the school. Theses lectures do not have

a complete sense of relatedness. In the present study in the context of China,

these lecturers are intrinsically motivated. Therefore, future study should focus

on how the three basic needs in the context of China can lead to intrinsic

motivation.

There is also another scope for further research that is grounded on the

findings of this research. The lack of internal consistency in the instrument of

WTMST-T used to define the types of motivation indicated that the extrinsic

motivation, external regulation, introjected regulation and amotivation could not


206

be measured in the higher education in China. Future research could be

conducted to investigate the factors affecting those types of motivation.

References

207

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Appendices

237

Appendix A: Demographic questionnaire

Please respond by placing a tick.

Code No.:____________________

Date: ____________________

1. Gender Male ____________ Female____________

2. Age 20 – 30 years____________

30 – 33 years____________

34 – 40 years____________

41 – 50 years____________

50– 60 years____________

3. Freedom of choice of job: Myself____________

Government_________

4. Do you have experience of overseas?

Yes_____________ No _____________

5. Your time of teaching: Less than 5 years_____________

5 – 10 years_____________

10 – 20 years_____________

20 – 30 years_____________

30 – 40 years_____________

Appendices

238

Chinese version of demographic questionnaire

师在相师的地方划√

师卷师师：_______________

日期：____________________

1. 性师: 男____________女____________

2. 年师: 20 – 30师____________

30 – 33 师____________

34 – 40 师____________

41 – 50 师____________

51 – 60 师____________

3. 师师的师师我自己____________

政府____________

4. 是否有海外留学的师师

是_____________否_____________

5. 您的教师: 5 年以下_____________

5 – 10 年_____________

10 – 20 年_____________

20 – 30 年_____________

30 – 40 年_____________

Appendices

239

Appendix B: The Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers

Different reasons may explain why teachers engage in their work tasks. The

following statements represent some of these reasons. Using the scale below, please

indicate for each statement to what degree they correspond to one of the reasons for

which you are doing the following work tasks.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Not at all true Somewhat true Very true

1. Because the school obliges me to do it.

2. Because if I don’t carry out this task, I will feel bad.

3. Because it is important for me to carry out this task.

4. Because I find this task interesting to do.

5. I don’t know, sometimes I don’t see its purpose.

6. Because it is pleasant to carry out this task.

7. To not feel bad if I don’t do it.

8. Because my work demands it.

9. Because I would feel guilty not doing it.

10. Because I find this task important for the academic success of my students.

11. Because I like doing this task.

12. I used to know why I was doing this task, but I don’t see the reason anymore.

13. I don’t know, I don’t always see the relevance of carrying out this task.

14. Because I’m paid to do it.

15. Because this task allows me to attain work objectives that I consider important.

Appendices

240

Chinese version of the Work Tasks Motivation Scales for Teachers ---teaching (WTMST---

T)

教学工作包括授师，回答学生的师师并师听学生的需求。每一位教师从事教学

工作都有一定的原因。下面师师表里列师了一些原因。在以下七个程度师增的师师中，

师出你的答案。

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

不真师有一些真师很真师

1. 学校师迫我做教学工作。

2. 我不做教学工作会感师很不自在。

3. 做教学工作师我来师很重要。

4. 因师我师师做教学工作很有趣。

5. 不知道，从事教学工作有师我根本没有任何目的。

6. 因师教学工作师我感到很愉快。

7. 如果不做教学工作，我就不会感师师么糟糕。

8. 教师师个工作要求我从事教学。

9. 如果不做师个工作我会有师罪感。

10. 因师我师师教学工作与学生的学师成功有着重要的关系。

11. 因师我喜师师份工作。

12. 师去我知道做教学工作的原因，但师在我再也看不到师个原因了。

13. 我不知道，我看不到从事教学工作相师的师果。

14. 因师师份工作能师我得到薪水。

15. 因师师份工作能师我师师我师师重要的工作目师。

Appendices

241

Appendix C: Basic Psychological Needs Scales at Work (BPNS-W)

When I Am At Work

The following questions concern your feelings about your job during the

last year. (If you have been on this job for less than a year, this concerns the

entire time you have been at this job.). Please indicate how true each of the

following statement is for you given your experiences on this job. Remember

that your boss will never know how you responded to the questions. Please use

the following scale in responding to the items.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


1. I feel like I can make a lot of inputs to deciding how my job gets done.

2. I really like the people I work with.

3. I do not feel very competent when I am at work.

4. People at work tell me I am good at what I do.

5. I feel pressured at work.

6. I get along with people at work.

7. I pretty much keep to myself when I am at work.

8. I am free to express my ideas and opinions on the job.

9. I consider the people I work with to be my friends.

10. I have been able to learn interesting new skills on my job.

11. When I am at work, I have to do what I am told.

12. Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from working.

13. My feelings are taken into consideration at work.

14. On my job I do not get much of a chance to show how capable I am.

15. People at work care about me.

16. There are not many people at work that I am close to.

Appendices

242

17. I feel like I can pretty much be myself at work.

18. The people I work with do not seem to like me much.

19. When I am working I often do not feel very capable.

20. There is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to go

about my work.

21. People at work are pretty friendly towards me.

Appendices

243

Chinese version of Basic Psychological Needs Scales at Work (BPNS---W)

以下是你在师去一年里师工作的感师。在以下七个程度师增的师师中，师出

你的答案。

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


1. 我感到我能决定安排好我自己的工作。

2. 我很喜师跟我一起工作的人。

3. 工作师我感师到没有能力师任。

4. 工作中人师告师我做得很好。

5. 我感到工作有师力。

6. 我能与我工作中接触到的人相师。

7. 工作中，我自我封师。

8. 工作中，我通常很自由地表达我的思想。

9. 我师师与我工作中师常接触的人是朋友。

10. 工作中我能学到有趣的新技能。

11. 在工作中，我师常作师人告师我去做的事情。

12. 大多数情况下，我能从我所作的事情中得到成就感。

13. 工作中我的想法会被师人采师。

14. 在我的工作中我没有太多的机会表师自己的能力。

15. 在工作中人师关心我。

16. 在工作师位，我没有很多与我关系近的人。

17. 在工作中，我能保留自己的个性。

18. 与我一起工作的人好像不喜师我。

19. 工作师我感师到不能完全师任。

20. 在工作中我没有很多机会自己决定事情。

21．工作中人师师我通常很友好。

Appendices

244

Appendix D: Subjective Vitality Scales (SVS)

Please respond to each of the following statements by indicating the degree to

which the statement is true for you in general in your life. Use the following scale:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


1. I feel alive and vital.

2. Sometimes I feel so alive I just want to burst.

3. I have energy and spirit.

4. I look forward to each new day.

5. I nearly always feel alert and awake.

6. I feel energized.

Appendices

245

Chinese version of Subjective Vitality Scales (SVS)

师根据你的情况师师你师下列师述的师可程度。在以下七个程度师增的师

师中，师出你的答案。

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


1. 我感到活着并且有活力。

2. 有师我感到很有活力并且想要迸师。

3. 我有能量和精力做事情。

4. 我期待着每一个新的一天。

5. 我几乎师是注意力集中并且很清醒。

6. 我感到精力旺盛。

Appendices

246

Appendix E: Aspirations Index (AI)

Everyone has long-term Goals or Aspirations. These are the things that

individuals hope to accomplish over the course of their lives. In this section, you

will find a number of life goals, presented one at a time. Please use the following

scale in answering each of the three questions about each life goal.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


How important is this to you?

1. To be a very wealthy person.

2. To grow and learn new things.

3. To have my name known by many people.

4. To have good friends that I can count on.

5. To successfully hide the signs of aging.

6. To work for the betterment of society.

7. To have many expensive possessions.

8. At the end of my life, to be able to look back on my life as meaningful and

complete.

9. To be admired by many people.

10. To share my life with someone I love.

11. To have people comment often about how attractive I look.

12. To assist people who need it, asking nothing in return.

13. To be financially successful.

14. To choose what I do, instead of being pushed along by life.

15. To be famous.

16. To have committed, intimate relationships.

17. To keep up with fashions in hair and clothing.

Appendices

247

18. To work to make the world a better place.

19. To be rich.

20. To know and accept who I really am.

21. To have my name appear frequently in the media.

22. To feel that there are people who really love me, and whom I love.

23. To achieve the "look" I've been after.

24. To help others improve their lives.

25. To have enough money to buy everything I want.

26. To gain increasing insight into why I do the things I do.

27. To be admired by lots of different people.

28. To have deep enduring relationships.

29. To have an image that others find appealing.

30. To help people in need.

Appendices

248

Chinese version of Aspiration Index (AI)

每一个人都有师期的或短期的目师。人的一生中每个人都师划着要完成很

多事情。在以下七个程度师增的师师中，师出你的答案。

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


1. 成师一个富有的人师我的重要性。

2. 成师并师得新的知师师我的重要性。

3. 师师人知道我的名字师我的重要性。

4. 有我可以依师的朋友师我的重要性。

5. 成功地师藏年师师我的重要性。

6. 师社会更好地服师师我的重要性。

7. 师有一些师师的师师师我的重要性。

8. 当生命走到尽师师，我回首一生，能感到我活得很有意师并且已师

做完了我想做的事情师我的重要性。

9. 我被很多人羡慕师我的重要性。

. 10. 与我师的人享受生活师我的重要性。

. 11. 师人师师常师师我的魅力师我的重要性。

12. 帮助需要帮助的人，并且不要回师师我的重要性。

13. 师于所作的事情，我是自己师师而不是由于生活所迫师我的重要

性。

14. 成名师我的重要性。

15. 师有可靠的师近的关系师我的重要性。

16. 保持师式和服装师髦师我的重要性。

17. 帮助师人提高他师的生活师我的重要性.

18. 师师上的成功师我的重要性。

Appendices

249

19. 师世界的美好而努力工作师我的重要性。

20. 富有师我的重要性。

21. 了解并接受我自己师我的重要性。

22. 师我的名字师常出师在媒体师我的重要性。

23. 感到我是被师人师着的，同师有很多我师的人师我的重要性。

24. 取得我所追求的形象师我的重要性。

25. 有足师的师师我所要的师西师我的重要性。

26. 师所做的事情有更师一步的理解师我的重要性。

27. 被师多不同的人羡慕师我的重要性。

28. 保持师近而持久关系师我的重要性。

29. 有师人羡慕的形象师我的重要性。

30. 帮助需要帮助的人师我的重要性。

Appendices

250

Appendix F: Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI)

This questionnaire contains items that are related with the culture at your

workplace. Your responses are confidential. Please be honest and candid.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


Dominant Characteristics

1. The organisation is a very personal place. It is like an extended family. People

seem to share a lot of themselves.

2. The organisation is a very dynamic entrepreneurial place. People are willing to

stick their necks out and take risks.

3. The organisation is very results oriented. A major concern is with getting the job

done. People are very competitive and achievement oriented.

4. The organisation is a very controlled and structured place. Formal procedures

generally govern what people do.

Organisational Leadership

5. The leadership in the organisation is generally considered to exemplify

mentoring, facilitating, or nurturing.


entrepreneurship, innovating, or risk taking.

7. The leadership in the organisation is generally considered to exemplify a no-

nonsense, aggressive, results-oriented focus.


coordinating, organising, or smooth-running efficiency.

Management of Employees

9. The management style in the organisation is characterized by teamwork,

consensus, and participation.

10. The management style in the organisation is characterized by individual risk-

taking, innovation, freedom, and uniqueness.

11. The management style in the organisation is characterized by hard-driving

competitiveness, high demands, and achievement.

Appendices

251

12. The management style in the organisation is characterized by security of

employment, conformity, predictability, and stability in relationships.

Organisation Glue

13. The glue that holds the organisation together is commitment to innovation and

development. There is an emphasis on being on the cutting edge.

14. The glue that holds the organisation together is loyalty and mutual trust,

commitment to this organisation runs high.

15. The glue that holds the organisation together is the emphasis on achievement

and goal accomplishment. Aggressiveness and winning are common themes.

16. The glue that holds the organisation together is formal rules and policies.

Maintaining a smooth-running organisation is important.

Strategic Emphases

17. The organisation emphasizes human development. High trust, openness, and

participation persist.

18. The organisation emphasizes acquiring new resources and creating new

challenges. Trying new things and prospecting for opportunities are valued.

19. The organisation emphasizes competitive actions and achievement. Hitting

stretch targets and winning in the marketplace are dominant.

20. The organisation emphasizes permanence and stability. Efficiency, control and

smooth operations are important.

Criteria of Success

21. The organisation defines success on the basis of the development of human

resources, teamwork, employee commitment, and concern for people.

22. The organisation defines success on the basis of having the most unique or

newest products. It is a product leader and innovator.

23. The organisation defines success on the basis of winning in the marketplace and

outpacing the competition. Competitive market leadership is key.

24. The organisation defines success on the basis of efficiency. Dependable

delivery, smooth scheduling and low-cost production are critical.

Chinese version of Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI)

师根据你的情况师师你师下列师述的同意程度。在以下七个程度师增的师

师中，师出你的答案。

Appendices

252

主师特征

1. 学校是一个人性化的地方，就像一个家庭的延伸，教师不分彼此。

2. 学校具有很高的活性和师师精神，教师勇于冒师和承担师任。

3. 学校的功利性很师。教师主要的想法是完成工作，教师的能力很高而且期望成功。

4. 学校被师格的控制且师师师明。教师按照条例师事。

师师师格

5. 学校的师师通常被师师体师了师师、推师者或培育者的作用。

6. 学校的师师师格主要是师师、师新和师师冒师。

7. 学校的师师师格主要是“没有师师”，具有师取性和高功利性。

8. 学校的师师师格主要是有条理、有师师性、运作师师且充师效率。

师工管理

9. 学校的管理师格是师师合作、少数服从多数以及参与性师。

10. 学校的管理师格是个人英雄主师、勇于师新、崇尚自由和体师自我。

11. 学校的管理师格具有很师的师争性，要求和师准非常师格。

12. 学校的管理师格是确保雇佣关系，教师的关系是可以师师、师定和一致的。

企师凝聚

13. 学校靠忠师和互信粘合在一起。教师师都具有承担师师的师任感。

14. 教师师靠师新和师展师合在一起，走在师代最前端是重点。

15. 成功和完成目师把教师师师系在一起。师取和取得师利是共同的目师。

16. 教师师靠正师的制度和政策在一起工作，师持一个师师运作的学校是非常重要

Appendices

253

的。

师略重点

17. 学校重师人力师源师展。互信、开师布公和教师持师的参与。

18. 学校主要师求新的师源和迎接新的挑师。师师新的事物和师求机遇是教师价师

的体师。

19. 学校追求师争和成功。打师师手和在市师中取师是学校的主要师略。

20. 学校希望看到持久和师定，效率、控制和师师的运作是工作重点。

成功准师

21. 学校师成功的定师师人力师源、师师合作、教师的师献和师教师的关师上的成

功。

22. 学校师成功的定师是学校是否具有最特师和最新的教学方法，学校是否是教学

方法的师师者和师新者。

23. 学校师成功的定师是师得市师而且打师师手，成师市师的师师者。

24. 学校师效率是成功的基师，互相师师和平师的工作安排是至关重要的。

Appendices

254

Appendix G: Letters to the leaders in two research sites

Appendices

255

Appendices

256

Appendix H: Information sheet

Description

The present study will investigate what ate the contextual and cultural issues that

academics working in TEFL institute in Chinese university experience which influences

their commitment to academic work. The aim of the study is to explore the impact of

organisational culture and TEFL lecturers' experiences on their motivation in higher

education in the context of China.

The theoretical model that the study adopts from the perspective of Self-

Determination Theory and theoretical approach on organisational culture, Competing

Values Framework will provide a framework for explaining the impact of TEFL

lecturers’ experiences on their motivation. The study draws on case study methodology

employing both quantitative and qualitative data. The design comprises a sequential

explanatory strategy in which quantitative data will be collected first, and then followed

by the qualitative data collection.

In the collection of quantitative data, all the participants will complete the

questionnaires. On the basis of the results of the analysis of the quantitative data, at least

10 lecturers who represent different types of motivation will be invited to attend the

interviews. In the interviews, in the workplace of the researcher, the research assistant will

be undertaking the interviews and only anonymous transcripts will be made available to the

researcher.

This project is being undertaken as part of Doctor of Education study for

Wenying Ma. The researcher requests your assistance because you are invited to attend

the interviews.

Expected benefits

Your involvement in this study may not directly benefit you. However, it is hoped

that by increasing our understanding of lecturers’ motivation, sense of three basic

psychological needs, goals and well being, policy and practice can be improved in the

future.

Appendices

257

Risks

There are no risks beyond normal day-to-day living associated with your

participation in this project. The research project will have low-level of review on

participants’ well-being and relatedness. No person who participates in the interviews

will be identified in the transcripts.

Confidentiality

All data will be treated confidentially. Interviews will be audiorecorded and

transcribed. Contents of the audiorecordings will be destroyed after the contents have

been transcribed. Only the researcher and her supervisors can access to the original data.

Selected excerpts of audiorecordings may be used by the researcher in publications,

representations and for instructional purposes. Your name is not required in any of the

responses in the interviews. Your identity will be protected in any publication or

presentation of results by the use of a pseudonym. You may request to verify your

comments prior to final inclusion. Interview data that is password protected will be

stored on external hard drives that will be kept in a locked filing cabinet when not in use.

Data will be stored for five years and then destroyed.

Voluntary participation

You will be asked to take part in a follow-up interview to clarify points from your

first interview. The follow-up interview will be approximately 20 -30 minutes long. We

would like to ask you to sign a written consent form (enclosed) to confirm your agreement to

participate.

Questions/further information

Please contact Ms Wenying Ma via the email [email protected], if

you have any questions or if you require further information about the project.

Concerns/Complains

Please contact the Research Ethics Officer on 0061 07 3138 2340 or

[email protected] if you have any concerns or complain about the ethical conduct

of the research project.

mailto:[email protected]�


Appendices

258

Appendix I: Example of the coding system

09093008/FLC/R01/PA 09093008 refers to the time/date (30,

Sept. 2009 at 8:00am).

FLC refers to the name of the first

research site.

R01 refers to the first round of

interviews.

PA refers to the first participant in the

interview.

09100513/CED/R02/PM 09100513 refers to the time/date (5, Oct.

2009 at 13:00 pm).

CED refers to the name of the second

research site.

R02 refers to the second round of

interviews.

PM refers to the fifteenth participant in

the interviews.

Appendices

259

Appendix J: Demographic information of participants in interviews

Partici-

pant

Age

(yrs)

Gender Choice of

job Overseas

experience Teaching

experience Highest

qualification

Interview

round

A 34-40 Male Self No 10-20yrs Masters 1

B 34-40 Female Government Yes 10-20yrs Masters 1

C 30-33 Male Self No 10yrs Masters 1

D 30-33 Female Self No 10-20yrs Masters 1

E 41-50 Female Self No 10-20yrs Doctorate 1

F* 34-40 Female Self No 5yrs Masters 1 & 2

G 41-50 Female Government Yes 20yrs Bachelor 1

H 30-33 Female Self No 5-10yrs Masters 1

I 20-30 Female Self No 5-10-yrs Masters 1 & 2

J 40-50 Male Self No 20-30yrs Masters 2

K 50+ Male Self No 20-30yrs Masters 2

L 41-50 Male Government No 30-40yrs Bachelor 2

M 30-40 Male Self No 10-20yrs Masters 2

Note: * and refers to participants who attend both the first round of interviews and the second round of interviews

Appendix K: The follow-up letter for the invitation of the interviewees

The aim of this research is to investigate the factors which affect lecturers’

motivation in the context of China. The project is being undertaken by Ms Wenying Ma,

Appendices

260

who is undertaking research for her Doctor of Education degree (Ed D), under the

supervision of Associate Professor Jim Watters, Doctor Louise Mercer and Doctor

Karen Dooley from the Factory of Education at Queensland University of Technology

(QUT). Because of the ethical issues, Ms Wenying Ma cannot conduct the interview;

instead, Ms Duan (a researcher in a university in Changchun, invited by Ms Wenying

Ma) will conduct the interview.

As a lecturer in this College, you are invited to attend the focus group, with other

lecturers, which will take about 40 minutes to complete at Room 506, No. 4 Building. In

order to generate discussion, Ms Duan will ask several questions relating to lecturers’

motivation. You are not obliged to answer all questions asked. However, the

information will be of greater value if you do contribute to the majority of the discussion.

All information provided by you will be anonymous and treated as strictly

confidential. All records will be maintained in a locked filing cabinet accessible only to

the researcher.

Participants in the focus group is voluntary and you are free to withdraw from the

study at any time without comment or penalty. Your participation or withdrawal of

consent will not influence your relationship with Wenying Ma or the university in any

way.

The information during the interview will be recorded by tape recorder. You will

be made aware of when the tape recorder is recording and when it is not.

Appendices

261

Appendix L: Consent form

Wenying Ma Doctor of Philosophy Student Queensland University of Technology Email: [email protected] Principal supervisor: Jim Watters Associate supervisors: Dr. Karen Dooley; Dr. Louise Mercer Telephone: 86-13604318317

Statement of consent

By signing below, you are indicating that you:

• have read and understood the information document regarding this project

• have had any questions answered to your satisfaction

• understand that if you have any additional questions you can contact the research

team

• understand that you are free to withdraw at any time, without comment or

penalty

• understand that you can contact the Research Ethics Officer on 3138 2340 or

[email protected] if you have concerns about the ethical conduct of the

project

• agree to participate in the project

• understand that the project will include audio recording

Name Signature

Date


Appendices

262

Appendix M: Semi-structured interview schedule—Round 1

Theme: Personal Motivation

Interview Questions:

1. These questions will refer to your history as a teacher in higher education.

2. What professional title do you possess?

3. Are you happy with your current professional title or what do you aspire to? Why?

4. Where did you start teaching?

5. How long have you been teaching?

6. What convinced you to become a teacher?

7. How did you come to be employed in this institution?

8. Could you please describe any experiences working overseas? (on experiences on

overseas)

9. What kind of benefits did you get from studying overseas and in what ways has this

experience impacted your teaching?

10. Would you describe any great teachers you have had at any time?

11. In what ways have these great teachers influenced you as a teacher?

12. What are the attributes of a good or great teacher?

13. Do you like teaching? How do you like teaching? Why?

14. What sort of satisfaction do you get out of teaching?

15. What have been your greatest successes and failures in teaching?

16. What do you teach now?

17. What choices do you get to make about what you teach?

18. Explain whether you are you happy with the amount of autonomy you have in

Appendices

263

teaching.

19. How many subjects have you been teaching? What is the main area of your

expertise? Do you have expertise in the subject you are teaching now?

20. Do you think you have the expertise for all the subjects you teach and if not what do

you do when confronted with a topic you are unsure of?

21. How has your expertise developed over time?

22. For what aspects of your teaching would you like to have professional development?

23. To what extent have you had any professional training to be a teacher and do you

think such training should be necessary? (In some countries, professional

accreditation is needed to teach in a college or university)

24. To what extent has technology contributed to your teaching skills and has this been

a rewarding addition?

25. How would you describe the influence of the climate or environment of the college

in supporting your teaching? (explore examples or events)

26. Describe how your colleagues assist you (or don’t) in your teaching?

27. To what extent are your ideas and approaches valued or recognised by your

colleagues?

28. Do you talk about your work with friends or family outside of work about teaching?

(on relatedness)

29. To what extent does teaching create stress for you and lead to poor health?

30. To what extent do you feel pressured or compelled to teach topics in ways that you

don’t like?

31. In what ways is teaching important or rewarding in the scope of other activities you

do?

32. Explain to me whether teaching is a rewarding profession for you?

33. To what extent are the financial or promotional rewards for teaching sufficient?

Appendices

264

34. Do you have the experience of second job? Could you please give me some

examples and why you think you need a second job? (on experiences on second job)

35. Have you ever considered researching your teaching in order to improve your skills?

36. Why should teachers become engaged in researching their teaching?

37. Is there any other factors which could affect lecturers’ teaching motivation?

38. Have you thought about looking for a new job outside of teaching? Why or why not?

(on goals)

39. What is important to you in your life? (How does teaching contribute to this goal?)

(goals)

40. In what ways has teaching enabled you to develop meaningful relationships, achieve

personal growth, and contribute to the community? (Intrinsic aspirations)

41. Explain to me the extent that teaching has contributed to your security, wealth, fame,

and public image. (extrinsic aspirations)

42. After you retire what do you hope that you will be remembered for?

43. If you were in your 20 years old, would you choose to be a teacher (why)?

44. In what ways do you think a career in a college is changing – do you have concerns

about the change?

45. Is there anything you want to talk about your future plan?

46. Well, that is all the questions I have. Is there anything that we have not spoken about?

Would you like to say?

Appendices

265

Appendix N: Semi-structured interview schedule—Round 2

Theme: Perception of Organisation Culture

Interview Questions:

1. In what ways does the school provide you with adequate administrative staff to run

your office?

2. How do the school facilities provided by the school help you to carry out your

work? Does the school provide adequate facilities?

3. Does the school have an excellent information technology infrastructure?

4. Are infrastructure and building well maintained and replaced or expanded when

needed?

5. What is good that your school located in a community where it is pleasant to live?

6. What do you think of the leadership in the school? What are some of the best

attributes of the leaders of this school? What are some of the weaknesses of

leaders of this school?

7. Do you think that your school has effective and supportive leadership that

responds to input from lecturers?

8. To what extent are the school administrators are accessible and listen to faculty

and staff members? If not, give examples.

9. [Females]: what constraints are there that they attribute to gender?

10. [Males]: if they feel there are too many privileges given to females? If not, give

examples.

11. Are different genders and minorities fairly represented on the faculty and staff?

12. Is there any system in which lecturers’ teaching is evaluated by their students?

13. How does the school deal with the problems presented by students on their

teachers’ teaching?

14. What are lecturers’ reactions to students’ feedbacks on their teaching?

15. Are administrative systems for purchasing supplies and equipment are efficient

and well organised? If not, give examples.

16. Does your school provide adequate resources to support your teaching? If not, give

Appendices

266

examples.

17. Does your school provide an adequate funding on teacher training for new faculty

members?

18. Does your school provide access to all essential information services and academic

journals?

19. Does the school sponsor courses seminars that assist you personally? Give

examples.

20. Does the school provide you choices and options during your teaching? If not,

give examples.

21. How much freedom or autonomy do you have in carrying out your duties and

planning your career directions?

22. How do you think that promotion systems are fairly applied?

23. Is the promotion system at your school are transparent and explained to faculty

members and staff. If not, give examples. On what basis do people get promoted?

24. Is there a high level of cooperation and collegiality among your peers in the school?

Give examples.

25. How do you think that the school foster collaboration among faculty?

26. How do you think that the administration provides support and encouragement for

your teaching activities?

27. What do you think of the pay at the school? Is it fair and competitive?

28. Does your school negotiate pay fairly?

29. What is the strategy direction according to your thinking in this school? Which

aspects are emphasised by the school? Please list.

30. How do you think that your work is valued by your colleagues?

31. Is your teaching valued by your students? Give examples.

32. Do you feel satisfied with teaching at this school? Please list some places which you

feel unsatisfied.

Appendices

267

Appendix O:

Summary of

interviews

Participants Sex Work place

Date Interview duration

Interview place Interview themes

Round of interviews

Number

A Male FLC 27/09/2009 50 minutes Room 508 in Building 4 PM 1 09092708/FLC/R01/PA B Female FLC 11/12/2009 60 minutes Room 508 in Building 4 PM 1 09121114/FLC/R01/PB C Male FLC 18/10/2009 40 minutes Cafeteria PM 1 09101811/FLC/R01/PC D Female FLC 25/09/2009 50 minutes Room 508 in Building 4 PM 1 090925/14/FLC/R01/PD E Female FLC 25/09/2009 50 minutes Room 508 in Building 4 PM 1 09092514/FLC/R01/PE F Female CED 09/10/2009

02/12/2010 40 minutes 60 minutes

Room 508 in Building 4 Room 508 in Building 4

PM & POC

1 2

09092514/CED/R01/PF

G Female FLC 04/11/2009 50 minutes Room 508 in Building 4 PM 1 09110409/FLC/R01/PG H Female CED 28/09/2009 50 minutes Room 508 in Building 4 PM 1 09092814/CED/R01/PH I Female FLC 28/09/2009

07/12/2010 40 minutes 40 minutes

Room 508 in Building 4 Room 508 in Building 4

PM & POC

1 2

09092813?FLC/R01/PI

J Male FLC 04/12/2010 60 minutes Room 508 in Building 4 POC 2 10120409/FLC/R02/PJ K Male FLC 04/12/2010 50 minutes Room 508 in Building 4 POC 2 10150413/FLC/R02/PK L Male CED 05/12/2010 50 minutes Room 508 in Building 4 POC 2 10120510/CED/R02/PL M Male FLC 06/12/2010 40 minutes Room 508 in Building 4 POC 2 10120611/FLC/R02/PM

Appendices

268

PM=Personal Motivation POC=Perception of Organisational Culture

Appendices

269

Appendix P: Feedback from COE and students in Semester 1, 2008

Participants Colleges Scores from

COE

Scores from

Students

Average

Scores

1 FLC 99.35 98.32 98.83

3 FLC 87.23 86.23 86.73

4 FLC 77.77 79.65 78.71

5 FLC 82.34 84.44 83.39

6 FLC 91.01 93.12 92.06

7 FLC 87.01 86.03 86.52

8 FLC 93.08 90.24 91.66

9 FLC 84.23 84.88 84.55

10 FLC 89.00 88.65 88.82

11 FLC 76.32 73.54 74.93

12 FLC 78.45 70.56 74.50

13 FLC 84.65 83.73 84.19

14 FLC 91.76 96.77 94.26

15 FLC 86.32 80.63 83.47

16 FLC 85.50 80.22 82.86

17 FLC 92.09 90.65 91.37

18 FLC 74.12 79.21 76.65

19 FLC 92.45 93.65 93.05

20 FLC 84.12 86.45 85.28

21 FLC 72.42 78.65 75.53

22 FLC 86.32 83.01 84.66

23 FLC 95.00 93.22 94.11

24 FLC 76.61 70.44 73.52

25 FLC 87.65 82.22 84.93

26 FLC 91.74 96.88 94.31

27 FLC 86.01 84.12 85.06

Appendices

270

28 FLC 84.65 86.11 85.38

29 FLC 92.80 92.65 92.72

30 FLC 77.11 78.44 77.77

31 FLC 86.75 85.55 86.12

33 FLC 70.50 79.65 75.07

34 FLC 90.93 91.56 91.24

35 FLC 73.56 74.65 74.10

36 FLC 78.65 79.32 78.98

37 FLC 68.36 66.45 67.40

38 FLC 91.74 96.78 94.26

39 FLC 84.52 86.77 85.64

40 FLC 90.00 94.23 92.15

41 FLC 78.26 77.00 77.63

42 FLC 70.63 76.89 73.76

43 FLC 86.12 82.35 84.23

44 FLC 76.39 72.16 74.27

45 FLC 70.50 76.32 73.36

46 FLC 86.32 82.26 84.29

47 FLC 84.81 83.65 84.23

48 FLC 87.43 89.45 88.44

49 FLC 76.35 71.44 73.89

50 FLC 86.45 83.33 84.89

51 FLC 86.32 87.45 86.88

52 FLC 87.77 89.54 88.65

54 CED 73.92 76.45 75.18

55 CED 84.06 86.50 85.28

56 CED 86.12 88.92 87.52

57 CED 91.74 95.65 93.69

Appendices

271

58 CED 87.56 89.33 88.44

59 CED 70.00 75.50 72.75

60 CED 82.01 86.43 84.22

61 CED 92.00 95.64 93.82

62 CED 86.32 88.45 87.38

63 CED 84.12 86.75 85.43

64 CED 75.34 77.65 76.49

65 CED 85.36 89.62 87.49

67 CED 71.85 78.54 75.19

68 CED 87.74 88.23 87.97

69 CED 92.14 94.65 93.39

70 CED 85.54 86.32 85.93

71 CED 83.26 86.71 84.98

72 CED 74.70 78.45 76.57

73 CED 82.64 86.36 84.50

74 CED 84.23 80.23 82.23

75 CED 93.13 91.45 92.31

76 CED 72.83 76.32 74.57

77 CED 83.45 86.33 84.89

78 CED 82.06 87.22 84.64

79 CED 93.27 94.22 93.74

80 CED 83.21 86.46 84.80

81 CED 73.33 75.88 74.60

82 CED 82.45 86.44 84.44

83 CED 83.32 85.56 84.44

84 CED 79.13 73.45 76.29

85 CED 81.76 87.03 84.39

86 CED 91.71 95.32 93.51

Appendices

272

87 CED 64.00 68.35 66.17

88 CED 74.10 76.54 75.32

89 CED 75.09 76.22 75.66

90 CED 86.03 83.12 84.56

91 CED 82.29 86.45 84.37

92 CED 76.23 78.44 77.33

93 CED 75.66 76.55 76.10

95 CED 83.32 85.45 84.38

96 CED 84.65 86.23 85.44

97 CED 72.33 73.42 72.87

98 CED 90.94 94.37 92.65

99 CED 83.00 86.34 84.67

100 CED 67.39 68.88 68.13

101 CED 70.83 76.54 73.68

102 CED 85.41 83.56 84.48

103 CED 87.25 85.46 86.32

104 CED 71.11 73.45 72.28

105 CED 77.16 76.72 76.94

COE=Committee of Experts FLC=Foreign Languages College

CED=College of English Department (Academic Affairs Office, 2009)

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