2 Systematic and Situation-Driven Planning Methods
2.1 Planning Project
Planning production facilities means envisioning production in advance. This ne-cessitates using instruments that efficiently design the planning process. A sys-tematic, methodical approach is influenced by situation-driven decisions. It serves the development of a (planning) project through internal and/or external planning activities.
Project design denotes a creative design activity that utilizes preprepared tech-nical building blocks/modules (components, assemblies, individual systems, etc.) and organizational solutions to design, dimension, structure and configure a user friendly technical unit (device, machine, plant, building, production facility, etc.). The result is a planning project. Figure 2.1 shows the features of a planning pro-ject.
A planning project involves the development of and is a prerequisite for the construction of production facilities in preliminary and execution planning.
Fig. 2.1 Features of a planning project
Technical Disciplines Involved
The following professional disciplines - among others – that are part of a plan-ning project must be managed during the planning and implementation process:
Suppliers → Trades, technical building systems (TBS) Authorities → Permits, approvals
Experts → Reports and surveys
Attorneys → Contracts
The point of departure for all planning is the customer order as the basis for ve-rification of performance agreed upon by the client and the contractor in the form of technical and requirements specifications (in accordance with DIN 69905). This results in the planning and project order that includes the planning basis for prod-ucts (production programs), quantities, times, production processes, resources (workforce, plant, floor space, personnel), investments (costs, turnover and profit) and legal aspects.
2.2 Planning Process and Procedural Models
A planning project can be developed systematically and/or situation-driven on the basis of various planning process and procedural model views.
a) Systematic Planning Processes
(1) Production facility and factory life cycle design planning phases and stages (fig. 2.2).
Planning activities span a production facility’s entire life cycle from develop-ment/planning through setup, execution and operation to phase-out. Three plan-ning stages are always implemented within the individual phases.
The following reflections concentrate on “planning/project design” (the plan-ning project) and setup or “execution planning” (the implementation project).
2.2 Planning Process and Procedural Models 19
Fig. 2.2 Production facility and factory life cycle design planning phases and stages (Schenk, Wirth 2004)
(2) Views of the planning process based on planning levels, stages and steps (fig. 2.3)
Fig. 2.3 Views of the planning processes
20 2 Systematic and Situation-Driven Planning Methods
It is clear that there is a multitude of interconnections that have repercussions for one another. The proportion of “operational” planning is increasing and this substantially shortens the duration of the planning process.
b) Planning Models
(1) Systematic planning models
• Rough sequence of the planning of processes and manufacturing plants (fig. 2.4)
• Project design takes place in the following sequence (cf. fig. 1.12): main proc-ess → 1st periphery → 2nd periphery → 3rd periphery and must be implemented in the required planning stages (e.g. target planning).
• Complex planning model (“0 + 5 + X”), see point 3. This consists of the following planning complexes: I Project definition II Project development III Project implementation
Fig. 2.4 Rough sequence of the planning of processes and manufacturing plants
(2) Situation-driven planning model
Situation-driven planning differs from systematic (algorithm based) planning in that as a result of operational decisions (e.g. changes to target, data, product, tech-nology, requirement, time, profitability or quality specifications) all or part of the planning process and sequences have to be changed. This pertains to the planning
2.2 Planning Process and Procedural Models 21
levels, stages and steps, the process planning sequences and resources (workforce, production equipment) as well as the complex planning model covering project definition, project development and project implementation.
The planning model is adapted operationally and redeveloped based on the giv-en situation and uses selected systematic planning components and activities. Fig-ure 2.5 shows an example of a situation-driven planning model for small business enterprises employing make-to-order and series production methods.
Operational planning and project design is extremely important for short-term adaptation and change processes (Kirchner 2003). For this purpose, evaluating typical change characteristics in accordance with table 2.2 is recommended. (Wirth, Schenk 2001; Wiendahl, Hernandes 2002; Westkämper 2002)
22 2 Systematic and Situation-Driven Planning Methods
Fig. 2.5 Situation-driven planning model (example)
2.2 Planning Process and Procedural Models 23
Table 2.2 Evaluation of Change Characteristics
Evaluation of Struc-tures
Approach Results
Technological flexi-bility
Forecast changed customer product requirements and consequently de-rive technological requirements for every function
• Tolerance range of potential technological modifications per product group
• Identification of resources that limit technological flexibility
Capacity-related flex-ibility
Forecast changed customer require-ments and consequently estimate re-quired capacities (max./min.)
• Tolerance range of capacity per product group [hours] or [unit]
• Identification of resources that limit capacity-related flexibility
Structural flexibility Forecast changed customer require-ments and consequently derive re-quirements placed upon structural units
• Tolerance range of requirements placed upon structures
• Identification of resources and structures that limit structural flexibility
Logistical flexibility Forecast changed customer require-ments and consequently derive the logistics service to be provided
• Tolerance range for fulfillment of logistics requirements
• Identification of system or proc-ess elements that limit logistical flexibility
Variability Forecast changed customer require-ments and consequently derive re-quirements for upgrades, modifica-tions and extensions
• Evaluation of structures based on their suitability for modification
• Designation of modifications and extensions
Mobility Forecast changed customer require-ments and consequently derive mo-bility requirements
• Evaluate and actively facilitate or enhance mobility
• Identification of the resources to be implemented or reorganization of structures
Agility/vitality Forecast changed customer require-ments and consequently derive re-quirements for performance relative to dynamic and sudden changes
• Evaluate agility • Make provision for navigation
instruments
• Derive organizational and quali-fying measures
Customized solutions frequently demand the making of immediate decisions and dealing with unforeseen events on the basis of incomplete data and facts. This has a negative impact on the accuracy of the results of project development and implementation.
Typical situation-driven planning case studies are discussed below.
24 2 Systematic and Situation-Driven Planning Methods
2.3 Planning Tools and Methods of Evaluation
a) Planning Methods and Tools
(1) Planning and project design methods
• indicator-based project design – indicators for different project planning activi-ties
• model-based project design – two or three-dimensional models for layout de-sign
• building block-based project design – reusable solutions in the item and method areas (also type and module project planning)
• computer-aided project design – computers with planning and project design software
(2) Computer-aided planning tools
Computer-aided project design tools are used in every phase, stage and step of project planning, especially to produce drawings, models, workflows (simulations) and layouts based on relevant data and software (VR and multimedia applica-tions). Table 2.3 shows potential tool applications.
In the case of virtual reality (VR), in the digital factory/production facility, all the manufacturing and logistics processes that characterize the actual factory are reproduced in a computer model using databases. An additional step is planning using augmented reality (AR). This is achieved by enriching an actual environ-ment with virtual objects so that the relationship with reality never becomes ob-scured and the user does not become completely immersed in an artificial world (Haller 2006). The aim of AR is to effectively supplement human perception with virtual information and thus enhance a real factory’s productivity.
Advantages of AR include: increased planning certainty. The plants are realis-tic. Planning errors are detected faster without having to reproduce every detail. Shortened planning time. Digital plant data does not have to be updated in such precise detail. Furthermore, savings are generated by avoiding errors caused by planning based on incomplete or erroneous data. Reduced planning costs due to reduction in the time and work needed for modeling. Wider-reaching analyses can be performed without great effort whenever planning assumptions are modified. Improved communication. Presenting virtual systems in a familiar environment makes it easier to understand complex processes. Establishing a common knowl-edge base facilitates the integration of employees on-site. (Schreiber and Doil 2005)
2.3 Planning Tools and Methods of Evaluation 25
Table 2.3 Planning tool evaluation (Günther 2005)
A B C D E F A – Drawings/templates B – CAD systems C – VR systems D – Model-based tools E – Simulation F – Production system planning tools ● - applicable, necessary ◘ - partly applicable, partly necessary ○ - not applicable, not necessary
26 2 Systematic and Situation-Driven Planning Methods
b) Evaluation Methods The results of planning and project design activities must be evaluated so that
decisions can be made about the manner in which the work will progress. Evalua-tion methods exist to do this, as summarized in table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Evaluation Methods (Illes, 2007)
Classification aspects Methods
Evaluation of argumentative aspects (ARGUMENTS)
Evaluation of time-dependent aspects (TIME)
1 characteristic
2 to 3 characteristics
simultaneously
sequentially
Evaluation of inter-
relationships
(CLASSES,
TYPES)
more than 2 charac-
teristics time-independent
Evaluation of objectives (TARGET-ACTUAL)
Benefits / Cost
Dynamic profitability
assessment
Evaluation of quantifiable aspects (BENEFITS, COSTS)
● Advantages/disadvantages
● Strengths/weaknesses
● Opportunities/risks
● Delphi method
● SWOT matrix
● S curve
● Experience curve
● Environmental development trend forecast
● Exponential equalization
● Scenario technique (best case, worst case,
trend extrapolation)
● Pareto methods
● Portfolio
● Cluster analysis
● Hierarchical class formation (grouping)
● Morphological boxes
● KO process
● Checklists
● Benchmarking
● Target fulfillment level
● Balanced Scorecard (BSC)
● Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
● Measurement of customer preferences
● Utility value analysis
● Work expenditure analysis
● Usefulness analysis
● Benefit/cost analysis
● Revenue/effort analysis
● Ecopoint evaluation
● Net present value method
● Internal rate of return method
● Capital recovery method
● Dynamic payback period
2.3 Planning Tools and Methods of Evaluation 27
Static profitability as-
sessment
Business evaluation
Evaluation of environ-
mental aspects
● Costing principle
● Determination of the optimum replacement
time
● Useful life
● Cost comparison method
● Accounting rate of return method
● Rate of profit method
● Break-even analysis
● Portfolio effect analysis
● Revenue calculation
● Budget calculation
● Future earning capacity value method
● Capitalized earnings value method
● Asset value method
● Excess profit payment
● Waste balance
● Raw materials balance
● Pollutant balance
Special attention is paid below to the application of individual evaluation me-thods for selected project planning activities.
Note: modern planning and project design require a combined application of systematic and situation-based approaches and methods. Systematic plan-ning methods and models are predominantly employed for “standard pro-jects.” In the case of “situation-driven projects” operational planning takes precedence, for which problems are solved on the basis of a specifically-developed planning model. A relevant planning model should be devised for every planning and project task, and this will be implemented with or with-out modification. The systematic project design activities and functions dis-cussed below should be selected for a planning model on the basis of the given situation. The order in which they are implemented is based on a “model” or “orientation path” that must be developed.
References (Chapters 1 and 2) Bonnemeier S, Ihl C, Reichwald R (2007) Wertschaffung und Wertaneignung bei hybriden Pro-
dukten. Arbeitsbericht Nr 03, BWL, München Günther U (2005) Methodik zur Struktur- und Layoutplanung wandlungsfähiger Produktionssys-
teme. IBF, TU Chemnitz Haller M, Billinghurst M, Thomas B (2006) Emerging Technologies of Augmented Reality:
Interfaces and Design. Idea Group Publishing, Nov 2006, 300 p. Hanna SR, Konz S (2004) Facility Design and Engineering. Holcomb Hathaway, Scottsdale Helbing K (2007) Fabrikprojektierung. book manuscript, Rostock Hildebrand T, Mäding K, Günther U (2005) Plug + Produce – Gestaltungsstrategien für die
wandlungsfähige Fabrik. IBF, TU Chemnitz
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Illes B, Glistau E, Coello Machado N (2007) Qualitätsmanagement. Miskolc, 978-963-887738-1-4, p. 193-194
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Lotter B, Wiendahl HP (2006) Montage in der industriellen Produktion. Springer, Berlin Naumann A (2008) Gestaltungsmöglichkeiten für Dienstleistungen. Dipl-Arb, TU Chemnitz Schenk M, Wirth S (2004) Fabrikplanung und Fabrikbetrieb. Springer, Berlin Schmigalla H (1995) Fabrikplanung, Begriffe und Zusammenhänge. Hanser, München Schreiber W, Doil F (2005) Augmented Reality Einschnittstellen zwischen der realen und virtu-
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