1
Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Weabmaster’s name
O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
Nwamarah Uche
Faculty of Education
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION
STRATEGIES UTILIZED BY SECONDARY
SCHOOL TEACHERS IN ENGLISH ESSAY
WRITING IN ANAMBRA STATE
ORUCHE, LORETO N.
PG/M.ED/06/42190
2
TITLE PAGE
STRATEGIES UTILIZED BY SECONDARY SCHOOL
TEACHERS IN ENGLISH ESSAY WRITING IN ANAMBRA
STATE
A PROJECT REPORT PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT
OF ARTS EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF EDUCATION
IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION (ENGLISH)
BY
ORUCHE, LORETO N.
PG/M.ED/06/42190
APRIL, 2014
3
CERTIFICATION
Oruche, Loreto Nkolika, a postgraduate student of the Department of
Arts Education, with registration number PG/M.ED/06/42190 has
satisfactorily completed the requirements for course and research work for
the award of the degree of master of Education in Language Education. The
work embodied in this project is original and has not been submitted in part
or full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other university.
……………………… ………………….........
Oruche, Loreto Nkolika Dr. E.N. Oluikpe
PG/M.ED/06/42190 Supervisor
APPROVAL PAGE
4
This project report has been approved for the Department of Arts
Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
By
……………………………. ……………………
Dr. E.N. Oluikpe Internal Examiner
Supervisor
……………………………. …………………………
External Examiner Prof. U.C. Umo
Head of Department
……………………………….
Prof. I.S. Ifelunni
Dean of Faculty
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my husband Mr. Anthony Mary Emeka
Oruche and to my children, Louis Maria, Mary Cynthia, Anthony Mary,
Mary Francis and Mary Stanley.
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My profound gratitude goes to my indefatigable and astute supervisor,
Dr. E.N. Oluikpe for her consistent guide, suggestions, correction of work
and above all, showing absolute interest in my personal, academic and
professional affair.
I wish to give special thanks to my able classmate, Mr. C. Egbe whose
seasoned instructions helped to sharpen and shape my thoughts in this work.
Also to my validators and readers: Prof. S. Onuigbo, Prof. S.A. Ezeudu, and
Mr. F.U. Okoro, I give special thanks. I will not fail to register the assistance
I received from my brother, Mr. S. E. Onyeje who contributed in no small
measure to the success of this work, for assisting me in collecting materials.
My sincere regards and gratitude also goes to my husband Mr. A. E.
Oruche whose love, care, tenderness and devotion saw me through the stress
and rigours of this programme, and also for his financial and moral support. I
am also grateful to my children: Louis Maria, Mary Cynthia, Anthony Mary,
Mary Francis and Mary Stanley for their understanding and patience
6
throughout the period of this study. To my typist, Mrs. O. Eze, who humbly
typed and retyped this work, I also say thanks.
Above all, my greatest gratitude and thanks goes to Almighty God, the
giver of knowledge and wisdom for His love, help and guidance throughout
the period of this study.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page … … … … … … … … … … i
Certification … … … … … … … … … …
ii
Approval page … … … … … … … … … …
iii
Dedication … … … … … … … … … …
iv
Table of Content … … … … … … … … …
vi
List of Tables … … … … … … … … … …
viii
List of Figures … … … … … … … … … …
ix
List of Appendixes … … … … … … … … …
x
Abstract … … … … … … … … … …
xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study … … … … … … … …
1
Statement of the Problem … … … … … … … …
9
Purpose of the Study … … … … … … … … …
10
Significance of the Study … … … … … … … …
11
7
Scope of the Study … … … … … … … … …
13
Research Questions … … … … … … … … …
13
Research hypotheses … … … … … … … … …
14
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Conceptual Framework The Concept of Essay … … … … … … … … …
15
The Concept of Strategy … … … … … … … …
24
The Concept of Approach … … … … … … … …
42
Study of Models … … … … … … … … …
43
Theoretical Framework … … … … … … … …
44
Approaches to Writing … … … … … … … …
45
Product Approach (Clenton) … … … … … … …
46
Behaviourist Theory (John Watson) … … … … … …
47
Contrastive Rhetorics Theory (Hyland) … … … … …
50
Process Approach (Taylor) … … … … … … …
52
Social Constructivist Theory (Ransdell) … … … … …
54
Cognitive Constructivist Theory (Vygotsky) … … … … …
57
Empirical Studies … … … … … … … … …
60
Studies on the Teaching and Learning of English Language … …
60
Studies on Students’ Performance … … … … … …
63
Studies on Methods/Strategies used by Teachers … … … …
65
Summary of Literature Review … … … … … … …
68
8
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD Design of Study … … … … … … … … …
70
Area of the Study … … … … … … … … …
70
Population of the Study … … … … … … … …
71
Sample and Sampling Technique … … … … … … …
71
Instrument for Data Collection … … … … … … …
72
Validation of the Instrument … … … … … … … …
72
Reliability of the Instrument … … … … … … … …
73
Method of Data Collection … … … … … … … …
73
Method of Data Analysis … … … … … … … …
74
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Research Question 1… … … … … … … … …
75
Research Question 2… … … … … … … … …
77
Research Question 3… … … … … … … … …
78
Research Question 4… … … … … … … … …
80
Research Question 5… … … … … … … … …
81
Research Question 6 … … … … … … … …
83
Research Question 7 … … … … … … … …
84
Hypothesis 1… … … … … … … … … …
86
Hypothesis 2… … … … … … … … … …
89
Summary of the results of the Study … … … … … …
91
9
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY
Discussion of findings … … … … … … … … …
96
Implications … … … … … … … … … …
99
Limitation of the Study … … … … … … … …
101
Recommendations … … … … … … … … …
101
Suggestions for Further Research … … … … … …
102
Summary and Conclusion … … … … … … …
103
REFERENCES … … … … … … … … …
107
APPENDIXES … … … … … … … … … …
113
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: The mean ratings of the responses of teachers based on
the use of controlled composition strategy in teaching
essay writing … … … … … … … …
75
Table 2: Mean rating of the responses of teachers based on
the use of collaborative process writing strategy in
teaching essay writing … … … … … …
77
Table 3: Mean ratings of the responses of teachers based on
the use of individualized process writing strategy in
teaching essay writing. … … … … … …
78
Table 4: Mean rating of the responses of teachers on the use
of paragraph pattern strategy in teaching essay writing …
80
10
Table 5: The mean ratings of the responses of the teachers on
the use of information communication Technology
(ICT) strategies in teaching essay writing … … …
81
Table 6: The difference between the mean ratings of the strategies used by
male and female English language teachers in essay writing.
… 83
Table 7: The difference between the mean ratings of the strategies used by
urban and rural English language teachers in essay writing.
… 85
Table 8: Summary of t-test for Ho1 … … … … … …
87
Table 9: Summary of t-test for Ho2 … … … … … …
89
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1: The Relationship between paragraphs and Essays … … …
16
Fig. 2: Coordination and subordination … … … … …
36
Fig. 3: Sentence Variety … … … … … … … …
39
Fig. 4: Parallelism … … … … … … … …
41
Fig. 5: Theoretical Framework of Composition … … … …
45
11
LIST OF APPENDIXES Appendix I: Calculation of Reliability … … … …
Appendix II: Letter of Request for Validation of Instrument …
Appendix III: Essay Writing Strategies Questionnaire … …
Appendix IV: Validators’ Comments on Essay Writing
Strategies Instrument … … … … …
Appendix V: Statistics of Schools and English Language Teachers
(SS) in Anambra State … … … … …
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study is to find out the Strategies utilized by Secondary
School Teachers in English Essay Writing. Five research questions and two
hypotheses guided the study. A descriptive survey research design was used.
The study has no sample rather the census of the population was used. Three
hundred and thirty three (333) senior secondary English language teachers
from 232 public secondary schools in Anambra state were used. The
instrument used for data collection was questionnaire. The instrument was
trial tested on 20 English language teachers in Nsukka local government Area
of Enugu state and it yielded an index of .936. The instrument was
12
administered to the respondents and the data obtained were used in answering
the research questions and testing hypotheses. The major findings of the
study were that the teachers do not actively use strategies especially those
that the students can use in the teachers absence like introducing class
discussion and ICT. Gender and location were found to be significant factors
in utilizing the strategies. It was recommended that the English language
teachers should actively and frequently make use of strategies in essay
writing.
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STRATEGIES UTILIZED BY SECONDARY
SCHOOL TEACHERS IN ENGLISH ESSAY
WRITING IN ANAMBRA STATE
BY
ORUCHE, LORETO. N.
PG/MED/06/42190
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
NSUKKA.
APRIL, 2014
14
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
English language is the language of the Nigerian multilingual
community. In Nigeria, there is no mutual intelligibility and understanding
amongst the greater majority of people, therefore, English language becomes
a means of obtaining, maintaining and regulating contact. It is then very
important that every Nigerian is proficient in it both in speech and writing,
for the limit of ones language is the limit of his world. Above all, success in
school is largely a language matter and purely depends on ones ability to
write.
Writing is defined as one of the four modes of expressing language:
listening, speaking, reading and writing. According to Leki (2000), it is an
autographic representation of speech. But the task of a writer is not just as
simple as representing reality, the ability to write presupposes some levels of
morphological, lexical and syntactical knowledge as well as idiomatic
knowledge. Meanwhile, the knowledge of idioms, syntax and morphology
alone does not guarantee the ability to write well because writing involves
much more than constructing grammatical sentences. Sentences need to be
cohesive, that is, they have to be connected in ways that can be followed by
readers. In support of the above point, Perin (2007) views writing as the
productive skill in the written mode which seems to be the most difficult of
15
the skills even among the native speakers of the language. Writing is
therefore a crucial skill, yet every year, large number of students graduate
from secondary schools unable to write at the basic level required by colleges
or employers. Morriz (2002) laments that the quality of the English language
written in Nigeria has been falling rapidly and will fall more in the next few
years.
According to the chief examiner’s report of the West African
Examination Council (WAEC), May/June (2007), generally, in essay writing,
the performance of the candidates was awfully poor, notwithstanding that the
essay topics were within the competence of the school certificate candidates.
What was seen in the candidates performance was contrary to expectation.
The most common errors are wrong spellings and interchangeable use of
words, wrong concord, indiscriminate use of capital letters, grammatical
errors and wrong use of tenses. Also, Uwadiae (2010), reports that, out of
451, 187 candidates, (33.38%) recorded credits and above in English
language while 560, 974 (41.50%) obtained p-level and f-level. Since
students are people who will carry out diverse responsibilities, of which
students are just a step towards the roles demanded of them, if what they
learn is not directly related to the rest of their lives, it is easily lost among
other pressing needs. Writing is an important factor in seeking for admission
to higher institutions, gateway to job opportunities and other related
activities.
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Besides, essay writing is an important aspect of English language. It is
a piece of writing usually short and in prose. Onuigbo (2006) sees it as a
distinct literary genre like a play or a novel. Essay writing prepares one for
future life. For instance, ones ability to write an application for job depends
on his knowledge of the skills involved in essay writing. In actual job also
especially office job, one does a lot of writing which becomes very difficult if
one lacks the essential skills in writing which, according to Alutu (2007) are:
good knowledge of grammar, punctuation marks, possession of basic
vocabulary and having many words and expressions that enables one commit
his thinking to writing. In most language examinations like WAEC and
NECO, writing an essay is required. Here, students are required to organize
and express their thought clearly and effectively. It also tests the writer’s
ability to write successfully at some length even under examination condition
(Onuigbo, 2006).
In fact, essay writing is an aspect of the English language that calls for
not only the use of special strategies but most especially for the professional
use of the activities involved in the use of each strategy for planning lessons
and teaching the students. Brown (2000) sees strategy as mode of operation
for achieving a particular end, planned designs for controlling and
manipulating certain information. Stern (1991) states that strategy is best
reserved for general tendencies of overall characteristics of the approach
employed by the language teacher/learner. It is a skill in managing any affair.
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Strategies for essay writing therefore means the skills and approaches applied
by teachers in essay writing in order to motivate and boost the interest of the
students in learning to write essay. It is the specific actions, tactics,
behaviours, techniques or any set of operations, steps, plans, routine used by
the teacher to facilitate the learning of essay writing. Robert (2000) opines
that strategy utilization is a critical factor in ensuring teaching effectiveness
in the instructional process. There is no doubt that the use of appropriate
instructional strategy and the effective execution of the inherent activities are
very important in teaching and learning situation. Therefore, teachers aiming
at developing the writing competence of students should be familiar with the
strategies involved in essay writing. Stephen (1999) states that the use of
strategies are especially important for language learning because they are
tools for active, well directed movement which is essential for developing
competence. There are a number of strategies to be used in helping the
students become good writers.
One of these strategies is the ICT. This is a short form for Information
Communication Technology. It is the most recent innovation in the field of
technological research. According to Milken Foundation (1999), ICT is
defined as computer based tools which are utilized for the information and
communication needs of a particular organization, institution or individual.
The tools involved are such electronic technologies as the computer
networking, telephoto devices such as Video, multimedia, audio and internet.
18
It is an approach to language learning in which computer technology is used
as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of materials to be
learned usually including a substantial interactive element. In essay writing
classroom, the teacher can make use of visual aids like overhead projectors,
film strips, films and computers to improve the quality of instruction. The
teacher should introduce the students to internet activities and electronic
mails (e-mails) activities to exchange information with other computer users
and also communicate with the native speakers of the language.
Another strategy, though, conventional is the self-regulated strategy.
This is a way of helping students to learn specific stages of planning,
drafting, revising and editing of text. Here, students are treated as active
collaborators in the learning process and instruction takes place in stages.
Next is the sentence combining strategy. This is an alternative strategy
to more traditional grammar instruction. Sentence combining instruction
involves helping students to construct more complex sentences through
exercises in which two or more basic sentences are combined into single
sentence.
Collaborative writing strategy also helps to improve the writing ability
of students. It involves peers writing as a team in which the higher achieving
student is assigned to be the helper (tutor) while a lower achieving student is
assigned to be the writer (tutee). The students are instructed to work as
partners on a writing task.
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The last is the inquiry activities. This means engaging students in
activities that help them develop ideas and content for a particular writing
task by analyzing immediate concrete data, comparing and contrasting cases
or collecting and evaluating evidence (Hillocks, 1999). The students are
given opportunity to examine the nature, size, quality and colour of objects
and put down their findings in writing.
An analysis of Anambra State students’ performance in the West
African Examination Council in both language and literature by Uwaifo
(2008) concludes that students fail because of their inability to express
themselves correctly. They find it difficult to distinguish main idea from
irrelevant details and to make good summaries. They fail to employ
appropriate styles required for different writing purposes. He also found that
the methods teachers in Anambra State use in addition to the traditional
method are just discussion and group methods in essay writing without
employing strategies.
One wonders whether location of school could be responsible for the
poor performance of students. Secondary schools in Anambra State are
located in urban and rural areas and this determines many things that are
important in learning such as availability of learning facilities, infrastructures,
number of teachers and class size among others. Adequate provision of these
facilities facilitates some strategies used by teachers. Ejembi (2002) claims
that students from urban schools perform better than those from rural schools.
20
This may be because students in urban areas are exposed to early speaking of
English language than their rural counterparts. Ogbuaja (2003) also found out
that students in urban setting are more exposed to modern day life and as
such acquire more knowledge and experience than rural students. Meanwhile,
because some schools in the rural areas tend to compete with those in the
urban areas in terms of facilities, more recent researches like Graham (2005)
found out that students in rural areas perform better than those in the urban
areas because of the noise pollution which affects their health and causes
reduction in mental concentration. Okoro (2008) also found that students in
rural schools achieved better than those in urban schools. This could be
attributed to the crowded nature of classes in urban areas as opposed to
moderate class sizes in rural areas, thereby making student – teacher
interaction more effective in rural areas. Ezeonyia (2005) then found that
location is not a significant factor in students’ achievement. This study
therefore intends to find out to what extent location influences the strategies
used by teachers in essay writing.
Gender is another variable that plays an important role in learning.
Gender refers to varied social and culturally constructed roles, qualities and
behaviour that are ascribed to women and men of different societies. Roberts
(2000) discovered that females have general tendencies to think in negative
ways about the tasks in which they engage. Thus, one of the aims of studying
essay writing is to express thought. Uzoegwu (2004) found out that male
21
students achieved higher than female students in essay writing. Umo (2001)
found that female students significantly performed better than the male
students in Igbo grammar. Akabuogu (2002) concluded that there is no
significant difference in the achievement of male and female students in
reading comprehension. Oluikpe (2004) in support of Akabuogu (2002) also
found that gender was not a significant factor in students’ overall
achievement. One then wonders whether gender could be attributable to the
strategies utilized by teachers. This study therefore, seeks to find out what to
extent gender influences the strategies used by teachers in essay writing.
The researcher therefore, intends to find out the strategies utilized by
secondary school teachers in English essay writing considering also the
influence of some variables like gender and location in Anambra State. Hence
the need for the study.
22
Statement of the Problem
There has been a general outcry by Nigerian elites about the poor
performance of students in English language especially in essay writing, in
teacher made tests and proficiency public examinations. Nigerian students
especially secondary school students in Anambra state lag behind in writing
performance.
Against this background, it is believed that of the contributing factors
to the identified problems over the years may rest on the strategies applied by
teachers and the inability of teachers to extract and use professionally the
activities involved in each strategy in planning their lessons and in the actual
teaching. The teacher is then answerable for the greater part of the success or
failure of any language instruction. For an effective learning of essay writing
to take place, the teacher has the task of selecting and utilizing appropriate,
workable and matching strategies that will enable him to accomplish his task
in meeting individual needs based on their learning styles.
The strategies employed by teachers may differ as a result of gender
and location. These variables could create difference in performance and
there is need to explore the extent of utilization of the strategies by male and
female teachers and rural and urban teachers in Anambra state since it is
being suspected that the poor performance of students in English essay
writing could be attributable to these. Therefore, the problem of this study is
23
to find out the extent of teachers utilization of the various strategies in essay
writing in Anambra State.
Purpose of the Study
The general purpose of the study is to find out the extent to which
teachers utilize various strategies in English Essay writing.
Specifically, the study seeks to:
1. Determine the extent to which teachers use controlled composition
strategy in essay writing.
2. Ascertain the extent to which teachers use collaborative process
writing strategy in essay writing.
3. Determine the extent to which teachers use individualized process
writing strategy in essay writing.
4. Ascertain the extent to which teachers use paragraph pattern strategy in
essay writing.
5. Find out the extent to which teachers use information communication
technology (ICT) strategy in essay writing.
6. Ascertain the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
male English language teachers and those used by female English
teachers in essay writing.
7. Explore the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
urban and rural English language teachers in essay writing.
24
Significance of the Study
This study has both theoretical and pedagogical significance.
Theoretically, the discussions of the underlying theories of writing provide
the teacher with basic insights into the genesis of the strategies they employ
in the classroom. For instance, the constructivist theory underlies
collaborative methods in writing, the behaviourst theories with its emphasis
on habit formation underlies the focus on grammar and accuracy.
Pedagogically, the study will be useful to the following categories of
people. Firstly, the teachers will be informed on how to improve on essay
writing by using different strategies. They shall be aware of the existing
strategies that can help improve the writing ability of the students. By using
different strategies, the work of the teachers will be made easier and more
fruitful, since students have different styles of learning, to meet the individual
differences.
Secondly, these strategies will help the learners develop interest,
aptitude, potential and ability in learning to write essay. They will be
motivated to learn to write with enthusiasm even in the teacher’s absence.
From the strategies taught and used by the teachers, the students will be able
to use it for their constant practice. For instance, when the students are taught
the self regulation strategy which provides the students the knowledge of
planning, drafting and revising, they will now go home and write on many
topics. These essays will now be brought to the teacher to make necessary
25
corrections and give necessary instructions. In collaborative strategy, the
teacher teaches them to write essay in groups. Each person is given a part to
play in the course of writing. It is now the duty of the students to do the same
outside the classroom or in the absence of the teacher. By so doing, the
students will develop interest in writing even when they are not mandated to
write.
In addition, the ministry of education and the school administrators
who from time to time may need to make decisions on how to organize
workshops, seminars and in-service training for the English language teachers
will get insight from the result of this study. This will help in updating their
knowledge on effective strategies used in essay writing.
Textbook writers will benefit also from the result of this study. Since
many people are not taught by regular teachers but rather get insight about
essay writing from textbooks. It becomes necessary therefore, that the
textbook writers should infuse into their texts, the strategies for writing
essays.
Moreover, curriculum planners can infuse the recommended strategies
into the curriculum which both the teachers and students will benefit from. It
will give them scope for innovation and integration of suitable strategies that
will boost the learning of essay writing.
26
Scope of Study
The study is restricted to senior secondary schools in Anambra state. It
is limited to determining the extent to which teachers utilize various
strategies of controlled composition, collaborative process, individualized
process, paragraph pattern and ICT in essay writing.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
1. To what extent do teachers use controlled composition strategy in
essay writing?
2. What is the extent of teachers’ use of collaborative process strategy in
essay writing?
3. To what extent do teachers use individualized process strategy in essay
writing?
4. What is the extent of teachers’ use of paragraph pattern strategy in
essay writing?
5. To what extent do teachers use Information Communication
Technology (ICT) in essay writing?
6. What is the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
male English language teachers and those used by female English
language teachers in essay writing?
7. What is the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
the urban and rural English language teachers in essay writing?
27
Research Hypotheses
Two null hypotheses are formulated for this study:
Ho1:
There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of the
strategies used by the male English language teachers and those used by the
female English language teachers in essay writing.
Ho2:
There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of the
strategies used by the Urban and rural English language teachers in essay
writing.
28
CHAPTER TWO
Review of Literature
This chapter is organized into the following major heads and sub-heads
Conceptual Framework
Concept of Essay
Concept of Strategy
Concept of Approach
Study of Models
Theoretical Framework
Product Approach
Behaviourist Theory
Contrastive Rhetorics Theory
Process Approach
Social Constructivist Theory
Empirical Studies
Summary of Review of Literature
29
Conceptual Framework
The Concept of Essay
An essay is a composition. It is a piece of writing which is composed on related ideas and made up of paragraphs.
(Amechi 2005).
FIG 1: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS AND ESSAYS
Adapted from Smith (1990:61)
Thesis
statement
paragraph
Concluding
Paragraph
Topic sentence
----------------------------------------------------
------------ Support point ----------------------
--------------- Support point -------------------
----------------------------------------------------
---------- Support point ------------------------
PARAGRAPH Presents
main point
Supports
main point
Support
conclusion
Thesis statement
--------------------------------------
--------------------------------------
ESSAY
Topic Sentence
--------------------------------------
------------------------
Topic Sentence
--------------------------------------
----------------------
Topic Sentence
--------------------------------------
--------------------------------------
Conclusion
--------------------------------------
--------------------------------------
Support
Paragraph
30
The ideas in an essay is arranged and expressed in an orderly manner.
According to Egudu (1990), to write an essay or a composition means to
compose a piece of writing by carefully putting together some ideas or points
which are parts of a given topic. A good essay has three necessary parts
according to Egudu (1990): an introductory paragraph, which introduces the
essay and states the main point in a thesis statement, the body which supports
(shows, explains or proves) main point. It consists of support paragraphs.
These support paragraphs containing facts and details supporting the main
point. A concluding paragraph which reminds readers of the main point. It
may also summarize the support paragraphs or make an observation in a
concluding sentence.
The essay is composed about a topic. The writer breaks this topic into
its different parts or sections and writes a short piece on each of these parts or
sections. The short pieces written on the parts or sections make up the body
of the essay or composition. The short pieces written about the different parts
or sections of the topic is called paragraphs. A paragraph according to Anker
(2001) is a group of sentences that work together to make a point. It is a short
piece of writing in which only one point is made and developed. For him, a
well developed paragraph usually has at least five and sometimes as many as
ten sentences. A good paragraph has three necessary parts with a standard
format and arrangement moving from first, the topic sentence which is
usually the first sentence of the paragraph and states the main point. Second
31
the supporting sentences which support (shows, explains or proves) the main
point. The number of supporting sentences depends on how large or small the
point being developed is. The last is the concluding sentences. This reminds
the readers of the main point, it may also summarize the support sentences or
make an observation. The fact that the topic sentence and the supporting
sentences are all about just one point makes the paragraph possess the quality
of unity.
Specifically, essay writing is an important aspect of writing in public
examinations like West Africa Examination Council (WAEC), National
Examination Council (NECO) and teacher training colleges. For instance, in
WAEC, the English language examination test consists of three papers,
papers 1, 2 and 3. the essay is a major component of paper 1 which is made
up of comprehension, essay and summary. The essay section carries forty
(40) marks out of the hundred marks being pursued in the examination.
Anieke (2003) states that an essay is a piece of writing which discusses any
topic. Usually, the essay is short in length and can be written within a short
time of less than one hour. This is as it concerns essay that are set for students
of secondary school and equivalent levels of education.
Additionally, writing an essay is equivalent to talking to a listener.
Sanaa (2009) states that, this time, it is not a dialogue because the writer is
the only one talking, addressing the listener who is the reader in the case.
Therefore, in writing essay, one considers the reader with every effort to
32
make the essay understandable to him. According to Azikiwe (2007), the
language of an essay should be as simple and clear as possible because one
will not be called back to explain what he/she has written. Another important
thing in an essay is the topic in question. The language and expressions one
employs in writing are expected to be those that suit the topic under
discussion. In fact, every type of speech made to our listeners can be
represented in essay writing. Some speeches involve telling stories, others
entail describing something while some may be in form of debate and so on.
In that way, essay is classified into four main types; narrative essay,
descriptive essay, expository essay and argumentative essay.
Narrative Essay
A narrative essay is an essay in which one tells a story. The story told
in a narrative essay could be a true story (non-fiction) or a cooked-up story
(fiction). According to Egudu (1990), to tell a story is to say what happened,
where it happened and when it happened. In other words, telling the reader or
the examiner about some event or events. It may be an account of what
happened in real life situation (non-fiction) and the narrator (writer) writes it
exactly as it happened. The story can also be the work of the writer’s
imagination (fiction). For Alutu (2007), a narrative essay, whether real or
imagined must possess the quality of feasibility. That is, it must be a story
that is capable of happening. The story written should be such that when the
reader or the examiner has gone through it, he will agree that such a thing
33
happens even if the one written did not take place actually. Simply put, every
narrative should be credible. Examples of narrative topics are: a wedding
ceremony I attended, a day in the life of a university student, how I spent my
last vacation, an annual cultural festival in my village, all that glitters is not
gold etc.
Descriptive Essay
Descriptive essay according to Amaechi (2005) is a type of essay in
which we describe a situation or a phenomenon that takes place. When we are
writing a descriptive essay, we are required to use words in painting a picture
of something. We will, therefore, talk about the shape, the size and the colour
of what we describing. Onuigbo (2006) also states that description is writing
that creates a clear and vivid impression of the topic. It translates ones
experience of a person, place or thing into words, often by appealing to the
physical sense of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. A good description
creates a main impression, that is, an overall effect, feeling or image about
the topic. It uses concrete specific details to support the main impression.
Anker (2001) says that being able to describe something or someone
accurately and in detail is important not only in school but also in other
settings. Example of descriptive essay topics are: A house I admire, our
school compound, a beautiful scenery, a dance show I watched etc.
34
Argumentative Essay
Argument according to Amaechi (2005) is writing that takes a position
on an issue and offers reasons and supporting evidence to persuade someone
else to accept, or at least consider the position. Argument is also used to
convince someone to take an action. Here, we give reasons for our
statements, opinions or preferences. To argue means to reason or to prove
that an idea or statement is true or false, or that it is correct or incorrect. An
argumentative essay may also be one in which we give reasons for saying
that one thing is better or worse than another thing (Alutu 2007). Good
argument takes a strong and definite position on an issue or advises a
particular action, gives good reasons and supporting evidence to defend the
position or recommend action, considers opposing views and has enthusiasm
and energy from start to finish (Sanaa 2009). Knowing how to put together a
good argument is one of the most useful skills one can develop. Some
examples of argumentative essay topics are: life in the township is better than
life in the village, science is more useful to man than religion etc.
Explanatory or Expository Essay
This type of essay normally explains or reveals how to do something.
Anker (2001) states that it is a type of writing that explains the meaning and
uses of something or an idea, and the functions of a person. It may also
explain the similarities or dissimilarities between two actions or objects.
Some examples of expository essay topics are: How to make garri, how to get
35
to my school from the town, democracy, the functions of a class prefect, the
advantages and disadvantages of boarding system in schools, the similarities
and dissimilarities between boys’ secondary school and girls’ secondary
school.
Grading of an Essay
There are aspects that are considered in awarding marks to candidates
in essay writing. The first is content. According to Farrel (2000), content is
the issue or topics that should be discussed in the essay. They are those things
that are expected to be discussed and not to deviate from it. He makes sure
that all the areas that need to be touched are touched within the space and
time allocated to the question. For Egudu (1990), the points have to be
discussed according to the appearance in the question. A good score in
content requires that a write-up should contain all to be discussed.
Another aspect considered is organization. Every writing is judged
according to what it is intended to be. According to Azikiwe (2007), in
writing, adequate attention has to paid to the type of writing because every
writing has its own peculiar features which could be observable in the
physical format of the writing. These features differentiate one form of
writing from the other. For Amaechi (2005), the implication is that, for any
form of writing so chosen by the candidate, the expectations of the writing
should be reflected on it. When these characteristics are not demonstrated,
penalties ensue.
36
The next aspect is expression. This often carries the highest score in
the marking of essay writing. According to Smith (1990), expression includes
all the positive qualities expected of the language used in the presentation of
the topic. Paramount among such qualities is the appropriateness of the
vocabulary and collocation of expressions. Deep knowledge of register is
required here. For Anker (2001), the essential thing here is the proper
arrangement and variation of the different sentence structures. This calls for
expert combination of long and short sentences, simple and complex and
compound sentences. Also figurative language is a good stuff of this aspect.
The last is mechanical accuracy. A lot of things are considered in the
assessment of mechanical accuracy of students’ writings. According to Egudu
(1990), some of the important errors for which students are penalized under
mechanical accuracy include: errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
Some of these errors seem to be more manifest and prevalent than others. For
instance many candidates commonly misuse the parts of speech and some
other elements of the sentence.
Notwithstanding, as is the case with many other things people do,
people learn to write by writing. Getting better at writing requires doing it a
lot. This means actual writing not merely listening to lessons about writing,
doing grammar drills or discussing readings. The more one writes, the easier
it becomes and the more they are motivated to write. Writers who write a lot
learn more about the process because they have had more experience in it.
37
According to Smith (1990), writers learn from each session with their hands
on a keyboard or around a pencil as they draft, rethink, revise and draft again.
Thinking about how to make ones writing better is what revision is. In other
words, improvement is built into the experience of writing. Writing,
therefore, should not be viewed as an activity that happens only within a
classroom wall. It must include ample in class and out of class opportunities
for writing. Therefore, teachers in their use of strategies should be able to
support the students in their development of writing lives and make them
understand that writing is particularly important for life in school and life
after school.
The Concept of Strategy
The necessity of selecting and utilizing appropriate strategies for
instruction cannot be overemphasized. The use of strategies determines
greatly how well or how poorly any content can be taught or learned. It also
determines how interesting or boring a lesson can be. According to Rubin
(1996), strategies are those specific attacks that are made on a given problem.
They are moment-by-moment techniques that one employs to solve problems
posed by second language input and output. The strategy for essay writing,
therefore, is the intentional behaviours and thoughts used by the teacher so as
to help students understand, learn or remember new information for the
improvement of their skills in essay writing. It is the tactics, plans, patterns,
ways and skills deliberately chosen by the teacher to enhance the student’s
38
knowledge in essay writing. With the increment of knowledge in the field of
second language, it became clear that no single method ushers in universal
success, therefore, teachers should endeavour to use different strategies in
essay writing.
Similarly, the effectiveness of selected instructional strategies in
promoting the attainment of expected learning outcome will depend on the
following considerations according to Robert (2000). First, the teacher in
selecting strategies for instruction must bear in mind the learners and the
individual differences among them. In other words, the strategy selected
should be of interest to the learners, within their intellectual range and must
be varied enough to take care of their differences since they have different
learning styles. Learning style is a characteristic manner in which a leaner
goes about the task of learning. Students are most effective when they learn
in the style that suits them the most. In fact, there are three major types of
learners (Kelly 2008): visual, auditory and tactile/kinesthetic. Visual learners
are those who generally think in terms of pictures. They often prefer to see
things written down in a handout, text or on the overhead. They remember
things best by seeing something written. The auditory learners are those who
generally learn best by listening. They typically like to learn through lectures,
discussion and reading aloud. The kinesthetic learners also called tactile
learners learn best through touching, feeling and experiencing that which they
are trying to learn. They remember best by writing or physically manipulating
39
the information. Therefore, teachers should try to incorporate the three
learning styles into the essay writing lessons. Secondly, the teacher should go
for those strategies that can be applied with greater efficiency and which
enhances the possibility of realizing set objectives. Lastly, the time available
for instruction is important. Selection of instructional strategy may be
considered inappropriate when they cannot lead to the attainment of stated
objectives within the period allocated on the timetable.
Nevertheless, as teachers seek to make the writing classroom an
effective milieu for learning, it becomes apparent that using strategies is
crucial, parallel to the learning style of students. Wenden (1995) asserts that
the use of strategies are the key to learner autonomy. There is need for
teachers’ understanding of what makes learners successful and unsuccessful,
and establish in the classroom a milieu for the realization of successful
strategies. Students are certain to benefit from writing instruction if they
understand the strategy used, perceive it to be effective, do not consider it
difficult and if it is in line with the learning style appropriate to their
individual differences. Therefore, it is worthwhile that teachers of writing
embed strategies into their pedagogy. To make it clearer, Mintzberg (2000)
points out that strategy has to do with a complex web of thought, ideas,
insights, experiences, goals, expertise, memories, perceptions and
expectations that provide general guidance for specific actions in pursuit of
particular ends. The end being pursued is making the students write
40
excellently, that is, making them overcome certain weaknesses in writing
using strategies.
In fact, each of the English language skills: listening, speaking reading
and writing have appropriate strategies. A misuse or absence of these
strategies jeopardize the learning of these skills. To enhance students’ ability
in essay writing, the teacher has the task of selecting appropriate strategies
that enables him to accomplish the task with ease. This study, therefore tries
to discuss some of the modern strategies to be used by teachers in essay
writing in secondary schools: these include:
Information Communication Technology (ICT)
Nworgu (2006a) sees ICT as a broad based technology (including its
management and application) that supports the creation, storage,
manipulation and communication of information. There are some ICT
materials that could be used in writing. ICT embraces technological
information gadgets like radio, television, telephone, projectors and all other
kinds of electronic mail and the internet. ICT has brought changes in the
teaching methodologies of foreign language.
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and Teaching
Computer as the major instrument of ICT and the computer assisted
language teaching/learning is one of the methods of language teaching and
learning made possible in recent time with the invention of the computer and
its introduction for use in education. The computer takes the place of the
41
teacher and the learner interacts directly with the computer. Computer has the
advantage of storing printed material for a given period of time. This helps
the students with the guidance of the teacher to consult these printed
materials to improve their writing performance. David (2004) opines that
computer can help to individualize instruction. The computer takes the place
of the teacher as the learner interacts directly with the computer.
The Internet
Internet is an acronym for international network system. Bakpo (2002)
defines it as a collection of computer networks that connect millions of
computers around the world. This enables one to sit at his computer and
exchange information with other computers and computer users anywhere in
the world. With the use of internet then and the teacher as facilitator, students
can engage into written exchanges with other students. It enables schools and
consequently individuals to share information independently to enhance ones
understanding.
The World Wide Web (www)
The internet uses the world wide web and electronic e-mails. The www
is an incredible resource for language teachers. The teacher can make the
students do research on the web using different search engines like Goggle
and Mamma sites that explain grammar points. Students can be directed to
read them to improve in their writing of essay.
42
On the other hand, the electronic mail activities are also very
effectively used in writing classes. It helps students communicate with native
speakers of the language in an easy and cheap way. It is possible for two or
more students to join a chart room and talk on-line through e-mail (Lee,
2000). Problematic issues in grammar can be clarified by a native speaker via
e-mail.
Compact Disc (CD)
This is a small plastic disc with a metallic surface on which
information, especially high quality sound is recorded. It can come in form of
audio or audio visual. Studies carried out by Gildea, Miller and Wartenberg
(1990) provide support for video used in learning vocabulary. These
researchers found out in their study that learners who saw video pictures were
able to produce a higher percentage of acceptable sentences using the most
difficult target words than those who read only the narratives. Gildea et al
(1990) conclude that pictures (video) improve sentence production for many
words.
Video CDs can be used to stimulate the production of target
vocabulary. For instance, the teacher can select a video segment that contains
a series of actions and visual details. Then, the learners are provided with a
list of vocabulary words and asked to construct a paragraph that incorporates
as many of the words as possible. It can also be used to contextualize target
vocabulary in that students can be made to watch a video segment and then
43
asked to fill in the blanks of a guided close passage that based on a narrative
descriptive of the segment.
Television
The television presents multimedia opportunities for language learning
especially skills needed for essay writing. Dale (1969, quoted in Okoro and
Ike (1995) points out that it incorporates and distributes other media like
chalkboard presentation, demonstration, charts, motion pictures, still pictures,
diagrams, film strips and photographs. The language teacher, working as
presenter can prepare his lesson and present them through any of these media.
Therefore, phonology, grammar, vocabulary and other aspects of the English
language can be taught using the educational or instructional television.
Where a television is connected to a satellite dish, that enables it to receive
many foreign channels, where the English language is used as a native
language, the TV becomes very useful in making the students watch news,
dramas, talks, advertisements, debates, films and other programmes in their
natural settings thus providing models of speech which is transferred to
writing.
Other conventional strategies are:
Self-regulated Strategy
Teaching students strategies for planning, revising and editing their
writings has shown a dramatic effect on the quality of students writing
(Graham, 2006). Strategy instruction involves explicitly and systematically
44
teaching steps necessary for planning, revising and/or editing text. The
ultimate goal is to teach students to use these strategies independently.
Strategy instruction may involve using more generic process such as,
according to Graham, (2002), brainstorming or collaboration for peer
revising. They are also taught a number of self-regulation skills, including
goal setting, self-monitoring, self-instruction and self-reinforcement designed
to help them manage writing strategies, the writing process and their
behaviour. Mnemonics (words or sentences that help students remember
easily what they have learnt) are introduced to help students remember
strategies to increase writing performance. Two such mnemonics are,
according to Graham, plan and write. Plan means pay attention to the prompt,
list the main idea, add supporting ideas, number your ideas. Write means –
work from your plan to develop your thesis statement, remember your goals,
include transitional words for each paragraph, try to use different kinds of
sentences and exiting, interesting words. Troia (2002) points out that
instruction takes place in six stages: first, developing background knowledge:
the students are taught any background knowledge needed to use the strategy
successfully, secondly, describe it: the strategy as well as its purpose and
benefits is described and discussed. Next, model it: the teacher models how to
use the strategy. Fourthly, support it: the teacher supports or scaffolds
students mastery of the strategy. Lastly, independent use, students use the
strategy with few or no supports.
45
Collaborative Writing
This involves developing instructional arrangements whereby students
work together to plan, draft, revise and edit their writings. According to
Yarrow and Troppy (2001), this involves peers writing as team. A higher
achieving student is assigned to be the writer. The students are instructed to
work as partners on a writing task. The head-student assists the writer-
student with meaning, organization, spelling, punctuation, generating ideas,
creating a draft, rereading essays, editing essays, choosing the best copy and
evaluating the final product. The teacher’s role here is to monitor, prompt and
praise the students and address their concerns. Oluikpe (1979) quoted in
Oluikpe (2004), gives another direction on the use of collaborative approach
in writing. According to the direction, the class chooses a topic, the class led
by the teacher writes spontaneously on the chosen topic for five to ten
minutes on the chalkboard. The goal of this group writing session is to enable
all the actors in the writing process to explore their common problems of
getting ideas, and choosing appropriate words to express them. Consequently,
no attention is paid to grammar, punctuation and spelling at this time. At the
end of the writing, the class discusses what is written on the chalkboard in
terms of organization and content. The class also discusses decisions
involved in selecting and ordering relevant materials for the theme, grammar,
spelling and punctuation. After the group writing session and its subsequent
discussion, the teacher assigns topics to students to complete outside the
46
classroom. Before the students have the opportunity to write on their own, the
class is divided into groups of three or four to discuss the topic. Thereafter,
each student writes on the given topic at his leisure time. During the next
class period, the scripts are exchanged and students are asked to make
specific comments on the scripts assigned to them. Each student is asked to
write his script in the light of the critique they receive from their peers. The
reviewed scripts are submitted to the teacher for evaluation. The teacher then
reinforces the positive aspects.
Setting specific product goals
This involves assigning students specific reachable goals for the
writing they are to complete. It includes identifying the purpose of the
assignment (for instance, to persuade) as well as characteristics of the final
product. Specific goals according to Dowdy (2000) includes, adding more
ideas to a paper when revising or establishing a goal to write a specific kind
of paper and assigning goals for specific structural elements in a piece of
writing. Setting specific product goals provides the students with objectives
to focus on particular aspects of writing, for instance, students may be
instructed to take a position and write a persuasive letter designed to lead an
audience to agree with them. In addition to this general goal, teachers provide
explicit sub-goals on argumentative discourse including a statement of belief,
two or three reasons for that belief.
47
Sentence Combining
This involves the construction of more complex and sophisticated
sentences through exercises in which two or more basic sentence are
combined into a single sentence. In this strategy, students at higher and lower
writing levels are paired. Sentence combining strategy has three branches:
combining sentences/ideas through coordination and subordination, creating
sentence variety and using parallelism (balancing ideas) (Anker 2001).
Coordination and subordination are ways of combining sentences with related
ideas. If all sentences are short, they will seem choppy and hard to read. To
vary the rhythm and flow of ones writing and to clarify subordination.
Coordination can be used to combine two sentences when the ideas in them
are equally important. This is done through the use of coordinating
conjunctions which are: and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet. For instance two
sentences – (1) Some people spend many hours working. (2) They may not be
accomplishing all they could. Joined through coordination: some people
spend many hours working, but they may not be accomplishing all they
could. Subordination is used to join two sentences when one idea is more
important than the other. This is also done through the use of subordinating
conjunctions which are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even
though, if, since, so that, unless, until, when, where, while. For instance: two
sentences: (1) Scientists study the interior of Mt. Erebus. (2) It might provide
clues about global warming. Joined through subordination: scientists study
48
the interior of Mt. Erebus, because it might provide clues about global
warming.
Another way to combine sentences through coordination is to use a
semi-colon between two sentences with related ideas. When one uses a
semicolon, he should make sure that the ideas are very closely related. For
instance, my cousin went there; he loves to explore the unknown. A
semicolon alone does not tell readers much about the relationship. A
semicolon is used followed by a word that indicates the relationship; a
comma should be put after the word. These words that are used to indicate
this relationship are called conjunctive adverbs. Some of the most common
ones are: also, as a result, besides, however, in addition, infact, instead, still,
then, therefore. Example of two sentences combined with a semi-colon and a
conjunctive adverb is: seventy percent of mothers now work outside the
home. Family life in the United States has changed. This can be written as:
seventy percent of mothers now work outside the home; as a result, family
life in the United States has changed. This can be summarized
diagrammatically as follows:
49
Adapted from Anker (2001:85)
Fig. 2: Coordination and Subordination
The second branch of sentence combining strategy is creating sentence
variety. Having sentence variety in ones writing means using assorted
sentence patterns lengths and rhythms. The teacher here, teaches the students
that if all their sentences have the same pattern and are the same length, their
readers will quickly get tired of them and may not keep reading long enough
to understand the points they make. This is because, many writers use too
many short, simple sentences, mistakenly thinking that short is always easier
to understand than long. Wilson (2001) found that good writing results when
one mixes long and short sentences and use a variety of patterns. Therefore,
sentence variety gives ones writing good rhythm and flow. Here, there are
COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION
Coordination and subordination are ways
to join two sentences into one
Coordination can be used
when the ideas are equally
important
Subordination can be used when one
idea is more important than the other
You can coordinate two
ideas with a semi-colon
alone or with a semi-
colon and a conjunctive
adverb
You can coordinate
two ideas with a
coordinating
conjunction and a
comma
You can join sentences
with subordination by
using a subordinating
conjunction.
The coordinating
conjunction are: and,
but, for, nor, or, so, and
yet.
Some common
conjunctive adverbs are
also, however, instead,
still, then and therefore.
Some common
subordinating
conjunctions are: after,
because, before, unless
and while.
50
many parts: first, starting some sentences with adverbs which are words that
modify or describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. Adverb can be placed
at the beginning of a sentence instead of in the middle as long as the meaning
is clear. Adverb at the beginning of a sentence is usually followed by a
comma. For instance, in this sentence:
Luckily, I struck with it.
The second part of sentence variety is joining ideas using an-ing verb form.
One way to create sentence variety is to use an-ing verb form (the form of a
verb that ends in-ing) to make one of the sentences a phrase. The -ing verb
form indicates that the two parts of the sentence are happening at the same
time. For instance, in this sentence:
Running through rain, I got my raincoat all wet.
The next part in creating sentence variety is joining ideas using an-ed verb
form. This is the form of a verb that ends in –ed. For instance, in this
sentence:
Interested in many areas, Leonardo
investigated problem of geology, botany,
mechanics and hydraulics. Instead of,
Leonardo was interested in many areas. He
investigated problems of geology, botany,
mechanics and hydraulics.
51
The fourth is joining ideas using an appositive. An appositive is a phrase that
renames a noun. Appositives can be used to combine two sentences into one.
The appositive can appear anywhere in the sentence, but it should be placed
before or after the noun it renames. A comma is used to set off the appositive.
For instance in this sentence:
The tea, a dangerous fad, caused a few deaths.
The last is joining ideas using an adjectival clause. An adjectival clause is a
group of words with a subject and a verb that modifies or describes a noun.
An adjective clause often begins with the words who, which, or that, and it
can be used to combine two sentences into one. Example, in this sentence:
“My friend Erin, who has been going to
college for the past three years, had her first
child last June”, instead of, “My friend Erin had
her first child last June”. She has been going to
college for the past three years.
This can also be diagrammatically summarized as follows:
52
Adapted from Anker (2001:99)
Fig. 3: Sentence Variety
SENTENCE VARIETY
Having sentence means using assorted sentence
patterns, lengths, and rhythms in ones writing.
The coordinating conjunctions
are: and, but, for, nor, or, so,
and yet.
A
Start some sentences
with adverbs
If you tend to write short similar-sounding
sentences, use these techniques to introduce
variety into your writing
B
Join ideas using an –
ing verb form
C
Join Ideas using an –
ed verb form
D
Join Ideas using an
appositive
C
Join Ideas using an
adjective clause.
Some common conjunctive
adverbs are also, however,
instead, still, then and therefore.
Some common subordinating
conjunctions are: after, because,
before, unless and while.
Sum
mar
ized
foll
ow
s:
53
The third branch of sentence combining strategy is using parallelism.
Parallelism in writing means that similar parts of sentence have the same
structure. Their parts are comparable and balanced, parallelism makes ones
writing flow smoothly and helps to avoid misunderstanding. To create
parallelism, one uses similar structures to express similar ideas. Nouns are
put with nouns, verbs with verbs and phrases with phrases. For instance, in
this sentence:
“On our anniversary, we ate, danced and were
singing”. (Not parallel because verbs must be in
the same tense to be parallel). The right way to
say it is: “On our anniversary, we ate, danced
and sang”.
There are certain aspects of English language that parallelism is much
needed. First, parallelism in pairs and lists, when one presents two or more
items in a series joined by the words and or or, a similar form for each item is
used. For instance, in this sentence:
“The story was in the newspaper, on the radio
and television”. (Not parallel). The right one is:
the story was in the newspaper, on the radio and
on the television.
The second is parallelism in comparisons. In comparisons, the items being
compared should have parallel structures, comparisons often use the words:
54
than or as. Here, one makes sure that the items on either side of those words
(the things being compared) are parallel. For example:
Driving downtown is as fast as the bus. (Not
parallel). The right way to write it is: Driving
downtown is as fast as taking the bus.
The last is parallelism with certain paired words. When a sentence uses
certain paired words, called correlative conjunctions, the items joined by
them must be parallel. These words link two equal elements and shows the
relationship between them. The paired words are: both ---and, neither… nor,
rather… than, either… or, not only … but also. When the first part is used,
the second part is equally used. For instance:
Bruce wants both to be rich and freedom. Both
is used with and, but the items joined by them
are not parallel. It should be written as: Bruce
wants to be rich and to be free.
Diagrammatically, it is summarized as:
Adapted from Egudu (1990:51)
Fig. 4: Parallelism
Parallelism
Parallelism is the use of similar
grammatical structures for similar
ideas. For parallelism, check three
common sentence structures.
Pairs and lists Comparisons Certain paired
Most comparisons
use than or as, so be
careful with any
sentence with these
words.
The paired words are both …
and, either … or, neither …
nor, not only … but also, and
rather … than. These should
be carefully checked for.
When one uses the first part
of one of these pairs, he
should be sure to use the
second part as well.
55
Inquiry activities
Inquiry means engaging students in activities that help them develop
ideas and content for a particular writing task by analyzing immediate,
concrete data comparing and contrasting cases or collecting and evaluating
evidence (Hillock, 1999). Students examine and infer the qualities of a
number of objects in order to describe them in writing. The students touch
objects while wearing blindfolds, examine seashells, listen to sounds, do
physical exercises, become aware of bodily sensations, examine pictures,
pantomime brief sceneries, act out dialogues and examine model
compositions. Students’ responses to these objects are elicited. In this
strategy, Ferrell (2000) observed that students list more and more precise
details and responds to each other’s prescriptions in small groups or whole
classes under teacher guidance in order to become increasingly aware of the
writing task and the possible audience reactions to the written product. The
students write and revise several compositions. The teacher makes comments
on each draft of the composition to increase the focus and impact of writing.
The Concept of Approach
Approaches are determined by the theories of language which may be
psychological theories or linguistic theories. This means that it has to do with,
first, the teacher’s own understanding of an insight into the nature of
language, the child and of classroom practices themselves and secondly,
theories which are directly intended to highlight classroom practices in
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language. These principles and theories which on one hand highlight the
language behaviour in the classroom and on the other indirectly control the
teacher’s classroom performance are known as approach (Anthony, 2000).
An approach to essay writing therefore is a set of correlative assumptions
dealing with the teaching and learning of essay writing. It is axiomatic which
means that it is clear, obvious and accepted as true without further proof or
argument. Approach also describes the nature of subject matter to be taught
in essay writing. Within an approach to essay writing, there can be many
methods. Horminia (2002) simply put it that approaches are the way we
teach, the way we do.
Study of Models
Models of writing are those that posses the qualities of good writing
and those that have affected us in a way that makes us want to posses those
qualities and become better writers. According to Sparros (1996), it is not that
hard to tell whether a piece of writing is good or bad. You just have to read it.
But things become more challenging if one is obliged to explain why its
good, even harder than that, is analyzing the good things a writer is doing so
that one can use his or her techniques in his own work. And teaching others
how to use them is the hardest of all but that, of course is exactly what we
need to be able to do. This is summarized under what Saprros further called
six traits model. This means that good writing has: ideals that are interesting
and important, organization that is specific and memorable, sentence fluency
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that is smooth and expressive and finally, conventions that are correct and
communicative. Students’ are provided with good models for each type of
writing, that is, the focus of instruction. They are encouraged to analyze these
examples and to emulate the critical elements, patterns and forms embodied
in the models in their own writing. The need for models re-emphasizes the
inter-relationship of writing with the other models of language, each, acting
upon the other to produce the highest level of development. These models
teach that children develop abilities and mastery of writing through
experiences and copious practice in writing for a range of audiences,
purposes and functions in order to achieve habitation over the skills of
writing.
Theoretical Framework
This section presents a discussion on the different approaches in the
teaching of essay writing. There are two approaches to essay writing: product
and process approaches. Each of these approaches with their sub-divisions
are characterized by underlying theories as schematized below.
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Adopted from Graham (2006)
Fig 5: Theoretical Framework of composition
The diagram reveals that the product approach has two underlying
theories: Behaviourist and contrastive rhetoric theories. Each of these theories
has resulted in the development of two types of methods in the product
approach: controlled composition and paragraph pattern methods. Similarly
the process approach has two underlying theories-social constructivist theory
which has influenced collaborative process writing method and cognitive
constructivist theory which underlie individualized process writing method.
COMPOSITION
Product approach Process approach
Behaviourist theory Contrastive Rhetorics
theory
Controlled composition
method Paragraph
pattern method
Strategies Strategies
Social constructivist
theory
Collaborative process
writing method
Individualized process
writing method
Strategies Strategies
Cognitive
constructivist theory
59
The following section discusses the framework in detail, starting with product
approach.
Product Approach
The product approach to writing focuses on the end result of the act of
composition, that is, the final draft of a letter, an essay, story etc. the writing
teachers who subscribe to the product approach according to Sanaa (2009),
are more concerned to see that the end products are readable, grammatically
correct and obey discourse conventions relating to the main points,
supporting details and so on. The writing teachers provide short-cut ways to
help learners reach the product. Some of these short cuts are: copying and
imitation, carrying out sentence expansion from cue words and developing
sentences and paragraphs from models of various sorts. Clenton (2008:35)
summarizes some of these quick tips; “typically, students in the classes
adopting the product approach, would find themselves studying model texts
and attempting various exercises aimed towards drawing attention to relevant
features of a text. These exercises would require students to check
comprehension by completing sentences or adding logical connectors
following which, in a final exercise, students would produce parallel texts
based on their own information”. He further adds; “The product approach
demands that a student focuses sequentially on model form and duplication.”
In fact, if a teacher concentrates on the product, he is only interested in the
goal or aim of the task of activity. In other words, he is mostly concerned
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with the final outcome or the final product of writing or simply what the
product should look like. Following this approach are the controlled
composition approach and paragraph pattern. As pointed above, there are two
underlying theories of the product approach behaviourist and contrastive
rhetoric theories. Each of which is discussed in turn.
The Behaviourist Theory
Behaviourism is an approach to knowledge discovered by John Watson
in the early 20th
century. This theory states that learning is acquired through
observation and reinforcement (habit formation). According to Gagne (1995),
the cornerstone of the behaviourist theory is a careful observation of
behaviour and environment and their relations. He further adds that the three
basic principles of the behaviourst views on learning are: the idea that
behaviour positively reinforced will reoccur and that intermittent
reinforcement is particularly effective. Again, information should be present
in small amounts so that responses could be reinforced. Last is that
reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli producing secondary
conditioning. Generally speaking, bheaviouristic views may be defined as
deterministic. It means that a person’s free will, self determination, being so
important (for humanists) do not play a significant role in the learning
process. For behaviourists, a person depends on external circumstances such
as their social environment, status etc. It means according to behaviourist
theory that a person constructs his or her knowledge and acquires and retains
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skills under the influence of external factors and his or her behavior of
different circumstances. Brown (1980) quoted in Obi (2002) states that the
fundamental thing about Skinner and his group is that children come to the
world as tabula rasa: clean state, bearing no preconceived motions of the
world or about language, and that this child is slowly conditioned through
reinforcement. Using behaviourism in the classroom to teach essay writing
calls for the use of behaviourist techniques. They are: drills which are
teaching techniques that involve steady repetition of a desired action.
Segmented teaching is another behviourist technique in which the teacher
breaks the topic into segments which are built upon and connected together.
Modeling is the next technique. This means learning by imitation. The
teacher demonstrates a behavior which is then repeated by the students. Obi
(2002) further states that, for the behaviourists, the native language was seen
to compromise habits that the second language (L2) learners must overcome.
To combat the effects of mother tongue and to ensure the formation of new
habits, the behaviourist tradition has resulted in the controlled method of
essay writing with its emphasis on composition frame and modeling.
Controlled Composition Strategy
In the controlled composition classroom, Schmitt (1990), states that the
primary focus is on formal accuracy, the teacher employs a controlled
program of systematic habit formation in an attempt to avoid errors
(presumed to be related to first language interference) and to reinforce
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appropriate second language behaviour. Practice with previously learned
discrete units of language is privileged over concerns about ideas,
organization and style, imitation and manipulation of carefully constructed
and graded model passages is the central activity. Overall, in this approach,
writing functions as a service activity, reinforcing other language skills. The
goal of writing instruction is habit formation. Students manipulate familiar
language structures, the teacher is an editor, privileging linguistic features
over ideas. The text is seen as a collection of vocabulary and sentence
patterns. There is negligible concern for audience and purpose. Under this
strategy, students are tasked to copy words, phrases and sentences to make
them familiar with the conventions of English language or their second
language. This type of writing exercise is actualized in composition frame
which is the initial stage in the controlled strategy of writing. According to
Kreft (1999), it is about creating a picture and deciding what is in it and what
is left out and also deciding on how to put it to the possible best. In controlled
composition, this can come in form of simple description with visuals. This
means having students examine pictures and asking them to name the objects
in the picture and then writing a paragraph to describe the picture. For
instance, the class may be provided with a picture of a room and students are
asked to label the objects in the picture as it appears. From the use of
composition frame, the next stage is modeling (giving students model
activities). In the context of controlled composition, modeling is
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characterized as, first completing blanks in model essays. This means
providing the students with expressions and language structures and having
them complete the description by supplying the words and expressions
required by the context. Secondly using answers to questions from a model
essay to write an essay. The students are given a set of questions from a well-
written essay to act as a guide for them to write their own essays. The second
theory that underlie the product approach is contrastive rhetorics discussed
below.
Contrastive Rhetorics Theory
This theory emphasizes the structure of writing in terms of
introduction, body and conclusion and the development of a paragraph
through the use of topic sentences. According to Hyland (2000), this tradition
sees writing as basically a matter of arranging sentences and paragraphs into
particular patterns (introduction, body and conclusion). Therefore, learning to
write requires developing skills in identifying, internalizing and producing
these patterns. The structuring of writing is an important aspect of this theory
which falls into as exaggerated emphasis on form at the expense of content.
Thus, writing is made up of increasingly complex structure (that is, sentences,
paragraphs, sections and so on) each embedded in the next largest form. In
teaching essay writing, classroom procedures associated with this tradition
have tended to focus students’ attention primarily on form. Students are then
instructed to read and analyze a model text and then apply the knowledge
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gleaned from this analysis to their own writing. Exercises given to the
students (already given a topic) require them to list and group relevant facts
develop topic and supporting sentences on the basis of these facts, put
together an outline, compose their writing from that outline. Consequently,
essay writing that focuses on the development of topic sentence and
ultimately a full essay characterized by introduction, body and conclusion is
informed by contrastive rhetoric theory. This finds expression in paragraph
pattern method discussed below.
Paragraph Pattern Strategy
Increasing awareness of second language writers’ need to produce
extended written texts led to the realization that there was more to writing
than constructing grammatical sentences. This method emphasizes the
importance of organization at the above-sentence level. In other words,
instead of accuracy of grammar or fluency of content, Calvache (2003) states
that the basic concern of this tradition is the logical construction and
arrangement of discourse forms. Of primary interest is essay development
and its organization in paragraphs where the focus is on the elements: the
topic sentences as well as their development at the various stages of the
writing, that is, the introduction stage, the body and the concluding stage. In
this approach, students are made to copy paragraphs and imitate model
passages. They put scrambled sentences into paragraph order. They should
identify general and specific statements and choose to invent an appropriate
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topic sentences or insert or delete sentences. It also involves writing exercises
that involves copying or preproduction of learned materials in or to learn the
conventions of spelling, punctuation and grammatical agreement, and the
like. Moreover, students need to write in the language through engaging in a
variety of grammar practice activities of controlled nature. Finally they need
to begin to write within a framework “flexibility measures” that include
transformation exercises, sentence combining expansion, embellishments,
idea frames and similar activities.
Process Approach
This approach is another import from mainstream composition studies.
It is the dissatisfaction with controlled composition and the paragraph-pattern
approach, due to the belief that neither adequately engendered thought or its
expression and to their perceived linearity and prescriptivism that paved the
way for the process approach. Process theorists belief that writing can be
understood as the culmination of several steps in a complicated process.
Furthermore, they feel that these steps which include prewriting, writing,
rewriting and all their attendant strategies, can be talked about and modeled.
Nunan (1999) clearly states that the process approach focuses on the steps
involved in creating a piece of work. He further adds that it allows for the fact
that no text can be perfect, but that a writer will get closer to perfection by
producing, reflecting on, composing process as a recursive, explanatory and
generative process wherein ideas were discovered and meaning made. It is
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believed that guidance through the intervention in the process is preferable to
the imposition of organizational patterns or syntactic or lexical constraints,
and that, where there is a need or desire to communicate, content would
determine form so as to convey meaning successfully. Simply put, the
process approach have their focus on the person (that is the writer) and the
process (that is, strategies) involved in writing. Also, of interest for the
process writers according to Taylor (1994), are the possible connections
between second language writer’s learning style, language and instructional
background, the second language writer’s perceptions with regard to writing
and writing instruction, and the amount of reading (in both first and second
languages) a second language writer engages in, in the classroom. This
approach calls for providing and maintaining a positive, encouraging and
collaborative workshop environment, and for providing ample time and
minimal interference so as to allow students develop viable strategies for
getting started, drafting, revising and editing. The process pedagogy
emphasizes the usefulness of dialogue as a teaching technique. The teacher
should empower the students, in process pedagogy, by getting them to talk
about their writing at every step of the writing process. It is this ‘talk’ that the
teachers will be engaged in as tutors and writing assistants. From a process
perspective, writing is a complex, recursive and creative process this is very
similar in its general outlines for first and second language writers. The two
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theories that underlie the process approach are social constructivist and
cognitive constructivist theories.
Social Constructivist Theory
This emphasizes how meanings and understandings grow out of social
encounters. In other words, it emphasizes group learning. Central to this
theory is the development of language and articulation of ideas. It stresses on
the importance of the learner being actively involved in the learning process.
Social constructivist scholars like Stephens and Randell view learning as an
active process where learners should learn to discover principles, concepts
and facts for themselves, hence the importance of encouraging guesswork
and intuitive thinking in learners. Kukla (2000) argues in favour of this
theory that reality is constructed by our own activities and that people,
together as members of a society, invent the properties of the world.
Ankerman (2000), a constructivist scholar agrees with this by saying that
individuals make meanings through interaction with each other and with the
environment they live in. Knowledge is thus product of humans and is
socially and culturally constructed. This means that meaningful learning
occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities. In social
constructivist theory, instructors adapt the role of facilitators and not teachers
(Bauersfeld, 1995). Where a teacher gives didactive lecture that covers the
subject matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his own / her own
understanding of the content. Here, the learner plays an active role in the
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learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the instructors and the
content, and towards the learner. Pedagogies based on social constructivism
encourage teachers to engage with the students while they are completing
activities, wondering aloud and posing questions to the students for
promotion of reasoning. Teachers also intervene when there are conflicts
arising between different groups of students by simply facilitating the
students’ resolutions and self-regulation. According to Stephens (2000), the
social constructivists believe in the process of sharing individual perspectives
called ‘collaborative elaboration’ in solving a given problem. It therefore
results in learner constructing knowledge together that wouldn’t be possible
individually, thus the emergence of collaborative process writing strategy.
Collaborative Process Writing Strategy
This refers to projects where written works are created by multiple
people together (collaboratively) rather than individually. In collaborative
process writing, each contributor has equal right and opportunity to
participate in the different stages of the writing: prewriting stage (selecting a
topic and planning what to say), writing stage (putting the first version on
paper), revising stage (making changes to improve the writing) and
evaluation stage (assessment of the written work). Here, each member of the
groups can add, edit and remove text. The writing process then becomes a
recursive task, where each change prompts others in the group to make more
changes. Meriwether (2007) notes that there is now widespread recognition
69
that writing is a process which involves several identifiable steps which is
easier to do in group but only if the group has a specific end goal in mind.
Successful collaborative process writing occurs when each participant is able
to make a unique contribution towards achieving the common vision or goal
set for the writing. Therefore it is important in this strategy for each
participant to feel as though he or she has a significant contribution to make
and that each be held accountable for contributing to the writing project.
According to Brown (2007), collaborative process writing can lead to writing
projects that are richer and more complex than those produced by individuals.
Oluikpe (1979) quoted in Oluikpe (2004) opines that the role of the teacher in
this approach is to help the students through the wilderness of their own
thoughts, to use language expansively until they discover what it is they wish
to order. In using collaborative processing writing in the classroom, the class
is divided into groups to brainstorm a given topic, each group is instructed to
jointly plan, draft, revise and edit a given topic. Each group presents to the
class its own set of ideas for class discussion. The finished work is then
discussed with the teacher pointing out necessary corrections and reinforcing
the positive aspect of the collaborative effort. Works are compared with those
of other groups. Active leaner participation is allowed while teacher
domination in class work is reduced.
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Cognitive Constructivist Theory
Cognitive constructivist theory as formulated by Vygotsky (1979)
emphasizes how an individual learner understands things. The major theme in
this theoretical framework is that learning is an active process in which
learners construct new ideas and concepts based on their current/past
knowledge. The learners select and transform information, construct
hypothesis and make decisions, relying on the cognitive structure to do so.
Cognitive structure provides meaning and organization to experiences and
allows the individual to go beyond the information given. As suggested by
this theory, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences
through the process of accommodation and assimilation. When individuals
assimilate, according to Derry (2000), they join the new experience to the
already existing one without making any change. This occurs when the new
experience is in line with their internal conception of the world. However,
this theory is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote active
learning, or learning by doing. In fact, its belief is that it is better leaving
students to construct their own knowledge instead of having someone
construct it for them. This is because according to the theory, learning is an
active process of creating meaning from different experiences. In other
words, students will learn best by trying to make sense of something on their
own with the teacher as a guide to help them along the way. Since all sensory
input is organized by the person receiving the stimuli, it cannot always be
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directly transferred from the teacher to the student. This means that a teacher
cannot pour information into a student’s brain and always expect them to
process it and apply it correctly later. In essay writing classroom, this theory
can be adopted by incorporating some strategies such as reciprocal
questioning, that is making student work together to ask and answer
questions, the jigsaw classroom: the group project (topic) is divided into parts
and each student is given a part to write on and teach to others in the group.
Each student later teaches his/her own part in which he is now an expert, to
others in the same group. Next is the structured controversies: students work
together to research a particular controversy. This means that as the writing
goes on if there is any conclusion, everyone in the group will go in for
research and come back with a unique solution. By so doing, the learning
environment is designed to support and challenge the learner’s thinking, to
give learners ownership of problems and solutions, thereby supporting
students in becoming effective thinkers while the teacher assumes multiple
roles, such as consultant and couch. This theory is further expressed in
individualized process writing discussed below.
Individualized Process Writing Method
This is a method of writing that is influenced by cognitive
constructivist theory. It is concerned with individual levels of fluency and
expression. The learners are individually empowered to make clearer
decisions about the direction of their writing through prewriting, planning,
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drafting, revising and editing, thereby making writing the result of a very
complex, highly individualized process. Clenton (2008) states in the same
vein that it is no longer required to offer a shining example of a model, the
teacher becomes a facilitator in providing formative feedback during the
process of each student’s composition. Correspondingly, the individualized
process writing is made to give students responsibility for making their own
improvements, as opposed to miming of a predetermined model. According
to Hayes and Allinson (1996), well-written essays do not fall from the sky;
rather, they are the result of a long, Laborious, intensely, personal process in
which writers address several questions, ranging from what do I write about?
To who is my audience? To how do I structure my essay? To what sort of
language and voice should I use?. In this way, writing becomes the
culmination of several steps which include prewriting, writing, rewriting and
all the attendant strategies which can be talked about and modeled by the
teacher, while the student takes care of his/her writing at every step, making
writing a process of discovery. In the essay writing classroom, the teacher
should instruct the students to begin by gathering ideas from their own
experience and knowledge and them turn to other sources as they search for
their own topics. They are given the opportunity to explore a variety of
systematic methods of discovery while they read, write and talk to each other:
it is precise that at this point, the writer will come to the teacher for help. The
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teacher, in the process of helping the students, gives them the difference
between writer-based and reader-based essay.
Empirical Studies
The empirical studies are reviewed under the following subheads:
- Studies on the teaching and learning of English language.
- Studies on students’ performance.
- Studies on methods/strategies used by teachers.
There are several reports of studies carried out in language teaching
and learning. These studies examined the different aspects of language
teaching and learning, the reasons for failures and success and the variables
connected to language learning. These findings have brought much needed
attention to the skills of language as it concerns teachers and instruction and
also the students themselves.
Studies on Teaching and Learning of English Language
One of the studies is the study carried out by Ezeonyia (2005) the
research worked on “the problems of Teaching and Learning of English
language in Secondary Schools in Afikpo Local Government Area of Ebonyi
State”. The design of the study is survey research design. The population is
English Language teachers in both junior and senior secondary schools and
stratified random sampling technique was used. The study found that the way
curriculum is implemented is one of the factors that is responsible for
students inability to perform well in English language. The researcher also
74
noted that the influence of home environment, lack of in-service training for
the teacher’s and general lack of interest on the part of the students constitute
problems in the teaching and learning of English language. The relevance of
the reviewed work to the present one is that it helps the researcher to select
from the problems that hinder student’s progress in essay writing, the ones
that are caused by teachers and their use of strategies. Both work have some
similarities. The instrument for data collection is questionnaire. The
researchers used the same research design, that is survey research design.
There are also difference in both works. While the former used English
language teachers in both senior and junior secondary school, the later used
senior secondary English teachers. The sampling technique is stratified
random sampling technique but the present work used simple random
sampling technique. The locality of the study also differs, while the former
used schools from Afikpo L.G.A. of Ebonyi State, the later used schools from
Anambra state of Nigeria.
Again, the work of Graham (2005) is also relevant. The research is on
“The Effect of Traditional Grammar Instruction on Students’ Writing
Ability”. The research did not give the details of the study in terms of
methodology. But he found out that traditional grammar instruction has
negative effect on students’ writing ability. This negative effect was small but
was statistically significant indicating that traditional grammar instruction is
unlikely to help improve the quality of students’ writing. However, an
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instructional strategy like sentence combining according to the research
provides an effective alternative to traditional grammar instruction. He found
also that this approach improves students’ writing quality and at the same
time enhances syntactic skills. In addition, he noted that teaching students to
focus on the function and practical application of grammar within the context
of writing produced strong and positive effects on students’ writing. The
relevance of the study to this present study is that it made clear that although
teaching grammar is important, alternative strategies such as sentence
combining are more effective than traditional strategies for improving the
quality of students writing.
The work of Okoro (2008) on “Effect of Guided Strategy on Junior
Secondary School Students’ Achievement in English Essay Writing in
Ugbokolo Town of Benue State” has also some relevance. The study used
quasi-experimental research design. The population is JSS3 students. The
sampling technique is stratified random sampling and the instruments for data
collection are tests and essays. She found that teaching essay writing using
the guided method has a great positive influence. Again, students from urban
setting performed significantly better than their rural counterparts in essay
writing. The former study is different from the present one in that the former
is an experimental study while the later is a descriptive study. The area and
population of the study are also different, the former used Ugbokolo in Benue
state while the later used Anambra State of Nigeria, the sampling technique is
76
stratified random sampling for the former and simple random sampling for
the later. The two works are similar, in that, they dealt with essay writing.
The relevance of the reviewed work to the recent work is that it dealt on one
of the strategies for teaching essay writing which is the focus of the present
study.
Studies on Students’ Performance
The study carried out by Ogbonnaya (2007) on “the Factors that
Militate Against Effective Performance of Students in English language in
Senior School Certificate Examination in Obollo-Afor Education Zone of
Enugu State” is also relevant to this study. The population was all the senior
secondary classes and their English language teachers. The research design
was survey research design. The sampling technique was proportionate
stratified random sampling, the instrument for data collection was
questionnaire. There are differences between the two research studies: the
former dealt with English language in general while the later dealt with only
the written aspect of English language (essay writing). The area of study of
the former is Obollo-Afor Education Zone of Enugu State while that of the
later is Anambra State of Nigeria. The reviewed work left some variables
behind like location and gender but this work puts them into consideration.
The sampling technique also differs in that the former adopted proportionate
stratified random sampling technique while the later adopted simple random
sampling technique. The instruments for data collection are the same, that is,
77
questionnaire, the design is also the same, survey research design. The
relevance of the former study to the present study is that, finding out factors
responsible for students’ failure in English language will go a long way in
helping to search for remedy especially as it concerns essay writing.
Similarly, Ugwuanyi (2005) worked on “The Factors Affecting the
Performance of Secondary School Students in Summary Writing in Nsukka
Local Government Area of Enugu State”. Survey research design was used.
The population was senior secondary class English language teachers and
their students. Stratified random sampling technique was used and the
instrument for data collection was questionnaire. The research found that
teachers of summary writing do not use instructional materials when
teaching. Many of these teachers are not professionally trained, the methods
of teaching are not varied and there is lack of motivation by the teachers.
Similarities and differences exist between the former work and the present
one. The difference lies in the fact that the former dealt on summary writing.
While the later dealt on essay writing, the area of study was Nsukka Local
Government Area of Enugu State for the former and Anambra State of
Nigeria for the later, the sampling technique was stratified random sampling
for the reviewed work but the present work used simple random sampling
technique. The similarities are that the instruments for data collection are the
same, questionnaire, and the population is senior secondary English language
teachers. The relevance of the study is that the skill applied to summary
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writing can also be applied to essay writing. The researcher derived some
facts that will help the research. The work also delved into the importance of
motivation in writing which the researcher also took notice of.
Studies on Methods/ Strategies used by Teachers
The study carried out by Otih (2004) who dealt with “the Methods of
Teaching English Language Grammar in Junior Secondary Schools in
Nsukka Town, Nsukka Local Government Area”. The design of the study is,
survey research design and disproportionate stratified random sampling
technique was used. The instruments for data collection were questionnaire,
interview and observation. The population was all junior secondary school
English language teachers. It was found that majority of the teachers do not
use appropriate methods in teaching English language grammar, that there is
no significant difference between methods used by male and those used by
female teachers, the methods used by teachers in the urban areas differ from
those used by teachers in the rural areas. Also, qualified teachers use different
methods from the unqualified ones. There are similarities and differences
between the reviewed work and the present study. In terms of population,
former used the junior secondary school English language teachers while the
later used the senior secondary school English language teachers.
Questionnaire, observation and interview were used as instrument for data
collection while this study used only questionnaire for data collection. The
area of study is Nsukka town Nsukka Local Government Area for the former
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and Anambra state of Nigeria for the later. Disproportionate stratified random
sampling was used by the reviewed work as the sampling technique while the
present study used simple random sampling technique. The similarity abides
in the design, for both studies used survey research design. The relevance of
the work to the present study is that, it exposed some of the unfamiliar
methods of teaching English language grammar which can also be partly
applied to the teaching of essay writing. It also examined some variables that
are related to language teaching like gender and location which the present
study also has interest in.
A related study is the one done by Okwo (2008) who dealt on
“Teachers’ Perception of Method of Teaching Essay Writing in English
language in Nsukka L.G.A. of Enugu State”. The design of the study was
survey research design and the population was all the English language
teachers in the secondary schools in Nsukka L.G.A. of Enugu State. The
sampling technique was stratified random sampling and the instrument for
data collection was questionnaire. It was found from the study that the
methods used by the urban English language teachers were different from
those used by the rural English language teachers. Again, the methods of
teaching writing used by qualified English language teachers were found
different from the ones used by the unqualified teachers. This work is
different from the present work in some ways. The population of the
reviewed work was all the English language teachers from J.S.I to SSIII
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while the present work used only the senior secondary school English
language teachers. The sampling technique used in the former was stratified
random sampling technique while the later used simple random sampling
technique. Again the area of study was Nsukka L.G.A. of Enugu State for the
reviewed work and Anambra State of Nigeria for the present work. There are
similarities in research design and instrument. The design used in both studies
was survey research design and the instrument for both was questionnaire.
The relevance of the former to the later is that it dealt with essay writing
proper which is also the target of the researcher.
Nwosu (2006) carried out a study titled “Strategies for Improving
Secondary School Students’ Spoken English in Ifite Uboma Local
Government Area of Imo State”. The design was survey research design. The
population was teachers of English from JSSI to SSIII. The sampling
technique was stratified random sampling technique. Questionnaire was used
as instrument for data collection. The research found that the English
language teachers do not use appropriate strategies in teaching spoken
English, there is lack of instructional materials in the area of phonology and
teachers feel unconcerned providing the simple ones themselves. Also, the
qualified and unqualified teachers use the same strategies. The urban teachers
use simple instructional materials like radio unlike the rural teachers who do
not use any. The reviewed work differ from the present one in the sense that
the former did not include gender as one of the variables for the study while it
81
is included in the later. The former dealt with spoken English while the later
dealt with essay writing. The area of study also differs, while the reviewed
work studied Ifite Uboma L.G.A. of Imo State, the present work studied
Anambra State of Nigeria. The similarities exist in the fact that the two
studies used the same research design, that is survey research design, and the
same instrument for data collection that is, questionnaire. The relevance of
the former to the later is that it paves way to finding out the strategies used by
teachers in teaching essay writing in Anambra State.
Summary of Literature Review
The literature was reviewed under conception frame work, theoretical
frame work and empirical studies. In the conceptual framework, the
researcher highlighted the different types of essays which have peculiar styles
of writing them. The students should be made to be familiar with the types of
essays and their peculiar features. The work also examined the different
strategies that are available for use by the teacher in essay writing. However,
the selection and point of use of any of the strategies is for the language
teacher to decide. No instructional strategy is very good or bad in its own
right. The way it is deployed determines its efficacy as writing strategy. It is
therefore left for teachers of essay writing to avail themselves of the modern
strategies in essay writing and endeavour to use them constantly.
Nevertheless, effort has been made to discuss different approaches in
essay writing. From the reviewed theories, it is noted that different strategies
82
have different approaches from which they emanated. The two main
approaches which are product and process approach gave rise to different
theories which are behaviourist theory and contrastive rhetorics theory for the
product approach and social constructivist theory and cognitive constructivist
theory for the process approach. Behaviourist theory gave rise to controlled
composition method, contrastive rhetorics theory gave rise to paragraph
pattern method, social constructivist theory gave rise to collaborative process
writing method and cognitive constructivist theory gave rise to individualized
process writing methods. These methods then influenced the use of different
strategies.
The empirical studies revealed almost the same findings. All considers
students writing to be a problem. It also became clear from the findings that
strategy plays a great role in the classroom instruction and always found to be
the root of the students’ success and failure. Essay writing is an activity that
requires time and commitment. It is the researcher’s belief that if English
language teachers are able to adopt these strategies continuously, mindfully
and excellently in essay writing classroom, the ugly situation of mass failure
in WAEC and other external examinations among secondary school leavers
will be drastically reduced especially in Anambra State.
83
CHAPTER THREE
Research Method
This chapter deals with the design of the study, area of the study,
population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument for data
collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method
of data collection and method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
Descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study.
According to Nworgu (2006b), it is applied in those studies which aim at
collecting data on, and describing in a systematic manner the characteristics,
features or facts about a given population. Since this study is interested in
collecting data about the strategies utilized by secondary school teachers in
English essay writing, and describing them, descriptive survey research
design can be adopted.
Area of the Study
The area of the study is Anambra State. It is one of the states in
Nigeria. It has 232 public secondary schools. The schools are divided
into 6 zones which are Awka zone, Otuocha zone, Ogidi zone, Nnewi
zone, Onitcha zone, and Aguata zone. Anambra state was used because
the performance of students in essay writing in Anambra state is awfully
poor.
84
Also, the fact that the last formal recruitment of teachers took place in
1996, they are more of experienced teachers who can provide authentic and
dependable data necessary for the study. The academic area is strategies for
teaching English essay writing.
Population of Study
The population comprised of all the English language teachers in the
senior secondary school level in Anambra state. The statistics from Anambra
state Post-Primary School Service Commission, Awka, (2010) shows that
there are a total of 334 English language teachers in the senior secondary
school: 109 males and 225 females. 186 teachers are in the urban areas while
148 are in the rural areas. The senior secondary school English language
teachers take time to teach essay writing in a bid to prepare the students for
external examinations like West African Examination Council (WAEC) and
National Examination Council (NECO). They use strategies and are therefore
considered knowledgeable to respond to the questions in the questionnaire.
Sample and Sampling Technique
There was no sample in the study rather the census of the population
was used since the population of the study was manageable. The senior
secondary English language teachers in Anambra state are 334 and all of
them were involved in the study.
85
Instrument for Data Collection
The data collection instrument used by the researcher was the essay
writing strategy questionnaire designed for the senior secondary school level
English language teachers. It is a 60 items structured questionnaire. Part A of
the questionnaire is meant to obtain the teachers’ bio-data such as gender and
location. Part B contains the strategies which are divided into five (5)
categories of twelve (12) items each. Category one (1) has the strategies for
controlled composition, category two (2) has the strategies for collaborative
process writing, category three (3) has the strategies for individualized
process writing, category four (4) has the strategies for paragraph pattern
method and category five (5) has strategies for information communication
technology (ICT). Four (4) point likert scale of strongly agree, agree, disagree
and strongly disagree is used and the teachers are expected to give their
opinion in the strategies described.
Validation of the Instrument
The essay writing strategy questionnaire was face-validated by four
specialists, one in measurement and evaluation, two in English and literary
studies and one in language education from the University of Nigeria,
Nsukka. They were asked to look at the clarity of the questions, the weighing
of the items, the language, the relationship between the items, the purpose
and the research questions. They were requested to revise and modify items if
86
necessary and to delete or add items they consider appropriate and make
general comments and suggestions.
The comments and suggestions of the validators were used in making
the final draft of the instrument. They were unanimous with the adequacy of
the instrument. The request for validation and validator’s comments are
contained in the appendixes II and III respectively of this study.
Reliability of the Instrument
For the purpose of estimating the reliability of the instrument, the
researcher trial-tested the instrument on 20 English language teachers in
Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu State. Cronbach-Alpha was used
to calculate the reliability estimate of the instrument. Category I: strategies
for controlled composition yielded an index of .930. Category II: strategies
for collaborative process writing yielded an index of .950. Category III:
strategies for individualized process writing yielded an index of .611.
Category IV: strategies paragraph pattern method yielded an index of .901.
Category V: strategies for information communication technology yielded an
index of .851. On the overall, the strategies for the five categories yielded an
index of .936.
Method of Data Collection
The questionnaire was directly distributed by the researcher and
retrieved from the respondents immediately after they have responded to
them. The direct distribution of the questionnaire by the researcher was to
87
ensure that there was no loss during administration and collection of the
instrument.
Method of Data Analysis
Mean scores and standard deviation was used to answer the research
questions. Any item which its mean falls within 3.51 – 4.00 is strongly agree
(SA), 2.51 – 3.00 is agree (A), 1.51 – 2.00 is disagree (D), 0.51 – 1.00 is
strongly disagree (SD). In the test of hypothesis, the t-test will be used to
compare the mean responses of male and female teachers and urban and rural
teachers. The two null hypothesis was tested at the probability level of 0.05.
88
CHAPTER FOUR
Presentation of Results
This chapter deals with the presentation of analyzed data and results
with respect to the research questions and hypothesis stated in the study.
Research Question One
1. To what extent do teachers use controlled composition strategy in
essay writing?
Table 1: The mean ratings of the responses of teachers based on the use of
controlled composition strategy in essay writing?
S/N
Items
Mean
X
Standard
Deviation
SD
Decision
1. Selecting an interesting topic 3.95 .303 Agree
2. Helping them use mnemonics for
them to remember the strategies.
3.27 .380 Agree
3. Listening to recorded conversations
between good users of the language.
3.37 .348 Agree
4. Reading good essays to them. 3.34 .654 Agree
5. Making use of reinforcement. 3.47 .518 Agree
6. Making use of visual aids like
overhead projectors, film strips,
flannel graphs and films to improve
the quality of instruction.
3.28 .391 Agree
7. Students participating in an activity
and developing a written account of
their experiences.
3.33 .671 Agree
8. Devoting time each day for writing
with the students
3.04 .560 Agree
9. Introducing class discussion where
students exchange views among
2.92 .652 Agree
_
89
themselves
10. Monitoring students’ progress, their
strengths and weaknesses.
2.80 .727 Agree
11. Making use of dictation to enhance
their spelling and punctuating
ability.
3.27 .703 Agree
12. Making use of repetition in essay
writing class.
2.89 .286 Agree
The data presented in table 1 reveals that the mean value ranges from
2.80 to 3.95. This indicates that the mean values are above the cut-off point
of 2.50, thus, the respondents use the strategies for controlled composition in
essay writing in Anambra state.
90
Research Question Two What is the extent of teachers’ use of collaborative process strategy in
essay writing?
Table 2: Mean rating of the responses of teachers based on the use of
collaborative process strategy in essay writing.
S/N
Items
Mean
X
Standard
Deviation
SD
Decision
13. Making lessons interesting and
lively.
3.32 .283 Agree
14 Giving feedback on the evaluation:
explaining why the students failed.
3.25 .409 Agree
15. Organizing them in groups for
writing
3.71 .479 Agree
16. Presenting them with audience and
purpose of writing.
3.13 .358 Agree
17. Taking them on excursions and
letting them write on the things
they observe.
3.31 .386 Agree
18. Using role-playing as a means of
developing good conversational
quality.
3.69 .469 Agree
19 Encouraging students to
communicate in English language.
3.39 .469 Agree
20 Providing authentic tasks and
audience that make students see
the link between the work required
of them and the real world.
2.92 .533 Agree
21. Developing democratic interaction
style.
3.49 .587 Agree
22. Giving the students opportunity to
engage in dialogue with others
through the internet and computer
networks.
3.31 .240 Agree
23. Encouraging peer editing of a
written work.
3.23 .454 Agree
24. Encouraging co-operation among
students.
3.31 .564 Agree
The data in table 2 reveals that the mean values range from 2.92 to
3.71. This indicates that the mean values are above the cut-off point of 2.50.
Thus the respondents use collaborative process writing strategies in essay
writing.
_
91
Research Question Three
To what extent do teachers use individualized process strategy in essay
writing?
Table 3: Mean ratings of the responses of teachers based on the use of
individualized process strategy in essay writing.
S/N
Items
Mean
X
Standard
Deviation
SD
Decision
25. Giving assignments that
will help students practice
what is taught in class.
7.01 .560 Agree
26. Giving regular practice in
writing.
3.73 .368 Agree
27 Presenting them with
models of good writing.
3.56 .498 Agree
28 Teaching them strategies
for planning revising and
editing their writing.
3.36 .567 Agree
29 Engaging the students in
self motivating activities
that are stimulating,
interesting and meaningful
to them
3.07 .793 Agree
30 Giving opportunity for the
students to express their
own thoughts and feelings
in writing.
3.06 .537 Agee
31. Setting challenging goals,
that is, goals that are linked
with students’ personal and
social goals.
2.97 .662 Agree
32. Engaging the reluctant
writers through motivation.
3.51 .379 Agree
_
92
33. Engaging them in authentic
written exchanges with
people from another
class/school.
3.63 .450 Agree
34. Students exchanging their
writings and correcting each
others work.
3.39 .301 Agree
35 Allowing students to writ
about what they know and
enjoy writing.
3.18 .541 Agree
36 Allowing them to write at
their own leisure time and
submitting at will.
3.46 .486 Agee
The data presented in table 3 reveals that the mean values range from
3.06 to 7.01. The mean values are then above the cut-off point of 2.50
showing that the respondents use individualized process writing strategies,
that is, items numbers 25 to 36 in essay writing.
93
Research Question Four
What is the extent of teachers’ use of paragraph pattern strategy in
essay writing?
Table 4: Mean ratings of the responses of teachers on the use of paragraph
pattern strategy in essay writing.
S/N
Items
Mean
X
Standard
Deviation
SD
Decision
37 Using error correction strategy. 3.31 .405 Agree
38 Making them use different patterns in
writing.
3.59 .416 Agree
39. Providing specific training in the
writing conventions of particular
genre.
3.22 .368 Agree
40. Providing constructive feedback. 3.20 .355 Agree
41 Linking reading and writing by
assigning students to summarize a
particular text.
2.98 .552 Agree
42 Giving students exercises that involve
constructing more complex and
sophisticated sentences.
3.48 .527 Agree
43. Making them examine and infer
qualities of objects in order to describe
them in writing.
8.29 .566 Agree
44 Sending students to find out facts
about a particular topic and reporting
back their findings.
3.06 .656 Agree
45. Reducing negative criticism about the
students’ work to the minimum.
3.19 .831 Agree
46 Fostering functional belief about
writing through giving lessons on how
to improve writing
3.01 .596 Agree
47. Developing expectations for students’
behavior in the light of individual
differences.
3.05 .598 Agree
48 Making lessons friendly, keeping cane
away.
3.18 .471 Agree
_
94
The mean values of the data presented in table 4 ranges from 3.01 to
3.98, showing that the mean values are above 2.50 as the cut-off point. This
means, therefore, that the respondents use paragraph pattern strategy, that is,
items in numbers 37 to 48 in essay writing.
Research Question Five
To what extent do teachers use information communication technology
(ICT) in essay writing?
Table 5: The mean ratings of the responses of teachers on the use of
information communication technology (ICT) strategy in essay writing.
S/N
Items
Mean
X
Standard
Deviation
SD
Decision
49 Allowing students to exchange
information with other computer users
through the internet.
2.86 .142 Agree
50 Making students join a chat-room and
talk on-line through e-mail.
2.69 .770 Agree
51 Recording normal television
programmes outside school hours and
playing it back to the students during
school sessions.
2.68 .666 Agree
52 Displaying pictures to the students
through the use of compact disc to teach
vocabulary.
2.58 .153 Agree
53. Engaging the students in watching
educational and instructional televisions.
2.84 .573 Agree
54 Engaging them in written exchanges
through on-line technology with people
2.71 .695 Agree
_
95
from another school/country.
55. Allowing the students to clarify difficult
concepts by calling the teacher on-line
2.79 .721 Agree
56. Encouraging the students to use
electronic dictionary.
2.82 .705 Agree
57. Encouraging the students to watch many
foreign channels through the satellite
dish.
2.46 .815 Disagree
58. Making it compulsory for the students to
buy video tapes on which different topics
concerning essay writing are taught.
2.54 .795 Agree
59. Making students watch a video segment
and then asked to fill in blanks for
guided close passage that is based on a
narrative descriptive of the segment.
2.62 .795 Agree
60. Introducing students to World Wide Web
(www) for their research of different
aspects of English language e.g. sites
that explain grammar points.
2.93 .899 Agree
The data presented in table 5 shows the mean values to range from
2.46 to 2.93 indicating that the mean values are above the cut off point of
2.50 except the item on the S/N 57 which is below the cut off point (2.46).
Thus the respondents fairly use information communication technology
strategies, that is, items in numbers 49 to 60 in essay writing.
96
Research Question Six
What is the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
male English language teachers and those used by female English language
teachers in essay writing?
Table 6: The difference between the mean ratings of the strategies used by
male and female English language teachers in essay writing.
S/N Category Mean ( )
Male
Mean ( )
Female
Difference
1. Strategies for controlled
composition.
3.36 3.22 0.19
2. Strategies for collaborative process
writing.
3.41 3.34 0.07
3. Strategies for individualized
process writing.
3.35 3.39 0.04
4. Strategies for paragraph pattern 3.29 3.19 0.10
5. Information communication
technology (ICT) strategies.
2.83 2.76 0.07
The data on table 6 shows the difference between the mean ratings of
the strategies used by male and female English teachers in essay writing.
_
_ X _
_ X
97
In the first category, strategies for controlled composition, the
difference between the mean ratings of male female English language
teachers in essay writing is 0.19.
In the second category, strategies for collaborative process writing, the
difference in the mean ratings of male and female English language teachers
in essay writing is 0.07.
In the third category, strategies for individualized process writing, the
difference in the mean ratings of male and female English language teachers
in essay writing is 0.04
In the fourth category, strategies for paragraph pattern, the difference
in the mean ratings of male and female English language teachers in essay
writing is 0.10.
In the last category, Information Communication Technology (ICT)
strategies, the difference in the mean ratings of male and female English
teachers in essay writing is 0.07.
Research Question Seven
What is the difference between the mean ratings of the strategies used
by urban and rural English language teachers in essay writing?
98
Table 7: Difference between the mean ratings of the strategies used by urban
and rural English language teachers in essay writing.
S/N Category Mean ( )
Urban
Mean ( )
Rural
Difference
1. Strategies for controlled
composition.
3.37 3.12 0.25
2. Strategies for collaborative process
writing.
3.50 3.18 0.32
3. Strategies for individualized
process writing.
3.45 3.29 0.16
4. Strategies for paragraph pattern 3.34 3.06 0.28
5. Information communication
technology (ICT) strategies.
3.10 2.32 1.22
The data on table 7 shows the difference between the mean ratings of
the strategies used by urban and rural English teachers in essay writing.
In the first category, strategies for controlled composition, the
difference between the mean ratings of urban and rural English language
teachers in essay writing is 0.25
_
_ X _
_ X
99
In the second category, strategies for collaborative process writing, the
difference in the mean ratings of urban and rural English language teachers in
essay writing is 0.32
In the third category, strategies for individualized process writing, the
difference in the mean ratings of urban and rural English language teachers in
essay writing is 0.16
In the fourth category, strategies for paragraph pattern, the difference
in the mean ratings of urban and rural English language teachers in essay
writing is 0.28.
In the last category, Information Communication Technology (ICT)
strategies, the difference in the mean ratings of urban and rural English
teachers in essay writing is 1.22
Hypothesis I (Ho1)
There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of
strategies used by the male English language teachers and those used by
female English language teachers in essay writing.
100
Table 8: Summary of t-test for Ho1
Category Gender of
respondents N SD T-cal T-crit Df Decision
1. Strategies for
controlled composition.
Male
Female
104
229
3.36
3.22
.258
.238 2.790 1.96 331 Reject
2. Strategies for
collaborative process
writing
Male
Female
104
229
3.41
3.34
.228
.193
4.66 1.96 331 Reject
3. Strategies for
individualized process
writing
Male
Female
104
229
3.35
3.39
.247
.158
-1.89 1.96 331 Accept
4. Strategies for
paragraph pattern
Male
Female
104
229
3.29
3.19
.312
.280 3.13 1.96 331 Reject
5. Information
Communication
Technology (ICT)
strategies
Male
Female
104
229
2.83
2.76
.777
.503 1.08 1.96 331 Accept
_
_ X
101
The result presented in table 6 shows the t-test analysis by gender in
different categories: In category 1: strategies for controlled composition, the
calculated t-value of 2.79 is greater than the t-critical of 1.96 at 0.05
confidence level. The null hypothesis is thus rejected showing that gender is a
significant factor in the teachers’ use of strategies in category 1.
In category 2 strategies for collaborative process writing, the calculated
t-value of 4.66 is more than the t-critical of 1.96. Therefore, the null
hypothesis is rejected. This shows that gender is a significant factor in
teachers’ use of these strategies.
In category 3: strategies for individualized process writing, the t-
calculated value of -1.89 is less than the t-critical of 1.96, the null hypothesis
is then accepted. This indicates that gender is not a significant factor in
teachers’ use of the strategies in category 3.
In the 4th
category: strategies for paragraph pattern approach, the t-
calculated of 3.13 is greater than the t-critical of 1.96, thus the hypothesis is
rejected which shows that gender is a significant factor in teachers’ use of
strategies in category 4.
In category 5: information communication technology strategies, the t-
calculated of 1.08 is less than the t-critical of 1.96, therefore, the null
hypothesis is accepted showing that gender is not a significant factor in the
teachers’ use of strategies in category 5.
102
Hypothesis 2 (Ho2)
There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of the strategies used by urban and rural English language
teachers in essay writing.
Table 9: summary of t-test for Ho2
Category Location of
respondents N SD T-cal T-crit Df Decision
1. Strategies for
controlled composition.
Urban
Rural
195
138
3.37
3.12
.214
.231 9.97 1.96 331 Reject
2. Strategies for
collaborative process
writing
Urban
Rural
195
138
3.50
3.18
.155
.109
20.43 1.96 331 Reject
3. Strategies for
individualized process
writing
Urban
Rural
195
138
3.45
3.29
.209
.103
8.62 1.96 331 Reject
4. Strategies for
paragraph pattern
Urban
Rural
195
138
3.34
3.06
.319
.142 9.63 1.96 331 Reject
5. Information
Communication
Technology (ICT
strategies
Urban
Rural
195
138
3.10
2.32
.585
.192 15.08 1.96 331 Reject
_
_ X
103
The result presented in table 7 shows the t-test analysis by location of
different categories.
In the first category: strategies for controlled composition, the t-
calculated value of 9.97 is greater than the t-critical of 1.96, therefore, the
null hypothesis is rejected. This shows that location is a significant factor in
the teachers’ use of strategies in category 1.
In the second category: strategies for collaborative process writing, the
calculated t-value of 20.43 is greater than the t-critical of 1.96. The null
hypothesis is then rejected indicating that location is a significant factor in
this category.
In the third category, strategies for individualized process writing, the
calculated t-value of 8.62 is greater than the t-critical of 1.96, thus the null
hypothesis is also rejected showing that location of respondents is significant
in the teachers’ use of strategies in this category.
In category four, the calculated t-value of 9.63 is greater than the t-
critical of 1.96. The decision is that the null hypothesis is rejected indicating
that location is significant in the teachers’ use of strategies in this category.
In category five, the t-calculated value of 15.08 is greater than the t-
critical of 1.96. The null hypothesis is then rejected indicating that in this
category, location is significant in the teachers’ use of the strategies.
104
Summary of the Results of the Study
The following are the summary of the results of the study.
� Some items in the controlled composition strategy are used by teachers
more than others. The following strategies are more frequently used.
� Selecting an interesting topic
� Reading good essays to the students
� Students participating in an activity and developing a written
account of their experiences.
� Listening to recorded conversations.
� Making use of visual aids.
� Making use of dictation.
The following are less frequently used:
� Helping them use mnemonics
� Devoting time each day for writing with students.
� Introducing class discussion where students exchange views
among themselves.
� Monitoring students’ progress, their strengths and weaknesses.
� Making use of repetition in essay writing class.
� The respondents make use of some items in the collaborative process
writing strategy. The following are strongly agreed on:
� Organizing them in groups for writing.
105
� Using role playing as a means of developing good
conversational quality.
� Developing democratic interaction style.
� Encouraging the students to communicate in English
language.
� Making lessons interesting and lively
� Taking them on excursions and letting them write on the
things they observe.
� Encouraging cooperation among students.
� Giving them opportunity to engage in dialogue through
computer networks.
The following strategies are seen to be rarely used by teachers:
� Providing authentic task and audience that will make students
see the link between the work required of them and the real
world.
� Encouraging peer editing of a written work.
� Presenting them with audience and purpose of writing.
� Giving feedback on evaluation: explaining why students fail.
In individualized process writing, some items are more actively used. These
are:
� Giving assignments that will help students practice what is
taught in class.
106
� Giving regular practice on writing.
� Presenting them with models of good writing
� Engaging the reluctant writers through motivation.
The following are less actively used:
� Students exchanging their writings and correcting each others
work.
� Setting challenging goals: goals that are linked with students
personal and social goals.
� Giving opportunity for the students to express their own
thoughts and feelings in writing.
� Engaging students in self motivating activities that are
stimulating, interesting and meaningful.
� Teaching them strategies for planning, revising and editing their
writings.
� In paragraph pattern strategy, the most actively used strategy is item
number 43: making them examine and infer qualities of objects in order
to describe them in writing. Some others are strongly agreed on, they are
� Making them use different patterns in writing.
� Giving students exercises that involve constructing more
complex and sophisticated sentences.
� Using error correction strategy.
107
The following are less frequently used:
� Providing specific training in the writing conventions of
particular genre.
� Providing constructive feedback.
� Linking reading and writing by assigning students to summarize
a particular text.
� Sending students to find out facts about a particular topic and
reporting their findings.
� Reducing negative criticisms about the students work to the
minimum.
� Fostering functional belief about writing.
� Developing expectations for students writing in the light of
individual difference.
� Making lessons friendly, keeping cane away.
� In the case of information communication technology, the mean ratings
of the strategies exceed the cut-off point except strategy number 57:
making students watch many foreign channels through the satellite dish.
This shows that the strategies are used. Item number 57 is totally
rejected for it is below the cut-off point.
108
Gender of teachers is seen to be a significant factor in the use of
strategies in the following categories: strategies for controlled composition
(category I), strategies for collaborative process writing (category 2) and
strategies for paragraph pattern approach (category 4)
� Location of schools is to a large extent relevant in all the categories in
the teachers’ use of strategies.
109
CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion of Findings, Implications of Research Finding,
Recommendations, Limitations of the Study, Summary and Conclusion
Discussion of Findings
Teachers’ responses based on the use of controlled composition strategy
in essay writing.
From the responses of the teachers, it was found that teachers in
Anambra State make use of controlled composition strategy in essay writing.
The mean ratings range from 2.80 to 3.95 showing that they make use of this
strategy. Some of the items that make up this strategy are: selecting an
interesting topic, helping the students in the use of mnemonics, reading good
essays to them, making use of reinforcements etc. These are been made use
of the by the respondents.
The responses of teachers based on the use of collaborative process
strategy in essay writing
The analysis of teachers’ responses in this category shows that the
mean values range from 2.92 to 3.71. This indicates that teachers in Anambra
State make use of collaborative process strategy in essay writing. Twelve (12)
items make up this strategy. Some of them are: making lessons interesting
and lively, organizing the students in groups for writing, encouraging the
students to communicate in English Language, using role playing,
110
encouraging peer editing of written work, etc. The respondents make use of
this strategy following their responses.
Teachers’ responses on the use of individualized process strategy in essay
writing
Some of the items that fall under this strategy are: presenting the
students with models of good writing, engaging the reluctant writers through
motivation, giving them assignments regularly, engaging them in self
motivating activities, allowing the students to write about what they know
and enjoy, etc. This category has its mean values to range from 3.06 to 7.01.
This indicates that teachers in Anambra State make use of individualized
process strategy in essay writing.
The responses of teachers based on the use of paragraph pattern strategy
in essay writing
Following teachers’ responses on this strategy, the mean values range
from 3.01 – 3.98. This implies that teachers in Anambra State make use of
paragraph pattern strategy in essay writing. This strategy is made up of
twelve items and some of them are: providing constructive feedback, using
error correction strategy, making lessons friendly, reducing negative criticism
about students’ work to the minimum, making them use different patterns in
writing etc.
111
Teachers’ responses on the use of Information Communication
Technology (ICT) in essay writing
Following the teachers’ responses, this study also found that the
information communication technology (ICT) strategy is used by teachers in
Anambra State, although the mean ratings are not high. The mean ratings
range from 2.46 to 2.93. Out of the twelve items under this strategy, only one
item is disagreed on, that is, encouraging the students to watch many foreign
channels through the satellite dish. Some other items are: recording normal
television programmes to be played to the students during school sessions,
displaying pictures to the students through the use of compact disc, allowing
the students to clarify difficult concepts by calling the teacher on – line,
making it compulsory for the students to buy video-tapes on which different
topics in essay writing are taught, introducing them to the use of computer to
exchange information with other computer users and so on. Reluctant use of
these strategies will not allow these students to be versatile in the learning of
English language especially essay writing.
The responses of teachers based on gender
The findings as regards gender shows that some strategies are used
more by female teachers than male teachers while some are used more by
males than females. For instance, strategies for controlled composition
strategies for paragraph pattern approach and strategies for collaborative
process writing are used more by male English language teachers while
112
strategies for individualized process writing and strategies for information
communication technology are used more by female English language
teachers.
Teachers’ responses based on location
In the case of location, it was found that strategies are more practiced
in the urban areas than in the rural areas, that is, the mean ratings are higher
in the urban than in the rural areas. This is in line with what Ejembi (2003)
stipulates, that teachers in urban areas are provided with modern facilities
while those in rural areas lack these facilities. In this case, students in the
urban areas are more exposed than students in rural areas.
Implications of research findings
The findings of this study have some educational implications for the
teachers, students, school administrators, the parents, the ministry of
education and the curriculum planners.
Based on the fact that adequate use of strategies increase the
effectiveness of the students in essay writing as opposed to inadequate use of
strategies, teachers should try as much as possible to improve upon their
teaching strategies and avoid any strategy that does not encourage students’
participation.
Teachers should be supervised by the school administrators to ensure
that the teachers’ use strategies that are creative, innovative and recent.
113
Again, government should provide ICT equipments for schools so that
teachers will use them in updating the students’ knowledge with the most
current strategies.
Moreover, the curriculum planners or the course designers should put
more effort to remedy the situation. They can offer remedial services by
identifying and collecting different errors committed by the students in essay
writing with a view to readjusting both content and strategies to ensure
effective teaching and learning of essay writing.
Also, parents should provide linguistic materials like computers, video
tapes, television etc for their children in order to help the school teachers
enhance the children’s mastery of skills involved in essay writing.
Finally, discussions above boil down to how to help students acquire
proficiency in the art of essay writing. Having noted the fact that they have
problems in writing essay, students should try as much as possible to improve
upon their abilities, put their own effort by making adequate use of the
facilities provided like library and internet facilities, read far and wide for
them to have constant encounter with the native speakers of the language
(English). It is believed that their mastery of the essay writing skills will be
achieved through constant practice as Elexander (1998) rightly pointed out
that true ease in writing comes through art not chance.
114
Limitation of the study
The following limitations were encountered in the study: firstly, the
research came up at the period when teachers were struggling for promotion
and increment in their salaries. Hence, many of the teachers hesitated to
accept the questionnaire until they were begged. This caused delay especially
in the rural areas.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are
made: firstly, instructional strategies should be used to make lessons more
interesting and effective. However, teachers should note that the important
thing in the utilization of strategies is not how many of them are utilized in a
lesson but how well they are arranged.
Next, the English language teachers and the counsellors should interact
on how best to develop the English language study skills of the students
especially the skills involved in essay writing.
Thirdly, relevant textbooks should be recommended and provided for
the students and teachers to help in the learning of essay writing.
Teachers should also become increasingly aware of the importance of
strategy use in essay writing lessons and try to be abreast of the new
strategies especially the use of information communication technology (ICT)
facilities. They should be aware of the language needs of the students in order
to direct the content and method to meet the needs of their students.
115
In addition, seminars, workshops conferences and in-service training
have to be organized for the teachers, for them to be abreast of the current
strategies in use.
Finally, dramatic and debating societies should be introduced in
schools to help the students communicate better as communication helps
writing.
Suggestions for further research
The following are suggestions for further study:
� Identification of areas of difficulties in senior secondary English
language.
� The effect of unqualified English language teachers on the
academic performance of secondary school students.
� Constraints in the teaching of English language in secondary
schools.
� The effects of extensive reading habit on the performance of
students in English language.
� The extent of teachers’ use of strategies in the teaching of oral
English/comprehension and summary.
116
Summary and conclusion
The study dealt with strategies utilized by secondary school teachers in
English essay writing. Essay writing being an important aspect of English
language cannot be effectively taught without the use of strategies.
The following purposes were set out for the study:
1. Determining the extent to which teachers use controlled composition
strategy in Essay writing.
2. Ascertaining the extent to which teachers use collaborative process
strategy in essay writing.
3. Determining the extent to which teachers use individualized process
strategy in essay writing.
4. Ascertaining the extent to which teachers use paragraph pattern
strategy in essay writing.
5. Finding out the extent to which teachers use information
communication technology (ICT) in essay writing.
6. Ascertain the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used
male English language teachers and those used by female English
teachers in essay writing.
7. Explore the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
urban and rural English language teachers in essay writing.
The review of literature was done under the following heads: the
conceptual framework under which, the concepts of essay, strategy,
117
approach, method and study of models are treated, the theoretical framework
under which the theories of writing: product approach and process approach
were highlighted and the empirical studies where different studies that have
been carried out in the field of language were reviewed.
In the study, survey research design was employed. A 60 items
questionnaire was developed and administered to three hundred and thirty
three (333) English language teachers in the senior secondary schools in
Anambra state. The collected data were analyzed with regard to each research
question using mean score and standard deviation. Attempts were also made
to answer the following research questions:
1. To what extent do teachers use controlled composition strategy in
essay writing.
2. What is the extent of teachers’ use of collaborative process strategy in
essay writing?
3. To what extent do teachers use individualized process strategy in essay
writing?
4. What is the extent of teachers’ use of paragraph pattern strategy in
essay writing?
5. To what extent do teachers use information communication technology
(ICT) in essay writing?
118
6. What is the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
male English language teachers and those used by female English
language teachers in essay writing?
7. What is the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
the urban and rural English language teachers in essay writing?
From the analysis of data, the following findings were made:
1. In all the categories of the strategies, many of the items although used
by the teachers are not actively used and also not frequently used. Only
one of them is very actively used. For instance, giving assignments that
will help students practice what is taught in class (item no 25) has the
mean score of 7.01. Others fall within the mean range of 2.27 and 3.95.
2. The information communication technology strategies were found to
be the least in use. The mean range fall within 2.46 and 2.93.
3. It was found that gender is not significant in some categories. In the
first, second and third categories, gender is not significant but in the
fourth and fifth categories, it is significant.
4. The next finding is that location of schools is a significant factor in the
teachers’ use of strategies for essay writing in all the categories.
In conclusion, it is very important that teachers of English language
especially those that are concerned with essay writing both male and female,
those in the rural and in the urban areas should put more effort to improve in
essay writing using the most current strategies. Teachers should also make
sure that in the use of any strategy, students are actively involved. The
119
teacher should assume the work of a guide, facilitator and helper. Again, ICT
strategies, being the most current strategy should be used. Even where the
facility is not available in the school, students should be given assignments
that will make them visit wherever they will find those facilities like
computer centres.
120
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Appendix II
LETTER OF REQUEST FOR VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENT
Department of Arts
Education
University of Nigeria,
Nsukka.
18th May, 2010.
Dear Sir/Madam,
Request for Assistance to Validate Essay Writing Strategy
Questionnaire
I am a postgraduate student of the Department of Arts Education,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka. I am undertaking a research entitled
“Strategies Utilized by Secondary School Teachers in English Essay Writing
in Anambra State”.
Purpose of the study
The general purpose of the study is to find out the extent to which
teachers utilize various strategies in English Essay writing.
Specifically, the study seeks to:
1. Determine the extent to which teachers use controlled composition
strategy in essay writing.
2. Ascertain the extent to which teachers use collaborative process
writing strategy in essay writing.
3. Determine the extent to which teachers use individualized process
writing strategy in essay writing.
4. Ascertain the extent to which teachers use paragraph pattern strategy in
essay writing.
5. Find out the extent to which teachers use information communication
technology (ICT) strategy in essay writing.
6. Ascertain the differences between the mean ratings of strategies used
by male English language teachers and those used by female English
language teachers in essay writing.
7. Explore the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
urban and rural English language teachers in essay writing.
127
Research Questions
To help this investigation, the following research questions are raised:
1. To what extent do teachers use controlled composition strategy in
essay writing?
2. What is the extent of teachers’ use of collaborative process strategy in
essay writing?
3. To what extent do teachers use individualized process strategy in essay
writing?
4. What is the extent of teachers’ use of paragraph pattern strategy in
essay writing?
5. To what extent do teachers use information communication technology
(ICT) in essay writing?
6. What is the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
male English language teachers and those used by female English
language teachers in essay writing?
7. What is the difference between the mean ratings of strategies used by
the urban and rural English language teachers in essay writing?
Research Hypotheses
Two null hypotheses are formulated for this study:
HO1: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of the
strategies used by the male English language teachers and those used by the
female English language teachers in teaching essay writing.
HO2:
There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of the
strategies used by the Urban and rural English language teachers in teaching
essay writing.
Design of the Study
The study employs a survey research design in which a sample is
drawn from a certain population and responses got are used to make
inferences on the entire population. Specifically, descriptive survey research
design is adopted. According to Nworgu (2006: B), it is applied in those
studies which aim at collecting data and describing in a systematic manner,
the characteristics, features or factors about a given population. These studies
are only interested in describing certain variables in relation to the
population. Since this study is interested in collecting data about the
strategies utilized by secondary school teachers in English essay writing in
Anambra State and describing them, descriptive survey research design can
be adopted.
128
As an expert in English language education, you are kindly requested
to critically examine the instrument for:
1. Clarity of instructions.
2. Coverage of the major strategies that can be used in teaching essay
writing.
3. Framing and adequacy of the questions.
You are also humbly requested to revise or modify the items, if
necessary and to delete or add items you consider appropriate. At the end,
you are requested to make general comments and suggestions. Thanks you.
Yours Sincerely,
Oruche, Loreto. N
