The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 came into effect on 1st October 2006 and reforms several pieces of legislation concerned with fire safety including Fire Precautions Act 1971 and the Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997. To enable business to comply, a number of documents where produced.

Guide 1 Offices and Shops, Guide 2 Factories and Warehouses, Guide 3 Sleeping Accommodation, Guide 4 Residential Care Premises, Guide 5 Educational Premises, Guide 6 Small and Medium places of assembly, Guide 7 Large places of assembly Guide 8 -Theatres and Cinemas, Guide 9 Outdoor events, Guide 10 Healthcare Premises, Guide 11 Transport premises and facilities.Part 2 Fire Safety DutiesA duty is placed on the responsible person for to take reasonable precautions to ensure SFARP the safety of the persons they employ. This is also the case for those not in their employment such as visitors, contractors and fire fighters.

Risk Assessment The responsible person should carry out a suitable and sufficient risk assessment or nominate a person to do this on their behalf. No new work activity should start that involves dangerous substances unless a risk assessment has been done and any measures implemented. Risk assessments should be reviewed if they are no longer valid, or significant changes have occurred. If there are five or more persons working on the premises, the risk assessment must be recorded. No young person to be employed unless a risk assessment has been carried out in relation to risks to young people.

The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 comprises of five parts:

General Application, Fire Safety Duties, Enforcement, Offences and Appeals, Miscellaneous

Part 1 Application.The order applies to all non domestic premises (with exceptions listed in article 6 such as ships, offshore, aircraft), and includes advice in four parts (in schedule 1):The matters to be considered in risk assessment for dangerous substances.The matters to be taken into account in risk assessment for young children.Principles of prevention (hierarchy of control)Measures to be taken in respect of dangerous substances.A number of definitions in part 1 include:Responsible Person, which could be considered as: The employer with control of the workplace, person with overall management of the building, occupier of the premises, owner of the premises.General Fire Precautions Measures to reduce the risk and spread of fire, means of escape that can be safely and effectively used at all times, means of lighting fire, means for detecting fire and giving warning in case of fire, arrangements for action to be taken in the event of fire, including instruction and training of employees, and measure to mitigate effects of fire.Principles of Prevention to be applied (specified in Part 3, Schedule 1).Avoiding the risksEvaluating the risks that cannot be avoidedCombating the risks at sourceAdapting to technical progressReplacing the dangerous by the non or less dangerous.Develop a coherent overall prevention policy which covers technology, organisation of work and the influence of factors relating to the working environment.Giving collective measures priority over individual measures.Giving appropriate instructions to people.Fire Safety ArrangementsEmployers must implement arrangements for the effective planning, organisation, control, monitoring and review identified by the risk assessment.

Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Part 1Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Part 2Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Part 2

Elimination of the risks from dangerous substances.Reduce quantity to a minimumAvoid or minimise the release of a dangerous substanceControl the release at sourcePrevent the formation of explosive atmosphere (appropriate ventilation etc)Ensure any release which may at a risk is suitably contained and collected and rendered safe.Avoided.Ignition sources including electrostatic discharges.Other adverse conditions such as could result in harmful effects.Segregate incompatible substances.Mitigation MeasuresReduce number of persons exposedMeasures to avoid propagation of fires and explosionsProviding explosive pressure relief arrangementsProviding explosion suppression equipmentProviding plant which is constructed to withstand explosionProviding suitable PPE.Arrangements need to be in place for safe handling, storage and transport and any risks are eliminated and controlled.MaintenanceAll equipment, facilities and devices are to be maintained in a good state, working order and repair.

Information to EmployeesInformation should be provided such as risks they may be exposed to, preventative measures in place, procedures for emergency arrangements and who the competent persons are.

TrainingEmployees should have adequate training with regards to Fire Safety on induction and when there are new circumstance that warrant a refresher and should be repeated periodically.

Coordination and CooperationWhere there is more than one employer occupying a building, they should seek to cooperate and coordinate with each other.

Duties of EmployeesThese duties are similar to section 7 of the HASWA and Regulation 14 of MHSWR.Emergency Routes and ExitsThese should be kept clear at all times and in addition.Routes and exits must lead as directly as possible to a place of safetyIt must be possible to evacuate as quickly as possibleNumbers, dimensions and distribution must be adequate in regard to use, maximum persons present and equipment within the premises.Emergency doors must open in the direction of travel. Sliding or revolving doors must not be used as specific emergency exits.To be indicated by appropriate signage.Where lighting is required, this must be emergency light of adequate intensity.

The employer has a duty to put into place procedures that will cover drills, nominated person to aid evacuation and ensure access to danger areas is restricted to those who are trained.

Additional measures in response of dangerous occurrences:Information on emergency arrangements is available.Suitable warning and communication methods are available for immediate response and rescue.Visible and audible warning signs are given and persons are withdrawn before any explosive conditions are reached.Escape facilities are provided and maintained.Information is available to the emergency services on procedures, arrangements and hazards.Part 3 EnforcementFor most premises, the enforcing authority will be the fire authority for the area. Some exceptions to these are:

Licensed nuclear sites, ships, construction sites which are managed by the HSE.The fire service maintained by the secretary of state for defence for premises solely occupied by armed forces.Fire Inspectors authorised by the secretary of state for crown premises.Article 27 of the order covers the powers of inspectors and sets out general power to do anything for the purpose of carrying out the order. Specific powers include:Ascertain if the order applies.Identify responsible person.Take samples of articles and substances to ascertain fire resistance or flammability.Enter premises at a reasonable time.Inspect and take copies of records.Other powers similar to section 20 of the act.

Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Part 2Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Part 3Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Part 2Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Part 2

Part 3 ContdIn addition part 3 details the different notices that can be served. These are:Alterations Notice served if there is believed to be a serious risk to persons should the premises be changed in relation to its structure or change of use. The responsible person must then inform the authority before making any changes with a copy of the risk assessment and proposed changes.Enforcement Notice issued when it is believed the responsible person had failed to comply with any of the requirements set out in the order. The then have to remedy the issues within a given time frame, which should not be less than 28 days. The notice will detail what is not compliant and may put measures that could be considered.Prohibition Notice Issued if there is believed to be a serious risk. This would normally take effect immediately and have remedial action that should be taken.

Being served with the notice is not an offence, but failure to comply with the notice is an offence.Successful Fire Safety Management

The RRFSO imposes a duty on the responsible person to have fire arrangements in place. The arrangements should consider the need for a policy, organisational responsibilities, effective planned, implementation, monitoring, audit and review.

Policy This should detail who has overall responsibility,Organisation - This should detail general arrangements and responsibilities such as who fire wardens and assessors are. The competence levels should be defined to undertake certain roles and also how it communicates its fire safety arrangements out to the workforce. This should also include consultation with employees on fire safety matters.Planning and Implementation - Essential to implement fire safety policies and procedures, and should include:Identification of fire hazards in the workplaceEvaluate the risks that could be realizedPutting together an action plan based on the findings of the risk assessment.Development of procedures for fire fighting.Arrangements for the control of dangerous substances.Maintenance arrangements for protective measures.Written fire instructions / training requirementsMeasures for control and cooperation of occupantsSystem for recording fire incidents / fire drills.Part 4 Offences and Appeals

This gives details of appeals that can be made. Appeals should be made within 21 days of the notice being served.

For alternation and enforcement notices, the notice may be suspended until the hearing , whereas a prohibition notice will remain in place.

Failure to comply with a notice can lead to a summary conviction. This is a maximum fine of 5,000. On indictment, this could lead to an unlimited fine.

Where a company is prosecuted for failure to comply with any provisions of the order the penalties include a summary conviction, maximum fine of 5,00, and on indictment, this can be an unlimited fine and up to 2 years in prison.

Normally these are heard in a magistrates court unless deemed more serious and then would be heard in the crown court.Monitoring and Review - This is done to ensure a company is complying with requirements. It should use proactive and reactive techniques. The reviews should be regular, and allow for changes to the company.Auditing This will involve a systematic evaluation of the whole management system for fire and check levels of compliance with its own and external standards.

Post Fire Management

Investigating fires the purpose of investigating the fire may depend on who is investigating. Internal investigations may seek to find the cause of the fire and also to see how it can be prevented from occurring again. It may be for gathering evidence for civil claims, or to defend any potential criminal proceedings that could arise.

External investigations may include those from the fire and rescue service to determine cause, gather evidence and potentially bring criminal proceedings. Insurance companies may want to investigate to allow them to defend any liabilities. The police may be involved if there is a suspected crime such as fraud or arson. Forensic science may be involved in suspected cases of arson or where they have been fatalities. The HSE may investigate if the fire is reported under RIDDOR. Other parties may include the environment agency or utilities.

Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Part 4Successful Fire Safety ManagementRegulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Part 3Successful Fire Safety Management

Fire Investigation Procedure

A fire investigation may start even before the fire has been completely extinguished if it means evidence collecting can begin where putting out the fire may lead to the crime scene being destroyed. It is important to preserve as much of the scene as possible to allow for this.

Fires will be classes as either:Accidental - This is where a fire is not suspected as arson but by some other means. The fire and rescue authority would use the powers it has under the fire and rescue act to investigate and pursue criminal action is there has been a breach in legislation.Arson Set Fires - Arson is investigated by the fire and rescue service to assist the police in bringing those who started the fire to court.

False alarms may also be investigated to determine the cause of the alarm and where this is excessive further action may be taken such as a reduction in the level of response a company may receive.Reporting and Recording of Fire IncidentsStatutory Reporting. The responsible person may need to inform the statutory body (i.e. the HSE when it is reportable under RIDDOR). The following incidents must be reported in connection with work:Death of any person (reported by the quickest practical means, followed within 10 days of F2508).Major Injuries to any person at work (reported by the quickest practical means, followed within 10 days by F2508).Incapacity of a person at work for more than 7 days (reported within 10 days on form F2508).Dangerous Occurrence. The different types reportable are:Electrical short circuit or overload causing fire or explosion.Explosion, collapse or bursting of any closed vessel or associated pipework.Road tanker carrying a dangerous substance overturns, suffers serious damage, catches fire, or the substance is released.Dangerous substance conveyed by road is involved in a fire.Explosion or fire resulting in suspension of normal work for more than 24 hours.Recording Of IncidentsIf an injury occurs as a result of a fire, this should be recorded in the accident book. Fire log books can also be used to record incidents of a similar nature.

Fire Investigation Procedure - Continued

The process of gathering evidence will include:Physical evidence such as photos, diagrams, CCTVObservational evidence from eye witnesses and those who raised the alarm.Documentary evidence such as plans, risk assessments, procedures etcLocating the seat of the fire which may require specialist knowledge.Excavating the seat of the fire to determine the origin.Once gathered and evaluated, the extent of the losses can be established and cause identified. Once the cause has been established, preventative measures can be put in place.A full report should then be prepared and given to all relevant parties.

Once all of the above has been completed, then the site cleanup can begin and health & safety must be considered when doing so, as specialist services may be required.

Element 2 Principles of Fire and Explosion

Combustion Process.

Combustion is a chemical reaction and this reaction can give off heat, light, smoke or flames.

Fire Investigation Procedure ContinuedPrinciples of Fire and ExplosionFire Investigation ProcedureReporting and Recording of Fire Incidents

Classification of Fires

Factors influencing fire growth

Several factors influence the growth rate of a fire:The amount of oxygen available will be considerably enhance growth, This can be when windows are left open, or mechanical systems are left running. The amount of vapour released will affect growth rate. This is dependant on the type and size of the material and also the temperature to which it is being exposed. Petrol for example will easily ignite, whereas wood will not.Method and style of construction of a building buildings that are open plan or have large open spaces will offer little resistance to fire as a result of free air circulating, unless the fire is extinguished by some sort of suppression system.There may also be open stairways, lifts, ill fitting doors and ceiling voids that will offer easy pathways for fire and smoke to circulate throughout the building.Materials used in construction should also be considered as depending on the type of materials used they will be have in different ways.

Fire Growth Fire and Heat Spread

The four methods by which the heat difference may be transmitted either singularly or in combination are:

Conduction - this is where heat is transferred through solids, liquid or gas (although most common in solids). For example, heat transfer the structure of a building. Copper, iron and steel are good conductors. Can be prevented with insulating with fire resistant materials.Convection - convection only occurs in liquids and gases. When a liquid or gas is heated it expands and therefore becomes less dense. The lighter liquid or gas rises, being displaces by cooler and therefore denser liquid or gas. The cooler liquid or gas in turn becomes heated and so a circulation is set up. Can be prevented with good separation and compartmentation of building.Radiation radiated heat is transferred from one body to another by heat rays passing through intervening space. As with light, radiated heat travels in a straight line until it encounters an opaque object where it is absorbed. It can also be reflected and magnified. Can be prevented through space separation and physical barriers.Direct Burning - one of the most common methods of fire spread is where combustible materials are burning and the flames, embers and sparks come into contact with other materials.

Construction Materials - Steel

Steel may require surface protection. If it is not protected it may be in danger of collapse when subject to fire or heat transfer. Structural steel will lose 2/3rds of its strength at 600 C and will distort and sag. Steel is subject to expansion when it gets hot but where it is used as structural beams this might lead to walls being pushed out and subsequent collapse.Aluminium alloys are increasingly being used but they have a lower melting point and rapid loss of strength between 100 225 and their higher thermal conductivity.Steel and alloy structural materials should be protected from the effects of fire and this can be achieved by:Sprayed coatings.Intumescent coatingsSolid protectionBy design (e.g. suspended ceilings).

Fire Growth Fire and Heat SpreadConstruction Materials - SteelClassification of FiresFactors Influencing Fire Growth

Construction Materials ConcreteWhere this is used in areas where it may be subject to stresses, it is usually reinforced with steel bars. If the bars heat up they will begin to lose their strength and at about 550 C will lose 50% of their strength. This is known as the Critical Temperature. The bars also act as a conductor of heat and may increase the likelihood of the concrete spalling.

TimberWhen subject to fire conditions timber will act in different ways depending on the type and size of timber used (thin timbers may promote a fire, large section retain structural integrity and the charred surface will act as an insulator. Timber can also be treated with fire retardant materials to increase its level of safety within fires and the application of a coating can increase its classification of 3 or 4 surface spread of flame rating to a class 1 rating.It goes through a Pyrolysis stage when burning occurs and thermal decomposition occurs which causes charring protecting the timber underneath.

BrickReadily used in construction as they are non combustible and fire resistant, they may also be used to protect other parts of the structure from fire.The level of fire resistance offered by brickwork will depend on the thickness of the brick itself and also how the brick has been made i.e. hollow bricks tend to be more prone to the front facings breaking away.Smoke

Most fire deaths in the UK can be attributed to the effects of smoke whether it is from inhalation or from reduced visibility. In complete combustion the fuel will be completely burnt giving off primarily water vapour and carbon dioxide. Unfortunately, in a fire, complete combustion is rare and so we end up with smoke, which is a combination of unburnt carbonaceous materials and hot gases. These tend to be toxic and will include carbon monoxide, hydrochloric acid and certain cyanides depending on the material being burnt.

The movement of smoke depends on the temperature of the smoke. Cold smoke will tend lie at lower levels reducing visibility for occupants, whereas hot smoke will get taken up on air currents towards ceiling and higher and if restricted will spread laterally across ceilings and eventually fill the room. Where large amounts of smoke are being produced from a fire this can happen very quickly.

The contents of a building

The contents that are used and stored need to be taken into account when considering the risk of fire spread. Materials are rated into either high or normal risk categories and this is based on two tests. The first depends on the maximum rate of temperature rise of a materials and the second is the amount of smoke produced. Some materials will rate high on one, but low on the other but may have an impact. Materials that rate high in both categories are polystyrene and polyurethane and acrylic fibres.

Location

Where a fire is burning under open conditions (e.g. outside), the heat produced will have very little effect on the materials burning as the heat will rise and disperse. However if a fire is in an enclosed area it may behave totally different and the speed in which it grows can be quite dramatic. There are two particular fire conditions which should be considered.Flashover This may occur where a fire is burning in a room with an adequate supply of air. The initial fire will radiate massive amounts of hear and other materials present will eventually reach their spontaneous ignition temperature.Backdraught This normally occurs when a fire has started in an enclosed room with little airflow. The fire will burn but use the air quickly, but instead of going out, it will smoulder and produce large quantities of smoke and gases that would normally burn off. The mixture will not burn until it receives oxygen (such as someone opens a door). The fire then receives the oxygen it needs and the unburnt mixture will ignite, normally with explosive force.The Principles of Explosion and Explosive Combustion

An explosion is a sudden increase in volume and release of energy in a violent manner and usually includes high temperatures and pressure waves. An explosion can occur when the vapour, gas or dust is within its flammable limits (the right mixture with air).Explosions can be classed as either detonations i.e. the most devastating form of an explosion where the flame front speeds are supersonic or deflagrations where the flame front speed is less than the speed of sound.The chances of a detonation occurring in a fuel / air mixture depends on the type of fuel being used. Some high risk fuels are acetylene or the formation of hydrogen gas from battery charging.Deflagrations occur generally through thermal conductivity where hot burning materials heat the next layer of cold material and ignites it. This will continue until all the material is used up.Potential explosions that could occur in the workplace include:Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosions (UVCE)Confined Vapour Closed Explosions (CVCE)Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions (BLEVE)Dust Explosions.

The contents of a Building and LocationThe Principles of Explosion and Explosive CombustionConstruction Materials Concrete, Timber and BrickSmoke

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions

Failure of the pressure vessel containing flammable liquid gas on exposure to fire can be due to weakening of the portion of the vessel exposed to the fire, and / or the excessive pressure caused by the effect of heat on the vessel contents. This results in a Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion.If a liquid is above its critical temperature, and pressure the liquid will flash immediately to its gaseous state when it expands to atmospheric pressure, and temperature due to the rupturing of the tank or vessel. Damage is caused by:A blas wave due to relief of internal pressure. This is not a major consideration except near the event.Thermal radiation from a fireball produced by the massive burning of the contents of the vessel in the air.Projection of large fragments for considerable distances on violent rupture of the tank.The main effects are missiles being launched or burns for those who are onlookers or emergency service staff.Dust Explosions

Within the workplace if there is the possibility of explosions occurring then suitable control measures need to be taken and these will include, for dust:

Control of Ignition Sources naked flames, faulty electrical equipment, overheating of plant, impact sparks, electrostatic discharges, spontaneous heating, smoking materials. In consideration of these hazards it is necessary to control all flames and flame cutting equipment, such as using cold cutting or removal of combustible dust. Often permits to work are used to ensure safe systems of work.Use of Inert Atmosphere - When combustible dusts are handled in closed vessels oxygen content can be reduced by the introduction of inert atmospheres (e.g. nitrogen).Control of dust cloud formation - Good housekeeping is vital for controlling dust clouds. Air lines or brushing should never be used. Vacuum systems with filters are effective, or the use of dampened powder or pelletised products.Plant Controls - Process deviations need to be controlled, and as such the plant may require continuous monitoring. Filters used in plant equipment need to be checked to ensure they do not become blocked so dust does not escape. Local exhaust would need to be alarmed and interlocked in case of failure. The use of detectors can help to monitor sparks or flowing materials and set off systems such as water to help cool and extinguish potential ignition sources.Dust Explosions

Dust explosions are very similar to gas and vapour explosions although in dust explosions we tend to get two explosions, these being Primary and Secondary explosions.Primary and Secondary the concentration limits needed for a dust explosion rarely occur outside of process vessels, therefore a primary explosion would normally take place in mixers, hoppers and silos etc. However the pressure wave and air turbulence created form the explosion may dislodge the dust within the surrounding areas and if that dust is then ignited, by either the initial explosion or another ignition source the consequences can be devastating and this is known as the secondary explosion.Conditions for explosions to OccurFor dust or gas explosions to occur then certain conditions need to be present and these include:The dust / gas needs to be combustibleIt needs to be within its flammable limitsMust be capable of becoming airborneAn ignition source present and with dust of sufficient heat energy.Sufficient oxygen to be presentParticle size of dust to be small enough.Explosion Protection

This section accepts the fact an explosion has taken place, and considers the measure necessary to minimise the effects of the explosion on plant and people.The main types of explosion protection include:Explosion Relief VentingContainment and SuppressionExplosion Relief VentingThis is the most common and simplest methods. It introduces a deliberate point of weakness into the system, which is an explosion relief vent. To work successfully, the vent must activate at a pressure well below that which the plant it is protecting can withstand. Vents are normal in the form of a lightweight panel or door weighing less than 10KG/m2. Vents need to be sited correctly so to be clear of obstruction so release is not inhibited. Vents need to be restrained so they do not become missiles. If a secondary explosion is likely, the vent should not discharge inside the building.Explosion SuppressionExplosion suppression systems are often used on major plant items. The suppression system will detect an explosion in its early stages by the increase in pressure and a sensor linked to a rapid acting device that injects a suppressant material into the duct into the path of the explosion thus not allowing the flame front to proceed. This can be in the form of dry powder, or water as used in fire extinguishers.

Dust ExplosionsExplosion ProtectionBoiling Liquid Expanding Vapour ExplosionsDust Explosions

Causes and Prevention and Fire

Causes of fires can be divided into two main categories; those that are started accidentally and those that are started maliciously (arson). All fires that are attended by the fire service are recorded and used to compile statistics. These show more fires start between 18.00 06.00 than during daytime hours.It is considered that accidental fires are responsible for more than half the fires in the UK, and these are caused by:Peoples actions this can involve the misuse of equipment or appliances or careless actions. Defective Equipment The use of defective equipment in the workplace can have serious consequences for example, maintenance costs could be high so the frequency is lessened. For a fire to start (in most cases), there has to be a source of ignition present and it has been found that for accidental fires the most common sources include:Sparks from equipment or process, static electricity, welding, non intrinsically safe equipment used in a flammable atmosphere, smoking materials, hot surfaces, portable heaters, cooking equipment, overloaded electrical circuits and light bulbs.Fire Risks in Construction and Maintenance Work

Serious fires tend to happen in existing buildings when either construction or maintenance work is being carried out. It is important to realise during these periods, extra fire precautions may be needed and existing fire risk assessments reviewed. If any fire detection is deactivated due to the work, it is essential compensatory measures are put in place. Extra patrols may be needed.When carrying out the assessment it is worth considering:The loss of exits and escape routes.Increase in the amount of flammable substances.Uncontrolled storage of substances.Accumulation of waste materials including packaging materials.Wood and sawdust in work areas.Burning of waste material (bonfires)Hot Work (welding, cutting tools)Bulk Storage Issues.Fires caused by Electrical Appliances

Examples of defective equipment or peoples actions that may lead to fires starting include:Lead wires damaged, lamp taken into explosive atmosphere / placed against flammable material, storage of materials on space heaters, portable heaters not taken out of commission, temporary electrical installations not complying with IEE rules, electric motors, loose connections, inadequate maintenance, static electricity not properly controlled.LightningLighting strikes may cause power surges or heating of cables or other equipment. Any building has the possibility of being struck although taller buildings, large plants and tank farms may be more at risk.CookingIt is common practice now that employers will provide either fully catered facilities or an area where they can prepare food for themselves. This can cause a number of hazards such as: faulty cooking / electrical appliances, cooking appliances left on or unattended, use of flammable oils or fats, clothes etc left near a source of ignition (e.g. on a heater, grill or hob).Heating and Lighting SystemsThe misuse of fixed / portable heating systems and lighting equipment by employees may result in fire. Common fire hazards from these different types of equipment will include: Inappropriate lighting equipment, local or task lighting places near combustible materials, covering vents on heating systems, use of space heaters.Welding and Cutting Operations

Welding, cutting and other flame using gear has created many fires and proper control is essential to reduce this potential. Work must only be carried out after a site inspection and work permit has been issued.Ensure a fire operative trained in the use of fire fighting equipment is available.If work is being carried out above other plant or flammable material, remove the items or cover with flame resistant blanket or covers.Ensure work area is free from other hazards.If oxygen is being used in a confined space beware of producing an oxygen rich atmosphere.Ensure hose lengths are kept to a minimum.Close all valves on the cylinders when not in use.Do not use greases or oils on valves.Use of non return valves and the fitting of flashback arresators.

Fires caused by Electrical Appliances / Lightning / Cooking / Heating & Lighting SystemsWelding and Cutting OperationsCauses and Prevention of FiresFire Risks in Construction and Maintenance Work

Waste Disposal

It is important to consider the types and sizes of waste produced when considering waste disposal. Waste should never be allowed to accumulate, so regular removal is required. Waste materials are a ready source for fuel so suitable storage areas should be considered and the position of waste skips so as not to promote the spread of fire.Waste building materials should only be by a licensed waste contractor to a recognised landfill site. It is important to ensure that fire or explosion hazards are not created so several questions need to be answered.Is the waste easily ignitable?Is there the potential for the formation of a dust cloud if the waste is disturbed?Are flammable vapours given off the waste production?Are the materials to be disposed of incompatible?Motives for Arson

A study in the 90s of reasons why arson is committed, proposed for a three tier system:Arson with a motiveInsurance fraudContractual mattersIntimidationConcealment of other crimesRevenge or jealousyRacial / ethnicMotiveless ArsonClinical psychosisPyromaniaCriminal damageMental disorders / incapacityAlcohol or drug abuseJuvenile Fire InvolvementFire PlayFire SettingMotiveless ArsonStudies undertaken so far only seem to be a small step in gaining an understanding of the psychology of arsonists and the subject is still seen as a new science.Arson

Results of are attacks are: Loss of life and injuries, business interruption, financial losses, damage to the environment, loss of goodwill from customers, heritage destroyed.Arson costs an estimated 1m per day insurance and that over 50% of all fires causing losses in excess of 250,000 are as a result of arson. Annually more than half of the 800m direct costs of fires are attributable to arson.Arson fires tend to be much bigger and costly because they are normally started under ideal fire conditions in that: fuel may be brought on site to assist the fire, fires may be started in vulnerable areas of the building, sabotage of protection measures, ventilation may be aided by leaving windows and doors open.Arsonists tend to work under the cover of darkness so more likely to happen during the night or darker months.

Are you at Risk?

Several factors will influence whether your business is at risk:

LocationIs the business in an inner city area?Are the premises isolated?Does the are have a high rate of criminal activity?Has the area suffered a higher than average number of fires?Are there empty premises surrounding your property?SecurityIs there a perimeter fence and is it in good condition?Are there areas that have no lighting or poorly lit?Is CCTV installed, and does it cover all areas of the site?Are bushes and hedges overgrown?AccessHow many entrances are used to gain access to the site?Are all windows and doors closed during periods of inactivity?Are there restricted areas on site, are they adhered to?

ArsonAre you at Risk?Waste DisposalMotives for Arson

Are you at Risk?

Examples of reducing the risk are:Prohibiting smoking to designated areasStoring fuel in locked containers.Pruning trees to prevent access to roof topsTrimming hedges to prevent cover for arsonistsAdequate lighting outsideWindows and doors in good repair and locks workingSecurity access control to the buildingGaps beneath doors needs to be sealed to prevent lit paper being put under.CCTV used as a deterrent and means of detection.Rubbish not allowed to accumulate. Skips should be at least 6 metres away from the building.Staff awareness and training on risks or arson, intruders etc.Other Fire Prevention and Precaution Measures

Daily checks a simple check of the premises at the start of the day will help ensure a property is safe to occupy.Inspection Under Article 17 of the RRFSO there is a requirement to maintain fire safety within the workplace, and to assist this companies need to carry out inspections of the workplace. The purpose of the inspections are to:Aid in the prevention of fires.Ongoing staff awareness of Fire Safety.Monitor fire safety performance.Ensure means of escape are maintained.

The frequency of inspectional may be weekly, monthly etc but should be determined by the level of risk within the business.Prevention of Electrical Fires

Ensure PPM of all equipment and circuits is carried out.Ensure temporary circuits are temporary. They should comply with IEE regs and three months duration maximum.Provide correct equipment in flammable conditions. HSE code of practice C.P.1003-1, 2, and 3.Ensure good housekeeping.Keep electric motor vents clean and no storage across them.Equipment used is dust atmosphere should be totally dust excluding.Where materials may generate static electricity, earthing and bonding is necessary. Humidification or Ionisation may be needed to prevent static from forming.LightningWhere lighting conductors are installed as on tank farms, these should be maintained top ensure lightning strikes would be directed along a desired route and also:High enough to prevent a fire occurring from an arc on contact.Continuous through to earthKept free of corrosion and any properly earthed if large enough.Must not pass near any other potential conductorsMust not pass through flammable material and earthing must be at least two points.

Safe Systems of Work

A step by step procedure that will enable a task to be carried out safely and is agreed by management and employees. When a SSOW is designed it is usual to take into account the fire hazards associated with the:People training, behaviour, fire awareness, knowledge, and level of supervision.Equipment safe to use in environment, maintained and inspected.Materials type present, form of the materials (e.g. dust, gases).Environment heating, lighting, ventilation.

Safety Procedures This should be developed to establish control within the company to ensure fire hazards / risks are not imported into the workplace. Procedures would also need to be established at purchasing and procurement level to prevent incorrect equipment and materials being present.

Permits to work Organisations use a range of PTWs but the essential one in regards to fire is the HOT WORKS Permit. This would be used whenever any hot work such as welding and cutting is being undertaken. The permit would typically include: Statement of the work, description of plant, warning of residual risk, how the plant has been made safe, precautions to be taken, emergency procedures, name of responsible person, authorised persons working under the permit, signature and release times, acceptance and completion.

Prevention of Electrical Fires / LightningSafe Systems of WorkAre you at Risk?Fire Precaution and Prevention Measures

Control of Contactors

Having contractors on site can increase a risk of fire. This can be due to the nature of the work, poor selection of contactors or the lack of control when they are on site. Under the RRFSO it is the duty of the responsible person to consult with other person and to ensure that they understand the preventative and protective measures in place. A number of safety passport schemes exist such as the Client Contractor National Safety Group, and as well as health and safety, fire prevention is also assessed. It is reported that where such schemes are in use, incidents of fire have reduced by up to 50%

MaintenanceIt is an organisations responsibility to ensure standards for maintenance are observed and implemented, and equipment is properly maintained which will enhance its working life and reduce the risk of failure or risk of injury to people or fire. It is good practice to have planned preventative maintenance in place of any critical equipment. A plan will set out when and how often equipment should be inspected, serviced and maintained and detail the competency of the persons carrying out the work.Fire Protection in Buildings The Building Regulations 2000

The primary role of the regulations is concerned with the aspects of the building design and construction, which apply to new premises and material alterations to existing ones. The regulations detail the requirements with which building work must comply and these include requirements for fire safety. The regulations are subdivided into fourteen approved documents Part A Part P.Approved document B (guidance on Fire safety to the Building Regulations) provides extensive and sometimes complicated guidance on what is required and need to be studied in depth to extract all the relevant requirements. The document is split into two volumes and it is volume 2 that details the requirements for buildings other than dwelling houses.B1 That there is a satisfactory standard of means of escape for persons in the event of fire in a building and the means of giving an alarm for fire.B2 That fire spread over the internal linings of the building is inhibited.B3 The ensure the stability of buildings in the event of fire, fire separation between buildings, automatic fire suppression where needed.B4 That external walls and roofs have adequate resistance to the spread of fire.B5 To ensure satisfactory access for fire appliances to the building.Storage of Flammables

There are requirements for the correct storage of flammables. The Control of Major Accident Hazards Regs 1999 (COMAH), give specific guidance and requirements for storage and controls. Flammable materials should be kept well away from sources of ignition and stored in well ventilated areas to prevent the build up of fumes. Leaks should be controlled to avoid the build up of vapours which can be heavier than air and travel large distances. The guidance is that up to 50 litres can be stored within the workplace providing that a fire resisting cabinet or bin is used.LPGs are also a significant concern. The total amount to be kept at a premises should be to a minimum and below 70kg. Full and empty LPGs should be kept separate and within secure locations, either in open air or in a ventilated store room.Elements of a Structure

Within approved document B elements of a structure is a term applied to the main structural load bearing elements of a structure which may include:Structural Frames of a building or other beams or columnsA floorLoad bearing walls or load bearing parts of walls.An external wallA compartment wall (although not necessarily load bearing).The requirement for fire resistance for elements of a structureWithin buildings the principle of fire resistant structures is to ensure the integrity of any fire compartments. Fire resistant materials may be made of blockwork, brickwork, and plaster finishes which may give over 60 minutes of fire protection. Hollow stud walling with plasterboard on either side finished with a skim of plaster will give 30 minutes.It is not always easy to tell if a material is fire protecting or not so use of approved contractors is recommended.

Storage of FlammablesElements of a StructureControl of Contractors and MaintenanceThe Building Regulations 2000 Approved Document B

Factors Affecting Fire Resistance

The fire resistance of an element of construction is a measure of its ability to withstand the effects of fire in one or more ways including:Resistance to collapse the ability to maintain its load bearing capacity.Fire Penetration the ability to maintain its integrity so that fire and smoke will be unable to penetrate the structure.Transfer of excessive heat the ability to produce insulation at high temperatures so other items on the other side will not ignite.A number of factors will need to be considered when assessing the degree of fire protection needed. These are:The likely fire severityNumbers and type of people within the buildingThe height of the building.Compartmentation to Inhibit Fire Spread

The spread of fire within a building can be restricted by sub-dividing buildings into fire compartments by means of walls and floors constructed of fire resistant materials along with fire doors. The object of this is two fold:1 To prevent the rapid fire spread which could endanger lives.2 To reduce the chances of fires becoming large as these pose a bigger risk.Building regulations limit the size of compartments in some types of building. The size is dependant on the use and load of the building, the height and availability of a sprinkler system.Compartments will normally withstand fire for 30 minutes but may be designed for longer periods according to the design, purpose and use of the building.The compartment should minimise any damage to the building by confining the fire and fire spread. Stairways should also form separate compartments to limit vertical spread. Where there are opening in compartments, there is always potential for fire and smoke to penetrate. A common example is the incorrect use of fire doors. Other common devices used for protection include fire dampers for ductwork and steel shutters in wall openings. In large opening in area like false ceilings, control of spread can be gained using fire blankets to create a barrier and prevent spread.Common Failures in Fire Resistance

Some construction materials that are used in modern buildings are a concern, most notably the use of the sandwich panel.Sandwich panels consist of two outer linings of sheet metal which are then infilled with a heat resistant material such as polyurethane or certain foams. When buildings are on fire it has been known that the panels fall out of their frames and can cause a collapse of the building. Once the foam infill is on fire, this can lead to fire spread.Wherever work is undertaken and holes made, it is important to use good fire resistant material.This is now normally achieved by the use of intumescent materials that upon contact with heat are designed to expand and then act as insulation thus reducing the rate of heat transfer. This is know as fire stopping.Internal Fire Growth and Lining Materials

Internal linings mean the materials or products used in lining any partition, wall, ceiling or other internal structure.When determining the risk of fire spread and its growth in relation to the lining materials used the following properties should be considered.How easy does the material ignite?How fast will flame spread across the surface of the material?How fast is heat released from the material?How much smoke is produced by the material?Room linings should not be easily ignitable, so should be considered as part of the assessment, as they may contribute to the phenomenon called flashover.Appendix A in Approved Document B describes the different classes of performance of materials and the appropriate methods of test which are discussed next.Surface spread of flame testThis test is used to establish if material has a surface spread of flame that is either class 4 (being the worst) through to class 1 (The best). Class 0 is often quoted for some materials these being class 1 that have undergone a further test to ensure they will not contribute to the propagation of fire. Class 0 are often used in escape routes.

Common Failures in Fire ResistanceInternal Fire Growth and Lining MaterialsFactors Affecting Fire ResistanceCompartmentation to Inhibit Fire Spread

Surface Spread of Flame test

This test is used to establish if material has a surface spread of flame that is either class 4 (being the worst) through to class 1 (The best). Class 0 is often quoted for some materials these being class 1 that have undergone a further test to ensure they will not contribute to the propagation of fire.

Class 0 are often used in escape routes and circulation spaces where requirements are more stringent.

Suitable materials for use to limit spread and growth of a fire would include:

Exposed brickworkMineral fibre boardExposed block workPlasterboard and skimFire retardant coatingsMeans of Escape

The definition is: Structural means whereby (in the event of a fire) a safe route or routes is provided for persons to travel from any point in a building to a place of safety.By looking at each component we can ensure that our premises provide a suitable means of escape.Structural would normally form part of the structure of the building and therefore generally unacceptable means of escape include throw out ladders and chutes, as they cannot be relied upon.Travel It should be possible to travel away from the fire, not travelling excessive distances to a safe place.Place of safety This ultimate place of safety should be in the open air and clear from the effects of the fire. However where this is not possible, an area of comparative safety may be used such as a protected stairwell, whereby they can then continue onto a place of safety.BS5588 Part 11 and Approved Document B give more guidance on this.External Fire Spread

The construction of external walls and separation between buildings to prevent external fire spread are closely related. The chances of a fire spreading across an open space between buildings and the consequences of it depend on:The size and intensity of the fireThe distance between the buildingsThe fire protection given by their facing sidesThe risk presented to people in other buildings.The objective of these factors is to limit the spread of fire to any adjacent buildings. The elements of a structure will have a minimum of 30 minutes fire spread and in most cases 60 minutes dependent on the distance between buildings.The distance is usually 1 metre however if the space is less, the regulations impose other requirements on the nature and type of materials that can be used.Principles for Design of a Means of Escape

Turn aware from the fire and process along a recognisable escape route.Alternative Escape RoutesNo excess travel distancesEscape routes must lead to a place of safetyLimitation of routes through access rooms.

Basic Occupancy Calculations

The principles of these based on that depending on the situation, a person will require a certain amount of space measured in square metres. Some typical occupancy factors are:

Offices 6.0 mStanding Areas in Bars etc0.3 mDining Rooms1.0 mFactory Areas, Workshops etc5.0 m

External Fire SpreadMeans of Escape - ContinuedSurface Spread of Flame TestMeans of Escape

Requirements for Means of Escape

When considering if the means of escape is adequate, the assessor should consider the following aspects:Escape Routes Most escape routes will normally be entrances / exits that are provided for every day use.Protected Routes to ensure that peoples route out of the building will not be compromised in the early stages of a fire, so stairways and corridors need to be protected.Alternative Exits where possible there should be alternative exits available, but where this is not always possible, fire protection needs to be determined by risk. Where alternative exits are provided they should normally be located at 45 apart unless the route to them is separated by fire resisting construction.Travel distances The distance travelled to a place of safety. There is no set legal limit for distance, however guidance documents should be considered. Acceptable distances should be done on risk, number of escape routes. Some examples are:Where more than route is provided 25m in high risk, 45m in normal risk, 60m in low risk.Where only a single route is provided 12m high risk, 18m normal, 25m lowRequirements for Means of Escape

Corridors these should be sub-divided with self closing doors where less than 30m in length (45 m in offices and factories). These need to be constructed of fire resisting material when leading in one direction only or when serving sleeping accommodation. It is essential that corridors are free from obstructions, tripping or fire hazards and as a minimum would normally be 1 metre wide.Fire doors serve two purposes:To prevent the spread of fire and smokeEnsure a means of escape for people in the building.Escape doors should always open in the direction of travel where they are used by more than 50 people, at or near foot of stairs, exit from high fire risk areas and if they are in areas used for public assembly.As a rule of thumb a fire door should:It will normally have three hingesNot be restricted from closing (e.g. self closing or percomatic closer fitted)New doors will be fitted with intumescent strips and smoke seals.New doors should have a coloured plus inserted into one of its edges.

Requirements for Means of Escape

If an escape route leads to an alternative exit but initially only allow travel in a single direction, ten that distance should be treated as a single route provided distance, yet total should not exceed that of more than one route.Distances are measures from the furthest point in the room to the final exit or to a vertical storey exit.Access Rooms Route from inner room through access rooms should be avoided unless those in inner rooms have means of awareness of fire (i.e. vision panel, automatic fire detection or min 500m gap between partition wall and ceiling).High risk areas should not be used for access rooms and inner rooms not used for sleeping.Stairs and stairways should be sufficient and adequate in size. Width of stairs should be no less than 1 metre and not excessively wise with handrails and should not reduce in width at any point.Low risk workplaces, not more than two floors should not exceed less than 45m for one exit, and 60m for more than exit.Accommodation stairs (additional to means of escape) need not be protected provided they do not link more than 2 floors and are independent of protected routes.Requirements for Means of Escape

The colours of the plugs donate the fire standard of the door. This is: A white circle with a red dot is an FD20/20 which required intumescent strips to be fitted.A white circle with a green dot is an FD20/20 which does NOT require intumescent strips to be fitted.FD30/30 means that it is a fire door, which has a 30 minute stability rating and a 30 minute integrity rating.Stability is the time at which the door collapsed during test.Integrity is the time that cracks and other openings exist whereby hot gases and flames passed through the door and caused flaming of a cotton wool pad under test.Lighting and signs once the design and the provision of means of escape have been fulfilled it is essential to ensure that is can be safely used and as such it will need to be maintained.Where the means of escape has no natural or borrowed lighting then the provision of artificial lighting will be required.

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Requirements for Means of Escape

Lighting it is usual to install a form of secondary lighting in the event of a power failure. The provision of emergency lighting is a requirement under the RRFSO where escape routes need to be illuminated, and other legislation such as the building regulations.Emergency lighting should clearly indicate escape routes and provide adequate illumination and indicate call points and fire fighting equipment.Emergency lighting can either be:Maintained the lighting is on all the timeNon Maintained the lighting only operates when the usual lighting system fails.The lighting can be incorporated into existing light fittings or can be stand alone which would normally be powered by batteries or an automatic start generator.There may also be used photo-illuminescent materials or lines of LEDs that can be used to mark escape routes at low levels.Most lighting needs to be manually tested (unless self testing), and this should be done as follows:Daily check for faults and normal power, if a maintained system then check for the LED lamp, fault found to be rectified and recorded.Monthly a monthly function test to ensure the lighting is energised under conditions of a power failure.Annually a full check and discharge test of the system by a competent engineer.Requirements for Means of Escape

Fire Safety Records it is important to keep up to date records of your fire risk assessments as this will allow you to manage fire safety properly. It is good to keep records that demonstrate that you are inspecting, maintaining and servicing items such as:Means of escape routes, signs etcFire fighting equipmentFire detection and alarmsEmergency lightingInstruction and TrainingFixed equipment including sprinklers, smoke venting etcAssembly areasAlarmsLighting and signsInstruction, training and drillsThese records can be kept in the fire log book or in some other suitable format.Requirements for Means of Escape

Signage There are two acceptable types of fire safety signs:BS5449 a white pictogram on a green background which depicts a person running, framed in a doorway which is an exit. These signs may or may not have directional arrows.EC Directive signs a white pictogram on a green background and a plain white block denoting an exit, again with or without directional arrows.The purpose is to ensure that a means to an exit can be seen from any part of the building. Where there is a choice of route, the directional signs should lead to the shortest route and place of safety.Maintenance of escape routes regular inspections should be carried out to ensure escape routes are free from obstructions and hazards. These include:Portable heatersLPG cylindersBoilers and cooking appliancesStored furniture and coat racksTemporary stored items such as waste bins etcPhotocopiers, vending or gaming machines.Requirements for Means of Escape Means of escape for disabled persons

People with hearing or sight impairment, or mental illness or staff or visitors with impairments (temporary or otherwise) may be at risk during a fire. Most people of this nature will be able to use normal means of escape but if they are a wheelchair user special consideration must be given due to the possibility of space constraints and getting a wheelchair down stairs.In some cases like these, this would involve the use of refuge areas, evacuation lifts or other facilities.Evacuation Lifts Designed in accordance with BS5588 (fire precautions in the design and construction of buildings). The lift would normally be in a fire resistant enclosure and have a separate power supply from the main building.Refuges A refuge area is a place when someone can wait in relative safety until assistance arrives. Refuges should be part of or open up onto protected stairways and have a minimum of 30 minutes resistance.If staff or visitors have any visual impairment, the use of tactile surfaces (textured surfaces denoting edges or routes) should be considered.If staff or visitors have hearing impairments the use of flashing lights or a vibrating pager should be considered to help alert in the event of a fire.

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Requirements for Means of Escape

Evacuation plans it is important to consider disabled persons in evacuation plans and any arrangements developed are recorded. It is best to use a Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan (PEEP). This will include specific needs of the person.Where it is likely that people will need assistance other than your own employees then it is also advisable to have a similar system to a PEEP but called a Generic Emergency Evacuation Plan (GEEP).This may require that the person is evacuated down a protected stairwell and it is unlikely that a wheelchair can be taken this way since it may cause an obstruction or fall. In these cases the use of an evacuation chair may be helpful. These however must only be operated by trained people so as to minimise risk to other people and to those operating the chair (such as manual handling injuries).Such chairs usually only operate by taking someone down the stairs rather than up.Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

The best possible fire alarm system should be designed and installed as to be:Electrical equipment and wiring to be exclusive to that system.Power Supply battery operated, trickle charged from mains supply.Cable MICC, hard metal sheathed, cable in conduit (external overhead lines, underground cables)Call points to give continuous signal.Signal - audible visual, standard throughout, distinctive.Central point indicator board, switchboard, to fire brigade.The system may need to actuate auxiliary services such as call points which may actuate fire extinguishing systems, close windows or doors, open or close tank valves or close cover over tanks.Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

The purpose of a fire alarm is to warn occupants of a building to a fire situation. This is usually achieved by an audible warning device such as a bell or siren. Any audible alarm should be capable of being heard over any background noise and distinguishable from other noises. Considerations must be made for the hearing or sight impaired.The simplest of systems are manually operated such as word of mouth, bells, whistles, hand operated sirens.Though relatively low cost and readily available, they are limited in cover of area and only if someone is operating them (which they may not be in smoke filled room) or they may be stolen or lost.A lot of systems are now going to stand alone call points and sounders. The benefit of these being that once operated the person does not have to stay in the area, but the sounder must still be heard.Systems are set in motion by hand then derive their power for operation from a non-manual source. These will continue to sound until switched off and can be costly to install.Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

Call points This is normally the standard method of operation for a fire alarm system. Employees should know where their nearest call point is and how to operate it. Where there are call points, the following should be considered:Sited on escape routes.Distance Positioned so that no person has to travel more than 30 metres (45 actual) to operate an alarm from any part of the premises.Uniformity throughout the premises.Safe Position operator must not be exposed to undue risk.Conspicuous well illuminated (day or night).Height 1.4 metres above floor level. This may need to be lowered to accommodate wheelchair users.Operation standard throughout the premises.Audible RangeMinimum of 65db is required in normal areas or 5db above any background noise which persists for more than 30 seconds.Where high noise levels exist the use of visual warnings to be used.Where sleeping is available, then 75dv is required at the bed head.A loss of 5db per door should be considered, therefore a sounder per bedroom is needed.

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Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

Fire Alarm Zones zoning is a convenient way of dividing the building up into manageable areas to allow a fire to be quickly located. Zoning features include:

The floor area of any zone should not exceed 2000m.A building with a floor area of less than 200m may be considered as one zone.A zone should normally cover one storey only (unless it is a shaft)The maximum distance to locate a fire should not exceed 60m.

Alarm receiving centres this is a centre that is manned 24 hours a day, provided by commercial fire organisations that alarm systems are linked to. The operator taking the call would then contact the fire and rescue service.Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

Behavioural and Social Issues as part of the risk assessment, the behaviour of people should be considered. People tend not to behave how we expect them to when exposed to a fire alarm and may not evacuate immediately or in an orderly manner.Fire marshals may need to be appointed to ensure timely and complete evacuation, and practice drills should be carried out to ensure people display the correct behaviour.Behaviour can be linked to social issues such as peer pressure, such as waiting for someone else to move. In some cases coded alarms may alert fire marshals and associated staff which then prepare for the full alarm which helps prevent panic and distress. This is good when where is a large number of people such as shopping centres or nightclubs.Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

There are many factors to consider when deciding on what type of system to install. These are:Property Risk where the organisation is looking to protect property only by using AFDs then a type P system may be used. Type Ps are subdivided into:P1 Automatic detection installed throughout the entire building to be protected.P2 Automatic detection in designated areas only.When installing P systems it is important to consider that property risk does not also prevent a life risk.Life Risk - Where there is a risk to life, the objective is to protect people loss or injury, then a type L system needs to be installed. These are divided into:L5 specific life safety objective to be covered (usually risk assessment based) or where P1 insurance requirement.L4 Detection required through escape routes.L3 L4 Plus detection required in all rooms directly off an escape route.L2 L3 - Plus detection where a fire may grow undiscovered.L1 Total coverage of premises for life protection.Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

False (Unwanted Alarms)

It is thought that about 93% of calls to the fire brigade are as a result of false actuation of systems.. Common causes of false alarms are:Cooking, Steam, Cigarette Smoke, Dust, Insects, Aerosol Cans, Processes, Hot Work, Malfunction.False alarms result in business disruption, loss of profit and loss of credibility. False alarms should be recorded in the log book so that it can help diagnose and correct any problems later.Multi sensor detectors are becoming more common to reduce false alarms. These are where a detector will contain more than one sensor (heat and smoke) and the signals from that are analysed to determine where the signals are indicative of a fire.If there are a large number of false alarms from one premises it may mean that the level of response is reduced from the fire service if the issues are not corrected properly.

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Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

Testing of Fire Alarms:If a system is connected to the fire brigade or remote manned centre, then the system should be isolated or termination point notified prior to the test. All occupants of the building should be notified that a test will take place.Daily InspectionCheck that the panel indicates normal operation.Weekly InspectionFor systems with less than 13 zones: Actuate system from one trigger deviceFor systems with more than 13 zones: actuate system from the necessary number of zones to ensure that the interval between tests does not exceed 13 weeks.Record location of point tested in log book.Visual examination of battery and connections.Quarterly Inspection (by suitable qualified person)Ensure any defects previously noted in log book have been dealt with.Check batteries and connections and where applicable check secondary batteries.Test primary batteries.Check alarm functions and control indicating equipment.Check siting of all call points and trigger devices.All further checks specified by manufacturer or installer.Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

Fire Hazard Detection SituationsStrictly, a fire detector can only operate after a fire has started. However, other situations may include:A dangerous environment is developing but ignition has not yet taken place.Visible smoke is being produced.Visible flame is being produced.Temperature is rising at a dangerous rate.Temperature has reached a predetermined danger figure.Heat generated is giving rise to lifting and oscillating thermal air currents.Fire DetectionA number of different detection methods have and are being used to detect fire. These include:Spot Detectors a static detector covering a certain area of a building.Line Detectors heat detector cables laid in specific areas.Beam Detectors used to cover large areas (usually an infra red beam).Sampling Detectors air is sampled from an area through a range of pipe work back to a detector head.Scanning Detectors sweeps large areas.Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

Annual Inspection (by suitable qualified person)All tests as list in quarterly inspection.Each detector to be operated (other than those designed to operate once only).Visual check of cable and fittings.Tri-Annual InspectionTesting in according with the requirements of Regulations for Electrical Installations published by the Institute of Electrical Engineers.Any defects should be recorded in the log book and actioned.After a fire (whether automatically detected or not.A simulated test should be carried out on each trigger device that may have been affected by the fire.Visual check of batteries and charger.Automatic Fire Detectors (AFD)Automatic Fire Detection Systems are designed to give warning to persons in a protected building of an unusually rapid rise in temperature, excessive temperature and thereby reduce the risk of injury to personnel and damage to property.The automatic fire detector makes no attempt to hold the fire in check. Its only function is to give notice of abnormal conditions.Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

Pre-Fire Situation DetectorsGas and explosive mixture detectors these detectors are used extensively in mines, ships, engine rooms, flammable gas and liquid storage areas or where ventilation is restricted.Smoke DetectorsThese are of two basic types. One employs the flow of electric current through an ionisation chamber. The second operates on the variation in light intensity on a photo electric cell.Detection by Ionisation Chamber In this system, a close circuit incorporates two ionisation chambers, which act as resisters, one of which is open to the atmosphere. If smoke or other particles of combustion enter the open chamber, ions attach themselves to the molecules of the combustion products and this causes a decrease in the current flow through this chamber. This alters the voltage balance across the two chambers and operates the alarm.A photo electric cell whose electrical properties change when exposed to light. Several applications include the obstruction of light by smoke and some of the reflection of light on particles in the smoke cloud to increase the amount of current generated.Beam Detectors A transmitter emits an infrared beam to a receiver and any obstruction by smoke will activate the alarm.Heat Detectors these operate two principles of detection:Fixed temperature detection of a predetermined unsafe temperature.Rate of Rise detection of a predetermined unsafe rate of rise in temperature.

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Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

Heat DetectorsSuitable in most buildings, have greater resistance to adverse environmental conditions. Where fires occur in which is evolves rapidly with little smoke, they may give more rapid fire detection. Heat detectors need to suit the environment, so if there is likely to be fluctuating temperatures by design, the type of detector needs to be considered.Smoke DetectorsThese give the earliest warning for most types of fire, in which the early smouldering stages of the fire evolve considerable quantities of smoke. Ionisation detectors response most quickly to smoke containing small particles such as those produced by wood burning fires. They may respond less to fire involving polymers. Optical detectors respond better to dense smoke and less to small particles but both types respond sufficiently well to most fires except those involving alcohol which do not produce smoke particles.Optical Beam Type DetectorsThese are probably the most suitable type for protecting tall compartments, cable tunnels, and open areas. They respond to integrated change in smoke density or temperature over the path of the beam. Not suitable for areas that use blower heaters or waste heat.Factors Affecting Choice A detector has to discriminate between a fire and the normal environment existing within a building. Each type of detector responds at a different rate to different kinds of fire so a combination may be necessary, as to take into account processes taking place and design of the building and contents.Portable Fire Fighting Equipment

Foam (Class A, B and F Fires) Foam works in several ways to extinguish a fire although its primary role is to smother the burning material (stops the oxygen portion of the fire triangle). These can be used on class A and B fires but careful selection is required as some foams break down in contact with solvents.

Types Include:Chemical foam cylinder is filled with 8% sodium bicarbonate solution, the inner cylinder contains 13% solution of aluminium sulphate. When the container is inverted, the two mix together.Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) forms a fire extinguishing water film on the surface of the burning liquid. Has a cooling action with a wide extinguishing application than water on solid combustible materials.Portable Fire Fighting Equipment

It is important to have a basic understanding of he differing classes of fires as this will enable you to determine what types of fires are likely and what equipment will be required.The old colour coding of extinguishers has now disappeared and replaced with the new European standard BS EN 3 whereby all new fire extinguishers have a red body and up to 5% to be coded using the traditional colours.Water Class A FiresThe water extinguisher works by cooling the burning material below its ignition temperature and thus removing the heat element of the fire triangle. These must be kept upright to avoid discharging the gas rather than the water. Extinguishers of this type can be inverted once used to stop water coming out to release the remaining gas. Once used, they will not operate effectively again until they have been recharged. As such, the extinguisher should be regarded as a pressure vessel and maintained according to make instructions.Types Include:Gas cartridge type cylinder filled with water and a carbon dioxide cylinder provides pressure when pierced.Stored pressure type cylinder is filled with water then pressurised with gas, which expels water when a lever type valve is depressed.Portable Fire Fighting Equipment

Dry Powder (Class A, B and F fires, general purpose, Class B special purpose powders)Works by forming a think film of powder on the burning material (smothering effect removing the oxygen part of the triangle). Powder also works by chemically interfering with the fire process and acts as a flame suppressant. These extinguishers are also useful for electrical fires, as they do not conduct electricity (although may cause damage through the mess of the powder, and care must be taken when used inside to avoid the risk of inhaling the powder which can cause respiratory problems as well as having laxative effects.

Carbon Dioxide (Class A, B and F Fires)These extinguishers consist of a pressurised cylinder containing liquid CO2. The gas is discharged by pressing a trigger valve which releases the carbon dioxide snow that turns into gas on contact with heat. These are also useful for electrical fires, but they have no cooling effect so re-ignition can easily occur. The discharge of the gas can be very cold and cause ice burns so care needs to be taken not to hold the horn directly. CO2 is also an asphyxiant so care needs to be taken when used in enclosed spaces.A class C fire should normally be controlled by isolating the gas or plugging the leak, as using an extinguisher may cause an explosion if escaping gas suddenly re-ignites.Metal fires such as magnesium and other light metals can be extinguished by use of Dry Sand, Soda Ash or Special Powders.

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Limitations of Extinguishers

The main limitation with extinguishers is they can only be used on the classes of fire they are manufactured for. They are also limited by their range of discharge. Some types will only last for a short period and can only be used on small fires. The table below gives examples:

Siting, Installation and Maintenance

Fire RatingBS5306 Part 8 (Fire extinguishing installations and equipment) guidance is given on provision of a minimum number of extinguishers for class A fires:A minimum of 2 per floorTotal class A ratings should be no less than 0.065 x floor area of storey (m2) minimum 26A rating.Single story occupancy with upper floor not greater than 100m2 rating of 13A may be sufficient.For Class B fires it is more complicated and the workplace should be assessed as follows:Each room considered separately.Where fire risks are more than 20m apart as above.Fire risks within 20m of another fire risk, assessed as an undivided or divided group.Where there is the possibility of a spillage fire, Class B fire rating is equal to 10 x volume in litres of that spillage.Siting, Installation and MaintenanceGenerally extinguishers should be sited in a convenient place, easily accessible. A person should not have to travel more than 30 metres from the site of a fire to the location of an extinguisher.Extinguishers are normally location in a conspicuous place on an exit route or signage provided where this is not possible. This should be in the same location on all floors, or where the extinguisher is provided for a special risk (e.g. electrical) that it should be sited near the risk.

Fire RatingTo try and show the limits of extinguishers they have a fire rating marked on them, although this has only been done for class A and Class B fires.The class A rating is achieved by the extinguisher putting out a specific size of test fire, made up of wood, of a certain length and quantity.For the class B rating, the test is similar although the fire consists of containers of flammable liquids and the rating relates directly to the volume of fuel.Siting, Installation and Maintenance

MaintenanceBS 5306 Part 3 gives the requirements for inspections, maintenance and testing of portable fire extinguishers and these are outlined as follows:Monthly Inspections should be carried out to ensure no discharge has taken place, no pressure has been lost and no signs of damage, and in its correct location (this can also be done weekly).Annual Inspection and Maintenance a thorough inspection of the extinguishers carried out by a competent person who will inspect the extinguisher, any spare cartridges and replace as necessary. Test by Discharge need to be tested by discharge at specific intervals. The interval will be taken from the date of manufacture of the last discharge date. For extinguishers this test is every 5 years, except for CO2 extinguishers which are every 10 years.

Nominal Charge of Extinguisher KGs or LitresMinimum duration of discharge (seconds)Up to and including 36More than 3 but less or equal to 69More than 6 but less or equal to 1012More than 1015

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Fixed Fire Fighting Installations

An automatic sprinkler system consists of pipes and heat operated valves (sprinkler heads) by means of which a fire is automatically detected, the alarm given and water delivered to the seat of the fire. The sprinkler heads nearest the fire opens and water flows via the valves and pipework to the fire. The flow of the water through the control valves also causes the alarm to sound. In a large building, the sprinkler system is divided into a number of installations each separate from each other.These have different pipe work systems and the pipes have different names according to their position in the system:Range Pipes on which the sprinklers are attached either directly or via short arms.Distribution Pipes horizontal pipes feeding the range pipes.Risers (drops) vertical pipes connecting:- Installation valves with distribution pipesOr- range pipes with distribution pipes.

An example of this is shown on the next card. The sizes of pipes vary according to where they are positioned in the installation and the degree of hazard the installation is designed to meet. Typical sizes are 20-50 mm internal bore for range pipes and 32-150mm internal bore for risers and distribution pipes.Fixed Fire Fighting Installations

An installation may be:Wet Pipe with ALL pipes leading from the water supply through the various controlling valves and to the sprinkler heads permanently filled with water under pressure.Dry Pipe with the pipes above the installation control valves charged with compressed air under enough pressure to prevent entry of water. On operation of the sprinkler head, the compressed air escapes first and the water follows. This is useful if water pipes may freeze over the winter or in cold rooms etc.Alternative wet and dry operated as a wet pipe installation in the summer and dry pipe in the winter.Tail end alternate or tail end dry basically wet pipe installations where a portion of the system liable to freeze is dry or alternative wet and dry.Pre-Action where a dry pipe system is combined with an independent system of heat or smoke detectors installed in the same areas as the sprinklers. Heat and smoke detectors operate sooner and a pre-action valve opens to allow water to flow into the sprinkler pipework before the first one operates.

Fixed Fire Fighting Installations

Sprinkler HeadsA sprinkler head is a heat sensitive valve which opens, releasing water as a spray when its heat sensitive element reaches a specific temperature. The orifice of the head (10, 15 or 20mm) is determined by the risk. The water distribution pattern depends on the type of detector used.Distribution PatternsConventional these sprinklers produce a spherical discharge pattern with some of the water being thrown towards the ceiling.Spray this sprinkler produces a hemispherical discharge below the sprinkler with little of no water reaching the ceiling.Sidewall these sprinklers are site close to a wall. They deflect most of the water away from the wall.On a wet system sprinkler heads can be upright or pendent on the pipe work. Dry or alternate systems normally must be upright to allow for drainage, although some have special valves that prevent water being trapped and are occasionally used.

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Fixed Fire Fighting Installations

Method of Operation 2 basic types of Sprinkler

Frangible bulb - the sealed glass bulb contains liquid and a small gas bubble which can accommodate some changes in temperature. Very high changes however, cause the liquid to expand sufficiently to absorb the bubble. The result is an increase in pressure which fractures the bulb allowing water to escape from the head.Fusible Link heat melts the solder allowing the levers of cantilever types to move or the strut types to part letting water escape. Solders are always alloys of tin, lead, cadmium, bismuth and antimony.

Temperature Ratings.Sprinklers are designed to operate at a set nominal temperature ranging from 57 to 260 C. The rating of a particular head can be identified by a colour code.Control ValvesThe water supply into a sprinkler installation is controlled by a set of installation control valves.Main stop valve controls water entering the installation.Alarm valve situated immediately above the main stop valve and designed to open as soon as a sprinkler head opens and water flows from the installation.Fixed Fire Fighting Installations

AlarmsWater motor alarms consist of a turbine wheel connected to a rotary clapper mounted within a domed gong and is normally situated outside on a wall. Water flow from the alarm drives the turbine and sounds the gong.Electric alarms can be used as an auxiliary warning device to the water motor alarm to indicate on a central control panel which part of the sprinkler system is operating.Electric alarms can be actuated by two types of switch:Pressure switch situated either downstream of the alarm valve or on the supply to the water motor alarm.Flow switch situated downstream of the alarm valve.Water Supplies water supplies for a sprinkler system need to be reliable, at a suitable pressure and be able to supply a sufficient flow of water for long enough to fight the largest expected fire. They should also be:Under the control of he occupier of the building or right of use guaranteed.Free from solid matter which might accumulate in pipe work and cause a blockage.Pressurised water for a sprinkler may be obtained from one or more of: Towns mains, gravity tank or elevated private reservoir , pressure tank where the water is kept under pressure by compressed air (between 2-10 bars), automatic pumps actuated by a fall in water pressure and draw water from a canal, river, lake or reservoir if needed. Pumps should be either electric or diesel powered and fully operational within 30 seconds of starting.

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Combustion, stages

Exothermic Reaction one that releases energy in the form of heat.Endothermic Reaction - one that must absorb energyComplete Combustion Occurs when all the oxygen in a reaction is consumed and is the most efficient burning of a fuel (stoichiometric concentration ideal air to fuel ratio).Stages of CombustionInduction this is the early stage of a fire when it is just starting and hear is starting to build up.Ignition When the point of ignition is reached and the reaction is self sustaining.Growth once ignition occurs, the fire will grow very quickly depending on the oxygen available.Steady state When the fire has used all the fuel is used up, and remains in a steady state.Decay The final stage of a fire where the fuel is now used up and will eventually go out.Ignition ConditionsFlashpoint is the lowest temperature where sufficient vapours are given off across the surface of the liquid that when an external ignition source is applied, the vapours will momentarily flash (burn). Substances with a flashpoint of less than 32oC are known as highly flammable.Firepoint if the vapours continue to burn, the liquid is said to have reached its fire point. This is the lowest temperature at which the heat from combustion of the burning vapour is capable of producing sufficient vapour for combustion to continue.Combustion, stages

Flammable or Explosive Limits - for vapours (gases and dusts) to ignite, they must be within a certain ratio with air known as flammable or explosive limits.This is where the fuel to air mixture is at the right limits for the fuel to burn. Too much fuel in the air and it wont burn (upper flammable limits). Too little fuel (lower flammable limits).Auto Ignition Temperature the lowest temperature at which the substance will spontaneously ignite.Vapour Density - is the density of a gas or vapour relative to air. Gas with a VD of less than one is light than air and great than one, heavier than air. Lighter gases disperse more readily than heavier gases.

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Safety of People in the Event of a Fire