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DefinitionsBefore we get into how culture influences genderdynamics, it’s important that we attempt to clarify somemisconceptions. Let’s start with basic definitions of keyterms.SexSex rolesSexual IdentityGenderGender roleGender Identity

Gender Stereotypes

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Definitions (cont.)Sex - the biological and physiological differencesbetween men and women.Sex Roles - the behaviors and patterns of activities menand women may engage in that are directly related totheir biological differences.

Sexual Identity - the degree of awareness andrecognition of sex and sex roles.Gender - behaviors or patterns of activities that a societyor culture deems appropriate for men and women.

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Definitions (cont.)

Gender Role - the degree to which a personadopts the gender-specific behaviors ascribedby his or her culture.Gender Identity - the degree to which a person

has awareness or recognition that he or sheadopts a particular gender role.Gender Stereotypes - the psychological orbehavioral characteristics typically associated

with men and women.

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Introductory Comments

Who does what?It is clear that men and women perform differenttasks in most cultures.Hence, division of labor between the man andwomen, among other things, is said to beculturally determined.

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Intro Comments (cont.)

A prevalent view regarding gender-linked behavior is thatthe qualities cultures associate with masculinity orfemininity are not innately male or female.These are socially construed roles.

Sandra Bem is a leading expert on the socialconstruction of gender roles. Her work on androgynyis particularly noteworthy.

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Gender Schema

According to Sandra Bem, our attitudes andbehaviors are based on our “gender schema”which she defines as a cognitive network ofassumptions about the personalities and

moral qualities of men and women.

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THE IMPACT OF GENDER AND

CULTURE TO PSYCHOLOGY

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Parallels between impact of gender and cultureon psychology

Psychological research 30-40 years ago

conducted on men which raised questions aboutwhether it was applicable to womenWomen were included as participantsResearch on gender differences

Similar for research on cultural differences

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SEX AND GENDER ACROSS

CULTURES

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The Relationship between Sex andGender across Cultures

Differences in sex roles exist universallyGeorgas et al. (2006) study on 27 countries foundthat women did most of houseworkFathers concerned with finances, expressive

issues, childcare in all countriesMothers concerned with childcare only in less-affluent countries

Cultures differ in type and differentiationencouraged between sexes; gender, genderroles, gender-role ideologies and gender

stereotypes

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CULTURE, GENDER ROLES, and

STEREOTYPES

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Culture and Gender Stereotypes

Williams and Best (1982) study of 30 countriesfound high pancultural agreement on adjectivesused to describe males and females

In all countries, adjectives associated with menwere rated as being stronger and more active

Japan and South African rated malecharacteristics as more favorable; Italy and Perurated female characteristics more favorable

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Culture and Gender Stereotypes

Follow up studies by Williams andcolleagues

These studies show gender stereotypesaround the world are stable

Men viewed as active, strong, critical,conscientious, extraverted, and open

Women viewed passive, weak, nurturing,adaptive, agreeable, and neurotic

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Culture and Gender Stereotypes

Other studiessupport William and Best studiesexamination of how gender stereotypes develop

Many unanswered questions remain

How congruent are behaviors withstereotypes and does this congruence differ

across cultures?

Are stereotypes related to importantpsychological constructs or behaviors?

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Culture, Gender-Role Ideology,and Self-Concept

Gender-role ideology: judgments about whatmales and females ought to be like or ought todo

Williams and Best (1990) study on 14 countries

Highly egalitarian: Netherlands, Germany and

Finland

Highly traditional: Nigeria, Pakistan and India

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Culture, Gender-Role Ideology,and Self-Concept

Gibbons and colleagues (1990) study onadolescents

Adolescents from wealthier and more

individualistic countries were less traditional

Gender ideologies may be changing as societieschange

Religion may play a role in keeping withtraditional gender roles

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GENDER DIFFERENCES

ACROSS CULTURES

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Cross-Cultural Research on Gender

Culture and Gender StereotypesWilliams and Best (1982)-used the AdjectiveCheck List where subjects characterizedadjectives as male or female characteristics

Men are generally viewed as active,strong, critical, and adult like with needssuch as dominance, autonomy,aggression, exhibition, achievement andendurance.

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Cross-Cultural Research (cont.)

Women are viewed as passive, weak,nurturing, and adaptive with needs suchas abasement, deference, nurturance,affiliation, and heterosexuality.

These researchers are suggesting thattheir findings support a “psychologicaluniversal” when it comes to gender

stereotypes.

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Hofstede’s Study

Masculinity versus Femininity : degree towhich culture will foster, encourage, or maintaindifferences between males and females

Highly masculine: Japan, Austria, Venezuela,

ItalyLow masculine: Denmark, Netherlands, Norway,Sweden

Masculine and feminine cultures differ insexuality and attitudes toward religion

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Perceptual/Spatial/Cognitive Differences

Common American folklore is that males betterat mathematical and spatial reasoning tasks andfemales better at verbal comprehension tasksThis is not necessarily true for other cultures

No gender difference in spatial abilities in Inuitculture in Canada and Ecuador (women engagein tasks that require spatial abilities)Males did better in tight, sedentary, andagriculturally based culturesFemales did better in loose, nomadic, andhunting and gathering based cultures

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Conformity and Obedience

Common gender-role stereotypes is thatfemales more conforming and obedient thanmales

This is not necessarily true for other culturesIn tighter cultures, females more conformists thanmalesIn looser cultures, less gender difference inconformity or males more conformists