FEEDING METHODS

Introduction

Things to know The nutritional value of feeds Animal requirements of nutrients Nutrients intake Availability of feed ingredients

Supply Demand

Cont.

Energy content of the diet Balance among nutrients Example:A 70 kg sheep loses ~ 1,600 Kcal as HP~ 1.2 kg/d of hay (medium quality, GE=5,300

Kcal) needed to cover this loss “Maintenance requirement”

Energy requirements Of this GE of 5,300 Kcal

~2,400 Kcal lost in feces ~600 Kcal lost in urine & fermentation

gases ~ 2,300 Kcal lost in HP

Another example: in a cow-calf system ~40% lost in feces ~10% lost in urine & gases ~ 45% lost in HP ~ 5% retained in the calf

Cont. The purpose of nutrient utilization

Maintenance Production

Growth (fat/muscle deposition) Milk production

The efficiency of ME utilization for maintenance Fed at Maintenance + energy tissue mobilization ~ 67%

Cont. Milk production Relatively tight range: 0.56 (poor diet) to

0.66 (best quality) efficiency Energy tissue (mobilization) utilization: ~

0.84Efficiency milk > meat

Quick removal of the productHigh producer > low producer

genetic selection for more milk yield

Protein requirements Crude protein (CP): N × 6.25

All N are presented in protein form All proteins contain 16% N

In reality; true protein & NPN Digestible CP

Endogenous N Proteins from intestine (e.g., enzymes)

Cont. Rumen degradation of proteins can be

determined: Solubility In vitro In saco Whole animal exp.

Essential AA: His, Ile, Lue, Lys. Met, Phe, Thr, Trp, Val

Rumen degradable (RDP) and un-degradable (RUP or UDP)

Metabolizable protein (MP)

Cont. MP: digestible total AA from

microbial proteins Feed proteins escaping rumen degradation

but digested & absorbed in the small intestine

Degradability is determined: Fraction A: soluble (or lost through the bag) Fraction B: potentially degradable (passage

rate & degradability rate) Fraction C: Undegradable N

Cont.RDP = A + B [kd/(kd+kp)]RUP=100-RDPWhere RDP, RUP, fractions A, B & C are %

of CPKd & kp are %/hrDegradation of NPN=0.949Microbial CP(g/d) =130 × TDN intake (RDP

intake>1.18 × MCP)Microbial CP(g/d) =0.85 × TDN intake (RDP

intake<1.18 × MCP)

Cont.Endogenous N (g/d) = 1.9 × DMI (kg/d)The efficiency with which MP is used for

Maintenance=0.67 Pregnancy=0.33 Milk synthesis=0.67

Efficiency of MCP to MP= 0.64 AA model: AA requirement, AA content,

efficiency Met & Lys 2.4 & 7.2% of MP or 1:3 ratio

Feeding Dairy cows A minimum of ~ 17% CF (changes relative to

production) At least 5-6 feed items No undesired odor/color/taste associated w/

feeds Primiparous cows (1st lactation) : + 20%

maintenance energy (ME) Multiparous cows (2nd lactation) : + 10%

maintenance energy (ME) Multiparous cows (3rd lactation): mature

Heifers b/w weaning & age at 1st calving (~24

month): 8-10 times BW gain Physiologically, rumen performs near

complete at 4 month old but not in terms of its capacity: ~ 12-14 month

~45% mature BW at 1st breeding Last trimester: ~ 40% fetus BW gain 20% addition of energy on top (if 1st

calving)

Feeding calves

Dip naval ~ 2 liters colostrum at birth ~ 2 liters within the next 12-24 h Continue for 3 d It works!!!! Passive immunity

~ 65% of operations do so by bucket or bottle

Cont. Sometimes, it is more beneficial to use

milk replacer More saving when higher milk price

Water at day 3Cocccidiostat in milk replacer

Weaning- traditional Day 4 to weaning:

Milk replacer (~13% DM) at 10% BW/d At least 20% CP & 15% fat Twice/d Calf starter (commercially available) Free choice 16-20% CP Not much forage

Cont. Wean ~ 5-6 wk: when eating 0.5-0.7 kg

starter/d for at least 3 consecutive d Milk to 50% during 1st wk and totally in

2nd wk Leave in individual pen/calf starter for 1-

2 wk before moving to group pen/grain mix

~ 37% wean at wk 8; ~9% at wk 7; ~ 18% at wk 6; ~ 28% wean after wk 8

Calf starter intake and growth (Eastridge and Weiss; 2005)

Age, day Intake, lb/d

7 0.25

14 0.35

21 0.7

28 1.2

35 1.9

42 3

49 3.5

Age, day BW, lb3 95

28 127

36 148

57 170

72 195

86 230

96 265

Weaning- accelerated growth At day 4, milk replacer

14-17% DM (more solids) 26-28% CP (more protein); same fat

content ~ 2-2.2 liters twice/d for wk 1 2.7-3.6 liters twice/d for wk 2 to wk 4-5 2.7-3.6 liters once/d for 1 wk at weaning

At day 4, calf starter 20-22% CP (more protein) Intake is ~ half vs. traditional weaning

Cont. Wean at 6-7 wk; when eating ~ 1 kg

starter/d for 3 consecutive d Continue high quality calf starter to 10-

12 wk age Offer forage when eating 2.2 to 2.7 kg

starter/d

Comparison between Accelerated vs. Traditional

Shorter time to breeding (20-30 d sooner)

Increased gain efficiency

Increased milk yield ??

Health & immune system ???

Increased feed costs

More loose feces Delayed rumen

development Intensive

management

Advantages Disadvantages

Growing heifers To give birth ~ 23-24 months old Should reach certain BW (+ certain height)

Example: 8 mo ~500 to 575 lb (~ 43 in) 10 mo ~600 to 700 lb (~ 45 in) 12 mo ~700 to 780 lb (~ 47 in) 14 mo ~780 to 900 lb ( ~ 49 in)

Jersey: 14 mo 525 to 575 lb (~44 in))

Goal: (Holstein) ADG of ~1.7 lb/d; 1.2”/mo wither height (Jersey) ADG of~ 1.3 lb/d; 1.1”/mo wither height

Ideal BCS & its relationship with milk yield

Age, month

Ideal BCS

3 2.26 2.39 2.4

12 2.815 3.018 3.221 3.424 3.5

The relationship of BCS at first calving & 90-d milk yield (Waltner et al., 1993)

Dry matter intake of growing heifers

Age, month

Holstein JerseyBW, lb DMI, lb/d BW, lb DMI, lb/d

3 250 7 165 4.6

5 350 9 240 6.6

7 450 11.3 320 8.3

9 550 13.4 400 10.6

11 650 15.4 480 12.1

13 750 17.5 560 13.7

Nutrient requirements (DM basis)

3-4 mo old

5-7 mo old

8 to pregnant

Pregnant to 60 d

pre-CP, % 18% 14.5-15 13-14 13-14

ME, Mcal/lb 1.25 1.1 1.1 1.0

TDN, % 73 68 64-65 62-65

NDF, % max

22 44

Ca, % 0.9 0.75 0.7 0.65

P, % 0.45 0.35 0.3 0.25

Dry matter intake of pregnant heifers

Age, month

Holstein JerseyBW, lb DMI, lb/d BW, lb DMI, lb/d

15 850 20.9 620 16

17 950 22.6 680 16.9

19 1030 24 740 17.7

21 1150 25.5 820 18.3

23-24 1300 22 920 15.1

Close up- pregnant heifers Need more protein vs. mature cows (15-

16 vs. 12-14% CP) First calving: + 20% energy Second calving: + 10% energy Feeding anionic salts: NOT

recommended for heifers

Lactating cows Reduced DMI during early lactation

Energy tissue mobilization Possibility of protein mobilization

1.35-1.75% of BW= forage intake: rest from concentrates

Not always feasible for high producers/early lactation

2-3% of DMI: minerals/vitamins

Cont. Concentrate intake:

Milk yield Milk composition (especially milk fat) Forage intake

Try to keep below 55-60% pH Forage fermentation Acidosis

Cont. Phase I (wk 0-10):

increase in DMI is lagging behind increase in milk yield

Negative energy (and some proteins + minerals) balance

Maintain 24-27% NDF High quality protein (UDP) Watch DCAD Promote feed intake

Cont. Phase II (wk 10-20):

Increased DMI relative to milk yield Highest dry matter in milk Promote extension of this period

Cont. Phase III (wk 20-44):

Increased DMI beyond milk yield Highest dry matter intake Watch for high BCS (BW gain) Replenishing used up stored nutrients Adjust concentrate

Cont. Phase IV (wk 44-next parturition):

No milk yield Gradual decrease in dry matter intake Last 2-3 weeks: ~30% reduction in DMI Mammary gland involution Mostly forages; inexpensive Set up a close-up ration (3-4 wk before

parturition) Close up: preparatory; b/w dry ration &

lactating ration to help feed intake, rumen performance, nutrient intake

GeneralFor lactating cows: ~ 15-18% protein 60-70% TDN NEL=1.4 to 1.8 Mcal/kg ration DM Inert fat (rumen-protected fat) for high

producing cows after wk 9-10 Forage (effective NDF): rumen fermentation;

milk fat Increase nutrient density of the concentrate not

its consumption Mineral blocks

Examples Controlled (cross) feeding

Amount of concentrate amount of milk yield

~2-3 kg concentrate (medium density) for 1 kg milk

Rest: forage Old method; worked when cows produced

≤ 25 kg/d

If producing ≤ 25 kg/d, ~ 40% foragesIf producing ~40 kg/d, ~ 16 kg/d typical

concentrate; DMI for this cow ~ 17 kg/d …!???!?

Cont. Early lactation: much need for

concentrate Not enough forages Milk fat; poor rumen fermentation; acidosis Fatty liver-ketosis

Mid/Late lactation: possibility of over-conditioning

Cont. Total mixed ration (TMR; complete diet)

Everything mixed Can’t choose what item(s) to eat and what

to refuse Only how much to eat Similar ration for cows in a group Better to group cows (3-4 groups) More capital investment (mixer/feeder) Not so palatable feedstuff also in the mix More stable milk fat (less fluctuation)

Cont. More stable rumen pH/fermentation Quality of the concentrate type feeds (no

more amount..!!!) it is all mixed Less laborious Works much better If a good reproductive

management in place (synchronized calving; easier grouping)

Difficult to group solely on milk yield Move cows based on yield/physiological

stage

Rumen pH

pH

5.5

6.0

6.5

pH

5.5

6.0

6.5

a. Feeding low concentrate

b. Feeding high concentrate

TMR

TMR

Cellulose degradation ceases

Cellulose degradation ceases

Cont. Flat rate feeding

Fixed amount of concentrate; variable forage (mostly ad libitum)

A simple method to execute Relies on stored energy tissue (body fat)

especially during early lactation During entire early lactation; high risk for

lower-than- needed concentrate (nutrient dens items)

During phase III, high risk for more-than-needed concentrate: over-conditioning

Cont. Nutrient composition more important than

amount fed Early lactation: increase nutrient density of

concentrate High quality protein sources (UDP);

protected fat Late lactation: reduce nutrient density of

concentrate

Cont. Mechanical feeder (distributor)

Feed individual cow based on milk yield Totally controlled on an individual basis High quality forage ad libitum Boss cows; too much concentrates; over-

conditioning Low fat milk

Feeding sheep General

Adaptable to relatively harsh condition Lower maintenance requirements Good fiber digestibility Diverse products (not seasonal) Great pasture-eater Faster investment turn-around (if fattening) DMI = 3.0-4.5% of BW

Cont. Greater energy requirement when

lactating (high fat milk) Flushing: intensive nutrition program to

promote/support twining Transition period; 3-4 weeks pre- through

postpartum Would help reducing BW losses, MG

development & milk yield if good quality proteins (RUP) are used

Always consider Vitamin E and Selenium

Lamb operations Programmed weaning (6-10 wk) Takes ~ 100 days to 12 months 100-500 g/d ADG Milk replacers Creep feeding

Cont.1) Early weaning/intensive fattening

~ 5-6 weeks on milk ~100 days Creep feeding 2-3 weeks old; start ad libitum

starter/high quality alfalfa/ grains Goal should be a FCR of > 3 60-80% concentrate: 20-40% forages Flushing

Cont.2. Early weaning/moderate fattening

Applied when pasture and/or crop byproducts available

Same procedures for weaning/milk replacer

Lower density grains/protein supplements Less expensive rations Longer time: 5-6 months Tubers; pulps; inexpensive by products;

NPN

Cont.3) Late weaning

Max BW Takes 9-12 months Pasture-based Last few weeks on concentrates (feedlot)

using good quality proteins (RUP) inexpensive rations