Fibers Volume 1 - Wiley-VCH · 2008. 3. 7. · Fibers, 1. Survey 5...

FibersVolume 1

Ullmann’s Fibers, Vol. 1c© 2008 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, WeinheimISBN: 978-3-527-31772-1

Fibers, 1. Survey 3

Fibers, 1. Survey

Fritz Schultze-Gebhardt, Dusseldorf, Federal Republic of Germany (Chaps. 2 – 7)

Karl-Heinz Herlinger, Institut fur Chemiefasern der Deutschen Institute fur Textil- und FaserforschungStuttgart, Denkendorf, Federal Republic of Germany (Chaps. 2 – 8)

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32. History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43. Characteristics of Fibers . . . . . . . . . 43.1. Fineness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.2. Tenacity and Modulus of Elasticity . . 53.3. Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54. Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54.1. Wet Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54.2. Dry Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.3. Melt Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65. Prerequisites for Fiber Formation . . 65.1. Molecular Mass and Fiber Formation 65.2. Molecular Structure and Fiber

Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75.3. Property Requirements for the

Formation of Fiber Structures . . . . . 8

5.4. Crystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95.5. Organization of Structural Elements 95.6. Structural Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105.7. Molecular Symmetry and Physical

Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105.8. Changes in Properties Caused by

Symmetry Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116. Fiber Properties Required by Textiles 126.1. Requirements to Be Met by Textiles . 126.2. Modification of Fiber Properties . . . 126.3. Comfort Properties of Textiles . . . . . 147. Economic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148. Tabular Survey of Fibers . . . . . . . . 159. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1. Introduction

The term fibers refers collectively to a wide va-riety of forms of fibrous materials. Standardshave been established to introduce order intothe field. The most frequently employed termsare defined here. Natural fibers that can be spuninto yarn are called staple fibers. The primaryspinning of man-made fibers results in the pro-duction of continuous filaments (endless fibers).Indeed, both monofilaments (threads; spinnerethas one hole) and multifilaments (spinneret hasmany holes) can be produced. A filament yarnconsists of a large number of filaments that canbe given texture by twisting, crimping and/orheat setting.

Theword tow refers to a fiber tapemade fromthousands of filaments. If a tow is cut or torn, itgives rise to staple fibers. Fiber tapes obtainedby cutting or tearing parallel to the fibers areknown as fiber bands.

Conventional standards divide fibers into (1)natural fibers and (2) man-made fibers (alsocalled chemical fibers).

Natural fibers are subdivided into plant andanimal fibers. Man-made fibers are subdivided

into natural materials brought into fiber form bya chemical reaction (regenerate fibers) and fibersmade from synthetic polymers (synthetic fibers).The following classification includes standard-ized abbreviations that are used occasionallythroughout this article:

1. Natural fibers1.1. Plant fibers, e.g.,cottonflaxhempjute

1.2. Animal fibers, e.g.,woolcamel hairangorasilk

2. Man-made fibers2.1. Fibers based on natural polymers, e.g.,viscose rayon (CV)Lyocell (CLY)cellulose acetate (CA)elastodiene (LA)

2.2. Fibers based on synthetic polymers(synthetic fibers), e.g.,polypropylene (PP)

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polyacrylonitrile (PAN)poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC),polyamide 6 (PA 6, nylon 6)polyamide 66 ( PA 6,6; nylon 66)poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK)polyurethane (PUR; spandex)

2. History

Natural Fibers. Natural fibers have beenused by humans for thousands of years. Animalhair and plant fibers were spun into yarn andwoven into textiles. Indeed, the textile industrytoday is still based on this ancient technology.

Man-Made Fibers. The idea of making “ar-tificial” fibers and threads is over 300 yearsold. In fact, the start of the chemical fiberindustry dates from about 1884. The processof regenerating fiber-forming cellulose wasbased on the discovery of solvents such ascopper oxide – ammonia by E. Schweizer in1857. Later, Count Chardonnet succeeded informing derivatives of cellulose which could besolubilized and spun into threads; “Chardonnetsilk” was first made in 1884. A detailed accountof the history of man-made fibers is not given inthis article. The subject was dealt with compe-tently by H. Klare in 1985 [19].

The most important developments in the pro-duction of man-made fibers based on cellulosewere:

1) the cuprammonium process for solubiliza-tion and spinning of cellulose;

2) the formation of spinning solutions of cellu-lose derivatives, such as cellulose nitrate andcellulose acetate;

3) the intermediate derivatization of celluloseto cellulose xanthate which in turn is spuninto cellulose fibers;

4) the development of new solvent sys-tems for cellulose, such as N-methylmor-pholine oxide (NMMO) or dimethylacet-amide – lithium chloride.

In 1927, H. Staudinger used polyoxy-methylene as a model of cellulose to demon-strate that fiber-forming polymers were linearpolymeric molecules.

The production of synthetic fibers was theresult of pioneering work on the formation ofsynthetic polymers and the development of ex-trusion techniques known as wet, dry, and meltspinning.

Nylon 66 was first synthesized by W.H.Carothers in 1935. This was closely followedby the discovery of nylon 6 by P. Schlack in1938. The work of J. R. Whinfield and I. T.Dickson led to the development of polyesterfibers in 1941. Today, polyamides and poly-esters are the largest-volume polymers capableof being melt-spun. The production of syntheticfibers based on familiar polymers such as poly-acrylonitrile, which cannot be melt-spun, wasmade possible by the introduction of new sol-vents, e.g., dimethylformamide (H.Rein, 1942).Discovery of the stereospecific polymerizationof propylene (G. Natta, 1954) led to the in-troduction of polyolefins into the fiber industry.The development of technology and the simul-taneous elucidation of structure and propertiesresulted in “tailor-made” polymers and fibers.Specific properties such as rubber elasticity (O.Bayer, 1947) or extreme tenacity and stiffnesswere realized (high-modulus fibers, P.W.Mor-gan andS. L.Kwolek, 1968). In addition, high-temperature fibers were made from polyhetero-cyclic compounds.

Apart from organic polymers, inorganic sub-stances such as glass, carbon, BN, and SiC werealso spun into fibers.

Future developments are likely to be directedtoward classical mass production, particularlytowards the attaining of optimal processing char-acteristics and clothing comfort. New types ofapplication – above all in the field of industrialfibers and in medical technology – will stimu-late the development of special fibers with veryspecific properties.

3. Characteristics of Fibers

3.1. Fineness

The thickness of fibers and filaments rangesfrom 1 to 100µm. Measuring thickness bymeans of conventional instruments is very diffi-cult. Indeed, even small variations in fiber uni-formity, thickness, and cross-sectional area hin-der microscopic measurement. To make a sta-

Fibers, 1. Survey 5

tistically valid statement about the fineness of afiber (fiber density), length and mass are com-puted instead of thickness. The unit tex is usedto express fiber fineness. According to the ISO,

1tex = 1gper1000m

If 1000m of fiber weigh 1 g, the fineness is 1 tex.Another unit commonly used to express finenessis dtex. If themass per length is given in dtex, thenumerical values will be comparable to those inthe formerly used unit denier [46]:

1denier = 1gper9000m

3.2. Tenacity and Modulus of Elasticity

The cross-sectional area of fibers is generallynonuniform and cannot be determined easily.Hence, measurements based on area have lim-ited applicability. For this reason, tenacity is notmeasured in gigapascal (GPa) units (ISO) butis expressed relative to the fineness. Usually, themaximal tensile force (at break) is employed, ex-pressed in centinewtons per tex (cN/tex); otherunits used are cN/dtex (1 cN/dtex = 10 cN/tex) orN/tex (1N/tex = 100 cN/tex). Textile and indus-trial fibers have tenacities ranging from 10 tomore than 300 cN/tex (see Table 4). The mod-ulus of elasticity corresponds to the tangent tothe stress – strain curve at the origin (→Fibers,6. Testing and Analysis, Chap. 3.). It is also ex-pressed relative to the fineness, in cN/tex. Typ-ical moduli range from 50 to 1000 cN/tex fortextile fibers and from 1000 to 40 000 cN/tex forindustrial fibers. (See Table 5.)

3.3. Elongation

The highest possible degree of elongationat break (→Fibers, 6. Testing and Analysis,Chap. 3.) varies greatly with the type of fiber.Industrial fibers, e.g., carbon fibers and high-modulus aramids, have values of 0.1 – 2%; tex-tile fibers and yarns have values of 5 – 70%; andvalues of 300 – 700% are obtained for spandexfibers (see Table 4).

In practical applications, fibers are elongatedonly to a small extent. Maximal elongation is

never attained because otherwise fibers undergopartially irreversible stretching.

Temperature and moisture (weather) affectboth the tenacity and the elongation of fibers tovarying extents, depending on the type of poly-mer. The same applies to dimensional stabilityand wrinkling tendency, properties that are alsoinfluenced by the type of fiber and by the textilestructure.

4. Spinning

Both natural and synthetic fibers are consist-ing of linear polymers. These polymers are con-verted into fibrous form by growth (animal hair,plant fibers) or extrusion (spider, silkworm, spin-ning technology) and are specifically oriented tothe fiber axis. The many mechanisms found innature for the formation of filamentous struc-tures are, by no means completely understood(see e.g. [87]). Only a few processes are avail-able for large-scale production of man-madefibers. Specific production techniques are basedon the deformability of fiber polymers. In prin-ciple, a distinction is made between spinningmethods involving solutions and those involv-ing molten polymer. For a detailed descriptionof spinning, see →Fibers, 3. General Produc-tion Technology.

4.1. Wet Spinning

Polymer solutions are converted into fibers bydiluting a highly concentrated polymer solu-tion in a coagulating bath. The extremely vis-cous polymer solution, e.g., 3.5 – 10 Pa · s (stillhigher values are obtained with viscose rayon)can be extruded, i.e., spun, by forcing it througha spinneret to form threadlike structures. In gen-eral, polymers are soluble only in specific sol-vents. The viscous polymer solution is extrudedinto a coagulating bath where the solvent is di-luted, which results in precipitation of polymerthreads. For instance, polyacrylonitrile is solu-ble in dimethylformamide (DMF). In the coag-ulating bath, DMF is washed out of the viscouspolymer threads with water, and polyacryloni-trile fibers precipitate (Fig. 1).

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Figure 1. Fiber formation by solvent extraction in the spin-ning bathPAN=polyacrylonitrile: DMF= dimethylformamide

The solvent concentration in the fiber de-creases along the length of the coagulating bath.In wet spinning, several physicochemical pro-cesses occur simultaneously, e.g., solvent dif-fusion, polymer precipitation, and formation ofmembrane-like interfaces and system-specificmorphological structures. One of the main pur-poses of developingwet-spunpolymers is to pro-duce specific fiber structures in the coagulatingbath. This is achieved, in principle, by modifica-tion in the coagulating bath, which is describedin more detail under →Fibers, 4. Synthetic Or-ganic, Chap. 5.3.3., wet spinning of polyacry-lonitrile. In a spinning process of this type, thepolymer can also undergo a chemical reaction;e.g., the viscose process involves acid hydroly-sis of cellulose xanthate in the coagulating bath(→ Cellulose, Chap. 3.1.3.).

Tomake the process economical, the polymerconcentration should be kept as high as possi-ble during spinning. In the case of soluble poly-mers, the viscosity of the spinning solution, andthus its basic spinnability, are directly relatedto the concentration and solvation of the poly-mers. However, complicated processes, such asexchange, diffusion, and drying, that occur dur-ing wet and dry spinning result in polymer- andsolvent-dependent limitations on the polymerconcentration.

4.2. Dry Spinning

In dry spinning, the polymer solution is alsoforced through a spinneret. Solvent is then evap-orated in a warm current of air to produce almostsolvent-free filaments. Cellulose acetate, poly-acrylonitrile, and polyurethane are spun by thistechnique (→Fibers, 4. Synthetic Organic).

4.3. Melt Spinning

In melt spinning, the polymer is melted by heat-ing and then passed through a spinneret via aspinning pump. Only polymers that are ther-mally stable under melt conditions can be sub-jected to this extrusion (i.e., spinning) process.The fluid threads emerging from the spinneretsolidify on cooling (usually air cooling) to formfilaments. This technique is applied in spinning,e.g., nylon 6, nylon 66, or poly(ethylene tere-phthalate) (→Fibers, 4. Synthetic Organic).

The difference betweenmelting and spinningtemperatures depends on the viscosity of themelt. Usually, the spinning temperature is about30K higher than the melting temperature Tm.However, if the viscosity is still too high, thespinning temperature must be increased evenfurther. For example, Tm of polypropylene is170 C but the polymer is spun at 260 C. Themelt index, not the viscosity, is generally usedto characterize the melting properties of poly-mers. In fact, the tedious measurement of meltviscosity has now been replaced by simple massdetermination (→Fibers, 6. Testing and Analy-sis).

Hence, melt spinning requires polymers thatare thermally stable and, as far as possible, re-sistant to thermal oxidation at temperatures ap-proximately 30K higher than their melting tem-peratures (PA-6, PA-66, and PET).

Production conditions must be optimally co-ordinated with the properties of the product toachieve the desired melt viscosity, on the onehand, and the required fiber tenacity, on theother. Rapid advances in process technology,however, have made possible not only the pro-cessing of very highly viscousmelts, but also theextrusion of solids.

5. Prerequisites for Fiber Formation

5.1. Molecular Mass and FiberFormation

The spinnability of polymer melts or solutionsdepends on their viscosity at technically feasi-ble spinning conditions. The viscosity η of lin-ear polymers depends, in turn, on the molecularmass Mr:

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Table 1. Polymer type and molecular mass suitable for fiber formation

η=K ·Mαr

where K is a constant that is known for mostcommon polymers.

The fiber-forming tendency of a polymer in-creases with increasing molecular mass. Thevarying forces of interaction between individ-ual structural groups of polymers are directlyrelated to the chemical nature of these linearmolecules. For this reason, optimal conditionsfor fiber formation are very polymer-specific.In principle, the weaker the interaction betweenstructural segments, the higher is the molecularmass required (Table 1) [47].

5.2. Molecular Structure and FiberProperties

The thermochemical and photochemical stabil-ity of a fiber polymer is controlled by its chemi-cal structure. The possibility of chemicallymod-ifying textile properties is determined by thechemical reactivity and polarity of the individ-ual structural units (Table 2). The type of chem-ical bonds and the stereochemistry are impor-tant formolecular geometry, interaction of struc-tural units, and thermal conformational stabil-ity. Low conformational mobility is generallyrelated to high mechanical tenacity, modulus,and torsion modulus. Finally, the molecular or-ganization is influenced by the symmetry of thestructural units and of the entiremolecular chain.

The interaction energy (cohesion energy) con-trols the solubility and compatibility of struc-tural units with each other. These factors finallylead to specific morphological domains, whichfrequently occur in block structures of varyingchemical composition along the polymer chain,e.g., in polyurethane (spandex) fibers. The gen-eral relationship between the structure and prop-erties of polymers suitable for fiber productionis discussed in the literature [47]. In this sectionthe structural elements of technically importantfibers are compared.

Table 2. Structural characteristics of polymers and their importancefor fiber properties

Structural characteristics Importance for fiber properties

Chemical structure thermochemical andphotochemical stability,

(primary structure) textile chemical processes(dyeing, textile finishing)

Molecular organization and general properties,symmetry melting point, shrinkage behaviorType of binding and thermophysical andstereochemistry (secondary thermomechanical propertiesstructure) (moduli, elasticity)Conformation andconformational mobilityMorphological structures,superstructures

diffusion (dyeing), breakingmechanism

Crystallization. The interaction betweenstructural units is of considerable importance forcrystallization. The chemical structure, stereo-chemistry, and symmetry of polymers deter-mine, to a large extent, the structural conforma-

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tion of the polymer under prevailing conditionssuch as temperature (melt or solid), conditionof solution (solvation of molecules), coil struc-ture, and aggregation. Higher orientation orparallelism of the chain molecules increasesorientation of the structure elements. Their in-teraction also depends on the possible molecularconformations.

During spinning, a preliminary orientation ofthe molecules occurs, which is enhanced dur-ing drawing, and stabilized by partial crystal-lization. The individual segments usually crys-tallize independently of each other; hence amor-phous intercrystalline areas exist unavoidably.The course of polymer crystallization, especiallyof fibers, is quite different from the crystalliza-tion characteristics of low molecular mass com-pounds.

5.3. Property Requirements for theFormation of Fiber Structures

Fiber-forming polymers require certain proper-ties that make possible the formation of typicalfiber structures; these are linearity, intermolec-ular forces, and the possibility of crystallizationwhereby, in general, supermolecular structuresresult.

1) Linearity. Only linear polymers can be ex-pected to have optimal fiber-forming prop-erties. Linearity is specifically a prerequisitefor the spinnability of polymer solutions andmelts.

2) Intermolecular Forces. After orientation oflinear polymers during spinning and draw-ing, dispersion forces, e.g., dipole-dipole in-teractions or hydrogen bonds between thepolymer segments contribute to the fixationof the polymer chains.

3) Crystallization. The well-developed organi-zation of the polymer chains usually resultsin crystallization. Polymer-specific crystal-lization results in crystalline domains andamorphous intercrystalline areas.

4) Supermolecular Structure. The crystallitesare oriented so that they lie parallel to thefiber axis, which results in supermolecu-lar structures, e.g., fibrils and fibril bundles(→Fibers, 2. Structure).

These requirements were fulfilled byStaudinger’s model of cellulose as polymericformaldehyde [48]. Even this simple compoundmet all the conditions for fiber formation. It is ameltable linear polymer, capable of crystalliza-tion with formation of fiber fibrils.

The simplest model for intermolecular dis-persion forces (van der Waals forces) is shownin a polyolefin molecule such as polyethylene orpolypropylene:

In poly(ethylene terephthalate), interaction bet-ween the aromatic π-electron systems of thebenzene rings and of the carbonyl groups makesdipole – dipole interaction possible:

Hydrogen bonds act on amide or urea groups inpolyamides, such as nylon 66 or nylon 6, or inpolyurethane, respectively:

The OH groups of poly(vinyl alcohol) and ofcellulose (viscose rayon) are also able to formhydrogen bonds. Very strong dipole – dipole in-teraction occurs between the nitrile groups ofpolyacrylonitrile:

However, this all-trans conformation of poly-acrylonitrile can change into lower energy heli-cal structures [49]:

Fibers, 1. Survey 9

The strong dipole–dipole interaction of poly-acrylonitrile is one of the reasons for the specificsolubility behavior of that polymer.

Weak dispersion forces are effective only in ahighly symmetrical conformation. This high de-gree of symmetry, in turn, is possible only with ahighly symmetrical arrangement of substituents,e.g., along an aliphatic carbon chain. Such ahigh degree of symmetry in linear polymers canbe achieved only by coordination polymeriza-tion, in the presence of organometallic catalysts(Ziegler –Natta), to yield isotactic polymers. Ifthis symmetry (e.g., in polypropylene) is dis-turbed by the presence of other structural units(e.g., carboxylic acid ester groups; acrylic acidcomonomers), both polymer and fiber propertieschange drastically.

5.4. Crystallization

The flexible linear polymer takes on a vari-ety of conformations during fiber formation,seeking the conformation with the lowest freeenergy (i.e., highest molecular organization).However, spinning conditions do not allowpoly-mers to attain this state completely, and fiberpolymers usually undergo only partial crystal-lization. The ratio of crystalline to amorphousregions varies from almost totally amorphous tohighly crystalline, single-phase systems (Fibers,2. Structure).

Linear polymers exist in solution or asmolten polymer in a more or less coiled form(Fig. 2A). In the shearing field during spin-ning, the molecules are partially uncoiled andoriented in the direction of flow (Fig. 2 B). Ahigher degree of orientation is achieved dur-ing the subsequent drawing operation (Fig. 2 C).

In this step, spun fibers are stretched by morethan 200%, resulting in partial crystallizationof polymer molecules (Fig. 2D). In high-speedspinning, the extremely high windup speeds(3000 – 6000m/min; 50 – 100m/s) induce crys-tallization during fiber formation. The resultingpreoriented yarns (POY) have to be stretchedby only 40 – 100% in subsequent steps (tex-turing). Additional polymer-specific increasesin windup speeds lead to fully oriented yarns,which require almost no further stretching.

Wu et al. [77] succeeded to orientate spin-ning PET in a threadline modification process.Theone-steporientation (without separate draw-ing) could be realized by the installation of a liq-uid bath in the spinline. High-performance fila-ments, however, have to be drawn after spinningto reach maximum fiber strength.

Liquid Crystals. Some linear polymers, insolution or molten form, tend to undergoself-organization by forming liquid – crystallinestructures. Soluble linear polymers (lyotropicsystems) form liquid crystals as a result of theirrigid conformation and the formation of poly-electrolytes, e.g., the system poly(p-phenylene-terephthalamide) –H2SO4. Liquid crystals canalso be formed in polymer melts (thermotropicsystems). Examples of suitable systems are thearomatic polyesters of the poly(4-hydroxyben-zoic acid) type or aromatic blocks built up insegments and separated by flexible spacers. Fig-ure 2 E shows the resulting structures of somehigh-modulus aramids; pronounced amorphousintercrystalline areas are not visible.

5.5. Organization of StructuralElements

The arrangement of fibrils and fibril bundles inman-made fibers is controlled by the produc-tion procedure, i.e., by physical and physico-chemical processes. Therefore, resulting struc-tures depend on production parameters, and de-spite the different types of polymers employed,the tertiary structures of all man-made fibers arevery similar.

In contrast, natural fibers have organized,evolved structures which differ considerablyfrom each other, depending on the organism.Structural variations are reflected in different ge-ometric positions of the fibrils with respect to the

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Figure 2. Various conformations of fiber polymersA: Unstirred solution (coil of polymer molecules)B: Molecular orientation in the shearing field during spinningC: Molecular orientation during drawing or liquid crystal formation from the melt or solution (polyelectrolyte molecules)D: Formation of structure on crystallization of flexible polymer chains. Examples are polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide,and polyester.a) Crystallite; b) Intercrystalline (amorphous) region; l) Long period (10 – 20 nm)E: Formation of structure of lyotropic and thermotropic systems, such as crystallization of rigid polymer chains. Examplesare high-modulus fibers of the aramid type, polyesters, and carbon fibers.

fiber axis (e.g., in cotton fibers) or in differentchemical structures along the fiber cross section(e.g., in animal hair, such as wool). Fibers couldthus be classified into two principal structuralcategories, namely, organized and unorganized,if the structure of each fiber were known.

5.6. Structural Models

The chemical structure of linear polymers de-termines the degree of conformational mobil-ity of the chain segments of these molecules.Both chain mobility and molecular structure,in turn, greatly influence fiber structure. Flex-ible chain molecules may crystallize partially toform structures that conform with the classicalcrystalline – amorphous model (Fig. 3A). Span-dex fibers, on the other hand, have a special do-main structure, because the chemical structure ofthese polymers changes considerably in the vari-ous segments along the polymer chain (Fig. 3 B).

The relatively planar structure of aramids andpolyheterocyclic compounds, their conforma-tional rigidity, and their tendency to form ly-otropic structures in the spinning solution areconsistent with a structural model in which theintercrystalline segments are bridged (Fig. 3 C).

Even more planar molecules form graphite-like structures (Fig. 3D). Structural defects leadto cavities and weakly bent planes of the aro-matic systems; for more details on carbon fibers,see →Fibers, 5. Synthetic Inorganic.

5.7. Molecular Symmetry and PhysicalProperties

The importance ofmolecular symmetry for ther-mophysical properties (melting point, glass tran-sition temperature) can be demonstrated forpolyamides. Figure 4 shows the fluctuation ofmelting points in the series of polyamides PA-3 to PA-13 (nylon 3 to nylon 13). Apparently,polyamides with an even number of carbonatoms and those with an odd number of carbonatoms belong to different structural series [47].This can be explained by the different overallsymmetry and, consequently, the different pos-sibilities for hydrogen-bond formation (Fig. 5).In PA-7, more hydrogen bonds can be formed –at least in the all-trans conformation – than inPA-6. Analogously, all nylon types with an evennumber of carbon atoms have lower meltingpoints than those with an odd number of carbonatoms (Fig. 5).

Fibers, 1. Survey 11

Figure 3. Various structural models of different polymertypesA: Classical structural model of amorphous – crystallinefiber polymers. Examples are polyamide, polyester, and vis-cose rayon. Long period (l) 10 – 30 nm.B: Structural model of spandex fibers (polyurethane).Length of hard segment 2.5 nm; length of soft segment15.0 nmC: Structural model of aramid fibers (p-structures). Noamorphous phases present; stretched molecules due to ly-otropic structures during fiber formationD: Structural model of carbon fibers; graphite structure withdefects (cavities, bent layers; D = position of defect).

5.8. Changes in Properties Caused bySymmetry Defects

The incorporation of comonomers affects notonly chemical structure, but also symmetry and,therefore, other fiber properties. For instance,the tacticity of polypropylene is changed by the

insertion of comonomers, such as vinyl com-pounds. The resulting copolymer has alteredproperties and is no longer suitable for textileproduction. In addition, polar comonomers in-terfere with the isotactic course of the polymer-ization process itself.

Figure 4. Melting points of nylons as a function of chainlength n.

Figure 5.Hydrogen bonding in nylon 6 (A;mp 225 C) andnylon 7 (B; mp 232 C)

Polyacrylonitrile is rarely used for textilefibers without comonomers being incorporatedinto the polymer, because the desired fiber prop-erties (e.g., deformability, dyeability) cannot beachieved with polyacrylonitrile alone. This, ofcourse, changes the solubility of the polymer.

Polyesters of similar chemical structure, butquite different molecular symmetry, also havevery different melting points. For example, the


highly symmetrical poly(ethylene terephthalate)has a melting point of 265 C, whereas the melt-ing point of poly(m-phenyleneisopthalamide) isonly 102 C [47].

The same situation arises with aramids.Here, too, the highly symmetrical para-linkedpolyamides have higher melting points (in thiscase, decomposition temperatures) than the lesssymmetrical meta-linked polymers (Fig. 6). Thedifferent dipole orientation, oppositely directedor in the same direction (arrows in Fig. 6), andthe total symmetry cause higher fiber tenacityand modulus.

Figure 6. Effect of dipole orientation on the melting point(decomposition temperature) of aramids

6. Fiber Properties Required byTextiles

Despite the fact that a large number of polymerspossess the basic properties required for fiberformation, they are not all suitable for large-scale production of fibers. In textile productionand in commercial applications, polymers mustfulfill a variety of requirements:

1) Chemical Stability. Polymers must be stableunder the influence of heat, light, air, water,and the chemicals commonly used in textilefinishing and care.

2) Thermomechanical Stability. Polymers mustpossess the ability to be solution- or melt-

spun and, at the same time, retain their di-mensional stability during processing, useand care.

The requirements to bemet by fibers and theirparent polymers are, therefore, determined bythe demands on the final products.

6.1. Requirements to Be Met by Textiles

The need for a variety of textile fabrics havingspecific properties should be clear from the di-versity of textile uses. The priorities and orderof importance of properties depend on the appli-cation in question.

For clothing, textile properties like appear-ance, aesthetics, optics, drape, formability (iron-ing, pleating), comfort, heat and moisture trans-port, handle, ease of care, and fastness of alltypes are of considerable importance. In ad-dition, certain chemical requirements, such asdyeability, crease-resistant finishing, anddimen-sional stability, must be met in the productionof textile materials. Finally, processibility to thefinished textile product in partially automatedproduction lines has become increasingly im-portant.

Industrial textiles must also possess specificproperties, depending on their application. Forexample, high tenacity is required for ropes; highmodulus, for fiber reinforcement; heat stability,for protective clothing and insulation; highwaterabsorption, for articles of hygiene; resistance tochemicals and flue gas, for filter materials; andlong-term stability, for geotextiles [45].

In the past, fiber production and the utiliza-tion of specific properties were optimized pri-marily. Today, fibers with desired properties aremade specifically to fulfill the requirements ofthe final product. The correlation between re-quirements and properties of the finished prod-uct and correspondingfiber (polymer) propertiesis given in Table 3.

6.2. Modification of Fiber Properties

The specific properties of the finished productdepend directly on its end use. Since the fiberitself is not the final product, changes in fiberstructure result in changes in the property profile


Table 3. Correlation of textile properties with fiber properties

Properties of the final product Corresponding fiber properties

Optical properties luster, fiber surfaceAesthetics profile, fiber cross sectionMechanical properties modulus of elasticity, tenacity, elongationComfort

Physiological properties of clothing moisture absorption, moisture transportAntistatics electrical resistanceThermal insulation heat capacity, porosity, heat conduction∗Hand textile structure, bending modulusFeel roughness, modulus of elasticity, finenessEase of care and washability wetting, moisture absorption, glass transition temperature (wet and dry) [78]Dry cleaning polymer (in)solubility, swellingSoiling characteristics zeta potential, adsorption and dissolution of soil components

FastnessMechanical stability tenacity, elongation, moduli, abrasion resistanceDimensional stability melting point, glass transition point (wet and dry)Forming (e.g., pleating) thermoplasticity, glass transition temperature (Tg)Lightfastness chemical structure, sensitizers, stabilizersLightfastness of dyeing polymer – dye interaction, radical lifetime

Specific propertiesFlame resistance chemical structure, combustion mechanismImpermeability to water moisture absorption, wetting propertiesWater vapor permeability surface properties, morphology, yarn structureDyeability glass transition point during dyeingMechanical properties(ropes, material, tire cord) modulus of elasticity, tenacity, elongation, dynamic modulus

Rubber elasticity chemical structure, glass transition temperature, morphological structure,domain structure

∗The thermal insulation of a textile is largely due to the air inside the pores, which is of low thermal conductivity.

of the finished product. Matching the require-ment profile with the property profile is not al-ways possible. the purpose of numerous mod-ification procedures (e.g., of the fiber polymer,productionmethod, processing, and finishing) isto confer special functional properties on the endproduct. Some of these procedures are describedin more detail in the following sections.

Copolymers. Fibers are used predominantlyas raw materials in textile manufacture. specificfabric properties, such as dimensional stability,brightness, color, pattern, or luster, are impartedto textiles during the physical and physicochem-ical processes of textile finishing. These charac-teristics should remain unchanged, particularlyduring use and cleaning. Chemical modificationof the fiber polymer is generally employed toachieve this goal. Chemical treatment involves,above all, the introduction of special structuralgroups into the basic polymer, groups that arecapable of taking part in polar and homopolarinteractions with the chemicals used in textilefinishing. Some examples are

1) introduction of a sulfonic acid group intopoly(ethylene terephthalate) to bind cationicdyes (sulfoisophthalic acid as comonomer);

2) introduction of a sulfonic acid group intopolyacrylonitrile with the help of vinylsul-fonic or styrenesulfonic acid or a similarcomonomer to make possible the use ofcationic dyes;

3) introduction of flexible chain segments intopoly(ethylene terephthalate) to change itsdyeing characteristics. Polymer modifica-tion [copolycondensation with poly(ethyl-ene glycol)] in the production of carrier-freedyeable polyester makes use of this princi-ple.

Polymer Mixtures. Polymers are generallyincompatible. If two different polymers are spuntogether, fibril structures are formed (matrix fib-ril fibers) that are known as biconstituent fibers.If two polymer streams are combined in thespinneret without blending, bicomponent fibersare obtained (→Fibers, 3. General ProductionTechnology).


Additives. Many specific fiber characteris-tics can be achieved by use of additives in thespinning solution or the melt. For example, thefollowing effects can be obtained:

1) Delustering: use of titanium dioxide as addi-tive in spinning

2) Spin dyeing: use of pigments as additives inspinning

3) Antistatic properties: use of electrically con-ducting additives in spinning

4) Flame resistance: use of flame retardants asadditives in spinning

The use of additives in spinning produces a verybroad spectrum of properties. For economic rea-sons, this type offibermodification is themethodof choice, if it produces the required effect. Bycomparison, the development of special poly-mers is a much more expensive procedure.

6.3. Comfort Properties of Textiles

Fibers used to produce clothing must possess avariety of properties. The term comfort refers tothose properties responsible for the wash andwear performance of garments. Physiologicalstudies have shown that apart from fiber sub-stance, i.e., the chemical structure of the fiberpolymer, the most important factors that influ-ence textile wearability are fiber, yarn, and tex-tile construction [50]. Along with moisture ab-sorption, moisture transport across the fiber sur-face or through textile spaces is of particular sig-nificance for the moisture balance of textiles.Textiles must retain their appearance and formduringwashing and dry cleaning. In this connec-tion, certain inherent fiber properties are of vitalimportance. The thermomechanical stability oftextiles is controlled by the glass transition tem-perature (Tg) of the fiber polymers. However,this temperature is not a structural property but,rather, is directly related to the fiber system, e.g.,the type of polymer and polymer –water interac-tion. Deformability generally increases with in-creasing moisture absorption because the chain-segment mobility of polymers is increased. Theglass transition temperature of fiber polymerswith a high moisture-absorbing capacity de-creases dramatically with increasing moisturecontent. The resulting structural changes in the

fiber lead to fiber shrinkage or stretching, de-pending on the degree of thermosetting. In otherwords, the textiles lose their shape.

Even in the dry state, dimensional stabil-ity decreases with increasing temperature, fiberscan undergo permanent deformation at dry heat.Suitable fixation and textile finishing, e.g., ther-mofixation (heat setting) of polyester, felting orshrink-resistant finishing of wool, and crease-resistant finishing of cotton, can enhance dimen-sional stability and ease of care. Textiles thatare still not dimensionally stable enough to bewashed with water must be dry-cleaned. Here,soil release is achieved by using organic sol-vents such as perchloroethylene or fluorochloro-hydrocarbons; the temperature must be main-tained below the glass transition points of thefiber – solvent system throughout the process.

Figure 7. Total production of man-made fibers [2]

7. Economic Aspects

The production of natural and man-made fibersis influenced by a number of factors, such as de-mand (state of the economy), availability (pro-duction and trade), prices, and availability of rawmaterials. The per capita consumption variesconsiderably from country to country and de-


pends on climate, supply, domestic productionversus imports, standard of living, fashion, stateof the economy, and degree of industrialization.

The balance between the consumption of nat-ural and of man-made fibers is also controlledby these factors, although a certain “awarenessof nature” currently tips the scales in favor ofnatural fibers. The production of natural fibers,e.g., cotton or wool, is determined in terms ofthe profit made per area cultivated. A dramaticincrease in production cannot be expected atpresent. However, new developments in geneticengineering could rapidly improve the yields ob-tained per given area.

The economic importance of individual fibertypes can be deduced from their annual world-wide consumption [51], and Figure 7 shows theworldwide production of man-made fibers.

Both the consumption and the production offibers also depend directly on the level of devel-opment and on per capita income [52]. The con-sumption per person in individual countries dif-fers considerably for a variety of reasons. Somecountries have already reached a high level ofconsumption, and despite their high standard ofliving, the population spends only a fixed per-centage of their available incomeon textiles. Thegrowth of fiber production for industrial use, onthe other hand, is likely to continue. In 1984, 7 kgof fiber was consumed per capita; for the year2000, a total fiber production of 43×106 t is ex-pected if per capita consumption remains at 7 kg,or 48.6×106 t if it increases to 8 kg. The growthrate of 2.8% achieved in the period 1968 – 1984is not expected to continue. Up to 1995 the aver-age growth rate was only 2.3%/a. Nevertheless,a world fiber volume of about 50×106 t is ex-pected in the year 2000 [52], [79].

The limited means of production in EasternEurope also contributed to reduced consump-tion. In the developing countries, lack of spend-ing power, capital, and means of production allcombine to reduce growth of consumption. Re-gional differences in population growthwill leadto an increase in fiber consumption in the devel-oping countries.

8. Tabular Survey of Fibers [6], [53],[54]

A quantitative survey of the most importantproperties of fibers based on polycondensationand polymerization, as well as some inorganicfibers, is shown inTables 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Prop-erties of these fibers, are compared with those ofnatural and semisynthetic fibers. The propertiesof all textile and industrial fibers are determinedby variables related to production and aftertreat-ment. Hence, in general, only a range of valuescharacteristic of individual fiber classes is givenin this survey. In fact, only the order of magni-tude is indicated for electric resistance of fibersbecause of considerable variations in measuredvalues. No entries have beenmadewhen reliableinformation was unavailable.

The numbers in brackets are plausibleestimated values. Figures for tenacity andmodulus are based on both fiber fineness(1tex = 1g/km) and cross-sectional area of thesample. The following relationship is applica-ble:

Fineness (tex) = 105×Density(gcm−3)

×Crosssection(cm2)

In general, the characteristic stress – strain curveσ (ε) of fibers does not show a constant gradi-ent, even at low elongation. Hence, the modulusof elasticity is usually defined as the differentialquotient dσ (ε)/dε. Experimental determinationat low fiber elongation ε is difficult but can beconducted successfully by extrapolation of thefunction dσ (e) /de for e= 0 [55].

The elastic recovery of a fiber (in percent)can be measured by standard methods [56] andis shown in Table 5 as

(1− er

e

)100

where εr = residual elongation, ε= total elonga-tion.

16 Fibers, 1. SurveyTa

ble4.

Mechanicalp

ropertiesof

fibers(dataatbreak)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aDensity

(),

Elongation

εH

(21

C)

Tenacity

(σH)at21

CRelative

Relative

g/cm

3at65

%“w

et/dry,”

at65

%R.H.

Wet/dry

loop

knot

R.H.b

,%%

σH/,

σH

(relative),

tenacity

tenacity

cN/tex

GPa

%[62],%

[63],%

Natural

fibers

Cotton

st1.50

–1.54

6–15

100–110

25–50

0.35

–0.7

100–110

65–75

60–100

Wool

st1.32

25–50

110–130

10–20

0.15

–0.25

70–90

75–85

80–85

Silk

fi1.25

10–30

120–200

25–50

0.3–0.6

75–95

60–80

80–85

Hem

pst

1.48

2–5

≈100

36–75

0.5–1.1

100–106

Flax

st1.438–1.456

1–4

110–125

30–55

0.43

–0.8

105–120

20–40

Jute

st1.436

1.3

100

20–40

0.3–0.57

99–104

Regeneratecellu

lose

Viscose

rayon,Viscose

Modal

Evlan,F

ibro,

Sarille,...

st/fi

1.52

–1.54

10–30

100–130

16–45

0.25

–0.7

40–80

25–65

25–60

Cuprammonium

rayon

Asahi

Bem

berg,

Bem

berg

st/fi

1.52

10–40

170–200

14–21

0.2–0.32

60–70

60–75

60–85

Cellulose

acetate

Arnel,C

elco,

Dicel

st/fi

1.29

–1.32

20–45

120–150

10–15

0.13

–0.2

50–80

70–95

80–90

Cellulose

triacetate

Estron,Silene,

Tricel

st/fi

1.29

–1.32

20–45

120–150

10–15

0.13

–0.2

50–80

70–95

80–90

NMMOfib

ers[88]

Lyocell,

Tencel,...

st1.5

10–16

110–115

32–48

0.5–0.7

55–70

45–50

≈75

Proteinfib

ers

st1.315

25–60

60–110

11–12

0.14

–0.16

40–65

Alginatefib

er(Ca-Alginate)

fi1.78

511

–18

0.2–0.3

27–30

Polycon

densatefib

ers

Nylon

6(PA6)

Perlon,A

celon,

Amilan,Anso,

Caprolan,

Grilon,...

st1.14

30–70

105–125

30–40

0.35

–0.45

80–90

65–85;

fi1.14

20–45

105–125

40–60

0.45

–0.7

85–90

70–95

80–90;

hd1.14

15–20

105–125

60–90

0.7–1

85–90

70–90

60–70

Nylon

66(PA66)

Nylon,A

ntron,

Cantrece,

Meryl,

Tim

brelle,

Ultron...

st1.14

30–60

105–125

35–40

0.4–0.45

seePA

6seePA

6seePA

6

fi1.14

20–40

105–125

40–60

0.45

–0.7

hd1.14

15–20

105–125

60–90

0.7–1

Fibers, 1. Survey 17Ta

ble4.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aDensity

(),

Elongation

εH

(21

C)

Tenacity

(σH)at21

CRelative

Relative

g/cm

3at65

%“w

et/dry,”

at65

%R.H.

Wet/dry

loop

knot

R.H.b

,%%

σH/,

σH

(relative),

tenacity

tenacity

cN/tex

GPa

%[62],%

[63],%

Aramids

Com

pressive

strength,axial

inGPa,[80],

[81],[82]

Poly(m

-phenyleneisophthalamide)

Nom

ex,C

onex

fi1.38

15–30

60–80

≈95

80–85

Poly(p-phenyleneterephthalam

ide)

(PPT

A)

Kevlar29,

Twaron

fi1.44

3–4

185–195

2.7–2.8

0.35

≈45

≈50

Kevlar49

fi/an

1.45

2–2.5

185–195

2.7–2.8

0.365

50–78

35–50

Kevlar149

fi/an

1.47

1.2–1.9

150–160

2.2–2.4

Kevlar981,

Twaron

fi/hd

2.8–3.5

230–260

3.5–3.8

KevlarHp

fi1.44

3.6

140–150

2.05

Poly(ethyleneterephthalate)

(PET)

Dacron,Diolen,

st1.36

–1.41

25–50

100–105

30–55

0.4–0.75

95–100

75–95

Fortrel,Grilene,st/ap

1.36

–1.41

30–55

100–105

25–40

0.35

–0.55

95–100

75–85

Serene,

Terylene,

fi1.36

–1.41

20–30

100–105

40–60

0.55

–0.85

95–100

70–98

70–80

Trevira,....

fi/hd

1.36

–1.41

8–20

100–105

60–100

0.85

–1.5

95–100

60–90

40–70

Poly(butyleneterephthalate)

(PBT)

Trevira

810,

st/fi

1.25

35–40

40–45

0.5–0.56

Trevira

813

Poly(1,4-dim

ethylenecyclohexane

terephthalate)

(PDCT)[59]

Kodel

st1.22

–1.23

15–35

22–36

0.37

–0.45

≈100

30–95

Polyarylate

Ekonol[60],

Vectran

fi1.40

–1.41

2–5

200–280

2.8–3.9

Com

pressive

strength,axial

[80],[81],[82]

GPa

0.04

–0.075

23–34

Poly(etheretherketone)(PEEK)

Zyex

fi1.27

–1.298

15–60

20–100

0.25

–1.3

55–80

65–68

Polyim

ide(PI)

P84

st/fi

1.41

forst30

–38

andforfi

19–21

27–37

0.38

–0.53

60–65

70–75

Novolak

Kynol,P

hilene,

Novoloid

st1.2–1.3

20–60

13–22

0.17

–0.27

7080

Poly(amideim

ide)

(PAI)

Kermel

st10

–25

25–60

Poly(ether

imide)

(PEI)

st/fi

16–38

15–27

0.2–0.35

Polyurethane

elastomers(spandex)

Dorlastan,

Lycra,...

fi1.1–1.3

400–700

≈100

5–12;

30–70

=σ

H(1+

εH)/

c0.06

–0.15

75–100


ble4.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aDensity

(),

Elongation

εH

(21

C)

Tenacity

(σH)at21

CRelative

Relative

g/cm

3at65

%“w

et/dry,”

at65

%R.H.

Wet/dry

loop

knot

R.H.b

,%%

σH/,

σH

(relative),

tenacity

tenacity

cN/tex

GPa

%[62],%

[63],%

Polym

erizatefib

ers

Polyethylene

(HD–PE

)(H

M–HD–PE

:M

r>

106)

Hiralon,

Vegon,...

fi0.95

–0.96

10–45

100

30–70

0.3–0.65

100

60–90

70–90

Spectra1000...

hd0.97

3–6

100

270–370

2.6–3.6

100

≈50

Polypropylene(PP)

Herculon,

Meraklon...

st/fi

0.90

–0.92

15–50

100

25–60

0.22

–0.55

100

85–95

70–90

Polyacrylonitrile

(PAN)

DralonT,...

st/fi

1.17

–1.19

25–40

≈100

35–58

0.42

–0.69

80–100

≈60

≈70

Copolym

erizates

with

PAN

≥85

%Dolan,D

ralon,

st1.17

–1.19

20–60

100–120

18–32

0.2–0.37

75–95

30–80

75–80

Euroacril,

Leacril,...

fi1.17

–1.19

15–40

100–120

35–45

0.42

–0.53

80–100

30–80

≈70

Modacrylics(50–84

%PA

N)

Kanekalon,

SEF,...

st1.3–1.4

25–50

100–110

15–25

0.2–0.35

80–100

50–70

≈80

Poly(vinyl

chloride)(PVC)

atactic

Clevil,

Rhovil,....

st/fi

1.38

–1.40

10–40

100

20–24

0.28

–0.34

100

35–70

syndiotactic[61]

st1.40

35–60

100

25–30

0.35

–0.42

100

60–90

65–85

Poly(vinyl

alcohol)(PVA)

Kuralon,

Mew

lon,

st1.26

–1.31

13–26

120–140

20–55

0.25

–0.7

65–85

35–40

55–65

Solvron,

Vilo

n,...

fi1.26

–1.31

9–22

120–140

55–77

0.7–1

65–85

35–40

55–65

(HM:M

r>

106)

hd1.31

3–4

150–230

2–3

Polytetrafluoro-ethylene(PTFE

)Gore-Tex

Fibers,...

st/fi

2.1–2.3

20–40

100

8–18

0.16

–0.38

100

60–90

75–90

Poly(phenylene

sulfide)(PPS

)Procon,R

ylon

st/fi

1.37

–1.38

25–40

28–47

0.4–0.65

7860

–80

Melam

ineresinfib

erBasofi

l1.4–1.5

15–25

15–40

0.2–0.6


ble4.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aDensity

(),

Elongation

εH

(21

C)

Tenacity

(σH)at21

CRelative

Relative

g/cm

3at65

%“w

et/dry,”

at65

%R.H.

Wet/dry

loop

knot

R.H.b

,%%

σH/,

σH

(relative),

tenacity

tenacity

cN/tex

GPa

%[62],%

[63],%

Inorganicfib

ers

Fiber

diam

eter,µ

mCom

pressive

strength,axial,

GPa

Textile

glass

Gevetex,

Fiberglas

2.45

–2.6

2–5

100

70–120

1.7–2.7

15–30

Eglass

E-Fiber,

Enkafort

5–15

2.52

–2.54

2–3.5

100

80–140

2–3.5

0.5

Aluminum

silicate

(e.g.,3Al 2O

3·2

SiO

2·B

2O

3)

Nextel3

1217

2.63

–2.7

651.7

Nextel4

403.1

Nextel4

803.05

1.1

752.3

β-Siliconcarbide

Nicalon

(Nippon

Carbon)

5–20

2.6–3.1

1≈

100

3

FP(D

uPont)

200.4

1.4–1.5

Saffil,Saffimax

(ICI)

3–3.2

2.8–3.3

0.7

30–60

1–2

Silica(SiO

2)

Silica(A

kzo)

9–10

1.8–2.0

1.4–2.0

15–40

0.25

–0.8

Steel(20

%Cr,7%

Ni)

Bekinox

fi7.9

1–2

100

22–29

1.75

–2.25

65–75

60–70

Carbon(pitchbased)

High-modulus

types(H

M)

Tornel,G

rafil,

6–9

2.0–2.06

0.4(-2)

≈100

2(-4)

0.4–0.8

0

High-strength

types(H

S)FiberG

9–12

2.02

0.5–2

≈250

≈5

0.5–1.1

0

Carbon(PANbased)

Magnamite,

High-modulus

types(H

M)

Pyrofil,

6–7

1.8–1.96

0.4–1.2

100–180

1.9–3.5

1.4–1.5

0

High-strength

types(H

S)To

rayca,...

7–9

1.74

–1.82

1.5–2.4

170–380

3–7

1.44

–4

0

ast=staplefib

er,fi

=filam

ent,hd

=highly

draw

n,an

=annealed,ap=antip

illing;

bR.H.=

relativ

ehumidity

;ceffectivebreaking

strength


ble5.

Elastom

echanicalp

ropertiesof

fibers

Fibername/polymer

Trade

Fiber

Elasticrecovery,%

:InitialModulus

Torsionmodulus

[64]

Torsion

names

type

a(1–

εr/ε)100for

(elongation

ε→

0)G/,

G,

brittleness

ε=2%

(5%)

E/,

E,

N/tex

GPa

[66],degrees

N/tex

GPa

Natural

fibers

Cotton

st75

453–6

4.5–9

1.6

2.4

53–56

Wool

st95

–99

60–70

1.5–3

2–4

0.8–1

≈1

48–52

Silk

fi95

707–10

9–12.5

1.5–2.3

1.9–2.9

51Hem

pst

6090

Flax

st≈

608–25

12–36

0.95

1.3–1.4

68Jute

st21

–22

30–31

Regeneratecellu

lose

Viscose

rayon,Viscose

Modal

Evlan,F

ibro,

Sarille,..

st/fi

70–100

40–60

2–3(6.5–7.5)

3–4.5(4.2–4.9)

0.5–1

≈1

51–55

Cuprammonium

rayon

Asahi

Bem

berg,

Bem

berg

st/fi

70–95

40–60

2–3

3–4.5

48–57

Cellulose

acetate

Arnel,C

elco,

Dicel,

st/fi

90–95

(40–60)

2–3.5

2.5–4.5

0.6–0.8

≈1

44–50

Cellulose

triacetate

Estron,Silene,

Tricel,...

st/fi

90–95

55–70

2–3.5

2.5–4.5

0.6–0.8

≈1

44–50

NMMOFiber

Lyocell,Tencel,..

st/fi

46

Proteinfib

erst

262

2–3

0.9

≈1

30–40

Alginatefib

er(Ca-Alginat)

fi7

12–13

1.2

≈2

Polycon

densatefib

ers

Nylon

6(PA6)

Perlon,A

celon,

st27

–41

Amilan,Anso,

fi95

–100

95–100

0.5–3

0.6–3.5

≈0.3

≈0.3

33–42

Caprolan,

Grilon,...

hd95

–100

90–95

4–5

4.5–5.5

0.7

0.8

Nylon

66(PA66)

Nylon,A

ntron,

st27

–41

Cantrece,Meryl,fi

95–100

95–100

0.5–3

0.6–3.5

0.45

0.5

40–41

Tim

brelle,

Ultron,...

hd95

–100

90–95

4–5

4.5–6


ble5.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

Fiber

Elasticrecovery,%

:InitialModulus

Torsionmodulus

[64]

Torsion

names

type

a(1–

εr/ε)100for

(elongation

ε→

0)G/,

G,

brittleness

ε=2%

(5%)

E/,

E,

N/tex

GPa

[66],degrees

N/tex

GPa

Aramids

Poly(m


Nom

ex,C

onex,

fi8–14

11–20

≈50


ide)

(PPT

A)

Kevlar29,

Twaron,

fi95

–100

41–53

59–77

Kevlar49,

Twaron,

fi/an

95–100

85124

Kevlar149,

fi/an

96103

150

Kevlar981,

Twaron,

fi/hd

70–83

102–120

KevlarHp

fi50

72


(PET)

Dacron,Diolen,

st2.5–4

3.4–5.5

30–49

Terylene,

Trevira,

ap2.5–4

3.4–5.5

≈48

Fortrel,Grilene,

fi90

–98

70–90

7–18

10–25

0.65

0.9

41–48

Serene,...

hd7–18

10–25

1.1

1.5

47–48

Poly(butyleneterephtalate)(PBT)

Trevira

810...813

fi100

99–100

4–5

5–6

Poly(1,4-dim

ethylene

cyclohexane

terephthalate)

(PDCT)[59]

Kodel

st85

–95

50–60

2.5–4

3–5

49

Polyarylate

Vectran,E

konol

[61]

fi60

–128

80–180

Poly(ether

etherketone)(PEEK)

Zyex

fi4–12

5–15

Polyim

ide(PI)

P84

st/fi

3.5–5

5–7

Novolak

Kynol,P

hilene,

Novoloid

st2.6–3.6

3.3–4.6

Poly(amideim

ide)

(PAI)

Kermel

st3.5–7.5

Poly(ether

imide)

(PEI)

st2.7–4.2

3.5–5.1

Polyurethane

elastomers(spandex)

Dorlastan,

Lycra,...

fi93

–98

≈0.005–0.01

0.006–0.012

forε=300%

0.004

0.005


ble5.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

Fiber

Elasticrecovery,%

:InitialModulus

Torsionmodulus

[64]

Torsion

names

type

a(1–

εr/ε)100for

(elongation

ε→

0)G/,

G,

brittleness

ε=2%

(5%)

E/,

E,

N/tex

GPa

[66],degrees

N/tex

GPa

Polym

erizatefib

ers

Polyethylene

(HD–PE

)(H

M–HD–PE

:Mr

>10

6)

Hiralon,V

egon,

fi95

–100

90–95

0.2–5

0.2–5

0.05

0.05

Spectra1000,...

hd100

51–165

50–160

1.5[65]

1.5[65]

Polypropylene(PP)

Herculon,

Meraklon,...

st/fi

95–100

85–95

0.5–5

0.5–5

Polyacrylonitrile

(PAN)

DralonT,...

st/fi

90–95

50–90

9.5–14

11–17

1.5–1.7

1.8–2

Copolym

erizates

with

PAN

≥85

%Dolan,Dralon

st90

–95

50–90

3–5

3.5–6

45–52

Euroacril,

Leacril,...

fi90

–95

50–90

9–10

10–12

11.2

55–60

Modacrylics(50–84

%PA

N)

Kanekalon,

SEF,..

st95

–99

85–98

1–2.5

1.3–3.5

Poly(vinyl

chloride)(PVC)

atactic

Clevyl,

Rhovyl,...

st/fi

70–90

55–65

2–4

3–5.5

0.6–0.7

0.8–1

27–50

syndiotactic[61]

st90

–95

75–80

2.5–3

3.5–4

Poly(vinyl

alcohol)(PVA)

Kuralon,

Mew

lon

st60

–80

40–60

3–4

4–5

0.9

1.2

Solvron,Vilo

n,...

fi60

–80

40–60

3–4.5

4–6

1.2–1.5

1.6–2

(HM:M

r>

106)

hd30

–60

40–80

Polytetrafluoroethylene

(PTFE

)Gore-TexFibers

st/fi

0.35

–2

0.7–4

0.2–0.3

0.4–0.7

Poly(pheneylenesulfide)(PPS

)Procon,R

yton,...st/fi

2.7–5

3.7–6.8


ble5.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

Fiber

Elasticrecovery,%

:InitialModulus

Torsionmodulus

[64]

Torsion

names

type

a(1–

εr/ε)100for

(elongation

ε→

0)G/,

G,

brittleness

ε=2%

(5%)

E/,

E,

N/tex

GPa

[66],degrees

N/tex

GPa

Inorganicfib

ers

Fiber

diam

eter,

Textile

glass

Gevetex,

Fiberglas,...

µm100

28–34

70–90

16

40

85–88

Eglass

E-Fiber,

Enkafort,...

5–15

100

28–34

70–90

16

40

85–88

Aluminum

silicate

(e.g.3

Al 2O

3·2

SiO

2·B

2O

3)

Nextel3

12,

175.5–52

15–140

Nextel4

40,

65200

Nextel4

80[89]

73224

β-Siliconcarbide

Nicalon

(Nippon

Carbon)

5–20

67–100

200–300

FP(D

uPont)

20120–125

350–385

Saffil,Saffimax

(ICI)

3–3.2

33–83

100–250

Silica(SiO

2)

Silica(A

kzo)

9–10

6–30

12–56

Steel(20

%Cr,7%

Ni)

Bekinox

fi100forε=1%

19–25

150–200

7.9–9.5

60–70

Carbon(pitchbased)

High-modulus

types(H

M)

Thornel,G

rafil,

6–9

250–400

500–800

High-strength

types(H

S)FiberG

9–12

124–200

250–400

Carbon(PANbased)

Magnamite

High-modulus

types(H

M)

Pyrofil,

6–7

160–260

300–500

High-strength

types(H

S)To

rayca,...

7–9

110–165

200–300

2.2

4

ast=stablefib

er,fi

=filam

ent,hd

=highly

draw

n,an

=annealed,ap=antip

illing.


ble6.

Therm

alpropertiesof

fibers

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aFibershrinkage

Specific

Therm

alGlass

transitio

nMeltin

gHeatresistance

inwater

of95

C,%

heatcapa-

conductiv

ity,

temperature,

temperature

inairup

tot,

C

draw

nthermoset

city

[67],

Wm

−1K

−1

C(decom

positio

nJg

−1K

−1

temperature),

C

Natural

fibers

Cotton

st1.3

0.3–0.5

(400)

120

Wool

st1.3–1.6

0.2–0.4

45[90]

120

Silk

fi1.4

0.2–0.4

40–50

(170

–180)

120

Flax

st1.4

0.3

Regeneratecellu

lose

Viscose

rayon,Viscose,M

odal

Evlan,F

ibro,

Sarille,...

st/fi

0.5–10

b1.3–1.5

0.3–0.6

(175

–190)

120

Cuprammonium

rayon

Asahi

Bem

berg,

Bem

berg

st/fi

0.5–10

b1.4

(175

–205)

120

Cellulose

acetate

Arnell,Celco,

Dicel,

st/fi

5–20

1.3–1.5

0.3

255

120

Cellulose

triacetate

Estron,Silene,

Tricel,...

st/fi

5–20

0.7

1.5

0.3

170–180[68]

300

130

Polycon

densatefib

ers

Nylon

6(PA6)

Perlon,A

celon,

st8–15

0.5–1.5

1.5–1.8

80–85

(dry)

215–220

120

Amilan,Anso,

fi8–15

1–5

1.5–1.8

0.2–0.3

≈20

(3.7%

water)

215–220

120

Caprolan,

Grilon,...

hd8–15

1.5–1.8

0.4

90–95

(dry)

215–220

120–150

Nylon

66(PA66)

Nylon,A

ntron,

st8–15

0.5–1.5

1.5

90–95

(dry)

255–260

120

Cantrece,Meryl,fi

8–15

1–5

1.5

0.2–0.3

≈30

(3.7%

water)

255–260

120

Tim

brelle,

Ultron,...

hd8–15

1.5

0.4

255–260

120–150


ble6.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aFibershrinkage

Specific

Therm

alGlass

transitio

nMeltin

gHeatresistance

inwater

of95

C,%

heatcapa-

conductiv

ity,

temperature,

temperature

inairup

tot,

C

draw

nthermoset

city

[67],

Wm

−1K

−1

C(decom

positio

nJg

−1K

−1

temperature),

C

Aramids

Poly(m


Nom

ex,C

onex

fi1.5

1.2

0.13

280–290

(≈370)

180–200


ide)

(PPT

A)

Kevlar29,

Twaron,

fi1.4

0.05

340–360

(≈550)

180–200

Kevlar49,

Kevlar

149,Tw

aron,

fi/an

0.05

340–360

(≈550)

180–200

Kevlar981,

Twaron,

fi/hd

340–360

KevlarHp

fi340–360


(PET)

Dacron,Diolen,

st0.5–1

80–110

250–260

120–150

Fortrel,Grilene,

ap0.5–1

80–110

250–260

120–150

Serene,T

erylene,

fi5–10

0.5–1.5

0.4–1.9[70]

0.2–0.3

80–110

250–260

120–150

Trevira,...

hd7–8

80–110

250–260

150–160

Poly(butyleneterephtalate)(PBT)

Trevira

810,

Trevira

813

st/fi

68–75

224

120

Poly(1,4-dim

ethylene

cyclohexane

terephthalate)

(PDCT)[59]

Kodel

st0.1–0.5

≈100

285–290

≈200

Polyarylate

Vectran,E

konol

[60]

fi320–290

180–260

Poly(ether

etherketone)(PEEK)

Zyex

fi0.4–0.5

139–153

334–345

200–250

Polyim

ide(PI)

P84

st/fi

315

260

Novolak

Kynol,P

hilene,

Novoloid

st0

Poly(amideim

ide)

(PAI)

Kermel

st(>

380)

250

Poly(ether

imide)

(PEI)

st/fi

4–8

0.7

215–225

160–170

Polyurethane

elastomers(spandex)

Dorlastan,

Lycra,...

fi≈

3–12

0.15

Polyether:≈

−60

[70]

;Po

lyester−

40to

−20

230–290

120


ble6.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aFibershrinkage

Specific

Therm

alGlass

transitio

nMeltin

gHeatresistance

inwater

of95

C,%

heatcapa-

conductiv

ity,

temperature,

temperature

inairup

tot,

C

draw

nthermoset

city

[67],

Wm

−1K

−1

C(decom

positio

nJg

−1K

−1

temperature),

C

Polym

erizatefib

ers

Polyethylene

(HD-PE)

Hiralon,V

egon,

fi5–10

1.4–2.0

0.2–0.4

−20

to−

30124–138

70–90

(HM

–HD–PE

:Mr

>10

6)

Spectra1000

hd10

–38

[84],

[85]

−20

to−

30124–138

Polypropylene(PP)

Herculon,

Meraklon

st/fi

0–5

1.6

0.2–0.3

160–175

≈120

Polyacrylonitrile

(PAN)

DralonT

fi/st

14–16

≈1

0.2

≈95

(dry)

≈320

140

Copolym

erizates

with

PAN

≥85

%Dolan,D

ralon

st(20–40

c)

0.5–5

1.2–2.5

0.2

85–95

(dry);

50–60

(wet)

(>250)

140

Euroacril,

Leacril,

fi16

–22

≈1

1.2–1.5

0.2

85–95

(dry);

50–60

(wet)

(>250)

140

Modacrylics(50–84

%PA

N)

Kanekalon,

SEF,...

st0.2–5

85–95

(170)

≈120

Poly(vinyl

chloride)(PVC)

atactic

Clevyl,Rhovyl,

st/fi

20–30

0.8–0.9

0.16

–0.17

70–90

(160

–200)

<65

syndiotactic[61]

st0

90–100

(160

–200)

Poly(vinyl

alcohol)(PVA)

Kuralon,

Mew

lon,

st2–3

75–90

140

Solvron,Vilo

n,fi

75–130

(240

–260)

(water

vapor:

120)

Polytetrafluoroethylene

(PTFE

)Gore-TexFibers

st/fi

21.0–1.1

0.23

127–130

327–342[72]

180

Poly(phenylene

sulfide)(PPS

)Procon,R

yton,...st/fi

16

85–95

270–290

190–200

Melam

ineresinfib

erBasofi

lst

200–220

ast=stablefib

er,fi

=filam

ent,hd

=highly

draw

n,an

=annealed,ap=antip

illing;

bDepending

onfib

ertype;

cHigh-shrinkage(H

S)fib

er.


ble7.

Therm

alandelectricalpropertiesof

inorganicfib

ers

Fibername

Trade

name

Fiberdiam

eter,µ

mSp

ecificheatcapacity

[67],Jg−

1K

−1

Therm

alconductiv

ity,

Wm

−K

−1

Heatresistancein

air

upto

, CFire

Lim

iting

Oxygen

Index(LOI),%

Meltin

gtemperature

(Glass

transitio

nTg),

C

Specificelectrical

resistance,Ω

cm

Textile

glass

Gevetex,F

iberglas

5–15

≈0.75

≈0.8

300–400

(600

Tg

700)

1012–10

15

EGlass

E-Fiber,E

nkafort

5–15

≈0.75

≈0.8

300-400

(600

Tg

700)

1012–10

15

Aluminum

silicate

Nextel3

1217

1200

–1300

1800

(e.g.,3Al 2O

3·2

SiO

2·B

2O

3)

Nextel4

401200

–1300

1800

Nextel4

801200

β-Siliconcarbide

Nicalon

(Nippon

Carbon)

5–20

12>

800

2700

FP(D

uPont)

20900

Saffil,Saffimax

(ICI)

3–3.2

1000

Silica(SiO

2)

Silica(A

kzo)

9-10

1000

–1100

1750

Steel(20

%Cr,7%

Ni)

Bekinox

filam

ents

0.46

151400

–1450

Carbon(pitchbased)

0.7

×10

−4

High-modulus

types(H

M)

Thornel,G

rafil,

6–9

300(-500)

High-strength

types(H

S)FiberG,...

9–12

300(-500)

>10

−3

Carbon(PANbased)

High-modulus

types(H

M)

Magnamite,P

yrofi

l,6–7

60–115[73]

300(-500)

>60

3600

≈10

−3

High-strength

types(H

S)To

rayca,...

7–9

0.7

15–20

[73]

300(-500)

>60

≈1.5×

10−

3


ble8.

Electricalresistance,ironingtemperature,w

ater

absorptio

nandsolubilityof

fibers

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aSp

ecific

Ironing

Water

Water

Solubilityin

selected

solvents

c

electrical

tempera-

absorptio

nretention

resistance,b

ture, C

at21

C,

[74],%

Ωcm

65%

R.H.,d

%

Natural

fibers

Cotton

st10

6–10

8180–220

7–11

40–50

concentrated

H2SO

4,C

uoxam-solution

Wool

st10

8–10

11

160–170

15–17

40–45

conc.inorg.acids,conc.KOH

Silk

fi10

9–10

10

140–165

9–11

40–45

conc.inorg.acids,conc.KOH,conc.HCO

2H

Flax

st215–240

8–10

50–55

concentrated

H2SO

4

Regeneratecellu

lose

Viscose

rayon

Evlan,F

ibro,

Sarille,...

st/fi

106–10

7150–180

12–14

85–120

conc.inorg.acids

Cuprammonium

rayon

Asahi

Bem

berg,

Bem

berg,...

st/fi

≈10

7–10

8150–180

11–12

100–125

conc.inorg.acids

Cellulose

acetate

Arnel,C

elco,D

icel

st/fi

109–10

12

180

6–7

20–28

conc.inorg.acids,acetone,dioxane,phenols

Cellulose

triacetate

Estron,Silene,

Tricel,...

st/fi

≈10

14

220–250

2–5

10–18

conc.inorg.acids,acetone,dioxane,phenols

NMMOFiber

Lyocell,Tencel,...

st/fi

150

65–70

N-m

ethylm

orpholineoxide(N

MMO)

Polycon

densatefib

ers

Nylon

6(PA6)

Perlon,A

celon,

st150

3.5–4.5

10–15

conc.inorg.acids,phenols

Amilan,Anso,

fi10

9–10

11

150

3.5–4.5

10–15


Caprolan,Grilon,...

hd150

3.5–4.5

9–11


Nylon

66(PA66)

Nylon,A

ntron,

st180–200

3.5–4.5

10–15


Cantrece,Meryl,

fi10

9–10

11

180–200

3.5–4.5

10–15


Tim

brelle,U

ltron,...

hd180–200

3–4

9–11


Aramids

Poly(m


Nom

ex,C

onex

fi4.5–5

12–17

polarorg.solventsandsolutes(LiCl,CaC

l 2),conc.

H2SO

4


ide)

(PPT

A)

Kevlar29,T

waron,

fi2–3

7conc.H

2SO

4

Kevlar49,K

evlar

149,Tw

aron

fi/an

1015

2–3

7conc.H

2SO

4

Kevlar981,Tw

aron

fi/hd

2–3

7conc.H

2SO

4

KevlarHp

fi2–3

7conc.H

2SO

4


(PET)

Dacron,Diolen,

st150–200

0.3–0.4

3–5

conc.H

2SO

4,conc.KOH,phenols,tetrachloroethane

Fortrel,Grilene,

fi10

11–10

14

150–200

0.2–0.5

3–5

conc.H

2SO


Terylene,T

revira,...

hd150–200

0.2–0.4

3–5

conc.H

2SO


Poly(1,4-dim

ethylene

cyclohexane

terephthalate)

(PDCT)[59]

Kodel

st≈

200

0.2

conc.H

2SO



ble8.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aSp

ecific

Ironing

Water

Water

Solubilityin

selected

solvents

c

electrical

tempera-

absorptio

nretention

resistance,b

ture, C

at21

C,

[74],%

Ωcm

65%

R.H.,d

%

Polyarylate

Ekonol[60],Vectran

fi0

NMP+CaC

l 2Po

ly(ether

etherketone)(PEEK)

Zyex

ficonc.H

2SO

4

Novolak

Kynol,P

hilene,

Novoloid,...

6–8

Poly(amideim

ide)

(PAI)

Kermel

3polarorg.solvents(D

MA,N

MP)

Poly(ether

imide)

(PEI)

st/fi

0.25

–1.25

dichloromethane

Polyurethane

elastomers(spandex)

Dorlastan,L

ycra,...

fi150–180

0.5–1.5

7–11

noncross-linkedfib

ers:DMA,D

MF,HMPA

,conc.

inorg.acids(decom

p.)

Polym

erizatefib

ers

Polyethylene

(HD-PE)

Hiralon,V

egon,

Spectra,...

fi10

13–10

17

00

conc.H

2SO

4,benzene,chlorinated

hydrocarbons

Polypropylene(PP)

Herculon,

Meraklon,...

st/fi

>10

13

130

00

conc.H

2SO

4,toluene,chlorinated

hydrocarbons

Polyacrylonitrile

(PAN)

e.g.,D

ralonT

fi/st

≈10

14

150–180

≈1

4–6

conc.inorg.acids,D

MA,D

MF,DMS,

ethylene

carbonate,conc.Z

nCl 2

orNaSCNsolutio

nsCopolym

erizates

with

PAN

≥85

%Dolan,D

ralon,...

st/fi

108–10

14

150–180

1–1.5

5–12

conc.inorg.acids,D

MA,D

MF,DMS,

ethylene

carbonate,conc.Z

nCl 2

orNaSCNsolutio

nsModacrylics(50–84

%PA

N)

Kanekalon,S

EF,...

st10

12–10

13

0.4–3

10–20

conc.H

2SO

4,D

MF,acetone,phenol,cyclohexanone

Poly(vinyl

chloride)(PVC)

atactic

Clevyl,Rhovyl

st/fi

1012–10

14

0–0.2

4–6

conc.H

2SO

4,chlorinated

hydrocarbons,dioxane,

cyclohexanone,DMF

syndiotactic[61]

st10

12–10

14

04–6

conc.H

2SO

4,chlorinated

hydrocarbons,dioxane,

cyclohexanone,DMF


ble8.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aSp

ecific

Ironing

Water

Water

Solubilityin

selected

solvents

c

electrical

tempera-

absorptio

nretention

resistance,b

ture, C

at21

C,

[74],%

Ωcm

65%

R.H.,d

%

Poly(vinyl

alcohol)(PVA)

Kuralon,M

ewlon,...

st/fi

3.5–5

25–35

conc.inorg.acids,phenols,D

MF

Poly(tetraflu

oroethylene)

(PTFE

)Gore-TexFibers,...

st/fi

>10

14

0perfluorinatedsolvents

>300

CPo

ly(phenylene

sulfide)(PPS

)Procon,R

yton,...

st/fi

≈0.03

–0.25

(<0.6)

<200

Cno

solvent

Melam

ineresinfib

erBasofi

lst

9Inorganicfib

ers

Textile

glass

Gevetex,F

iberglas

st/fi

1012–10

15

0.1

0hydrofl

uoricacid

Eglass

E-Fiber,E

nkafort

fi10

12–10

15

0.1

0hydrofl

uoricacid

Aluminum

silicate

Nextel3

12st

≈0

0hydrofl

uoricacid

(e.g.,3Al 2O

3·2

SiO

2·B

2O

3)

Nextel4

40st

≈0

hydrofl

uoricacid

Steel(20

%Cr,7%Ni)

Bekinox

fi0.7×

10−

40

(attacked

byhalogenatedsolvents)

ast=staplefib

er,fi

=filam

ent,hd

=highly

draw

n,an

=annealed,ap=antip

illing;

bof

fiberswith

outadditivesor

specialfi

nishes;

cDMA=dimethylacetamide,DMF=dimethylformam

ide,DMS=dimethylsulfoxide,H

MPA

=hexamethylphosphoramide,NMP=N-m

ethylp

yrrolid

one;

dR.H.=

relativ

ehumidity.


ble9.

Resistanceof

fibersc

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aHeat(air)

Light/weather

bBiologicalinfl

uencec

Chemicalsc

Fire

upto

t, C

Residual

Micro-

Insects

Residualtenacity,%

limiting

tenacity,%

organism

sAfter

1000

hat20

C/10hat100

Coxygen

[57],[58],

diluteacid

dilutealkali

index

[75],[76]

(LOI),%

Natural

fibers

Cotton

st120

20–30/0–20

−(+)

60–80/0–20

80–100/80

–100

19–20

Wool

st120

0–20/0–20

−−

90–100/selective

selective

25–28

Silk

fi120

0–20/0–20

(+)

(+)

lower

than

wool

selective

Flax

st0–20/0–20

bleached

(+)

moreresistantthan

cotto

nlower

than

cotto

n

Regeneratecellu

lose

Viscose

rayon,Viscose

Modal

Evlan,F

ibro,

Sarille,...

st/fi

120

0–30/0

−−

similarto

cotto

n19

–20

Cuprammonium

rayon

Asahi

Bem

berg,

Bem

berg

st/fi

120

0–30/0

−−

similarto

cotto

n19

–20

Cellulose

acetate(CA)

Arnell,Celco,D

icel,

st/fi

120

20–45/0–25

(+)

−60

–100/selective

0–20/20–60

NaO

H18

–19

Cellulose

triacetate

Estron,Silene,

Tricel,...

st/fi

130

20–45/0–25

(+)

−60

–100/selective

betterthan

CA

18–19

NMMOFiber

Lyocell,Tencel

st/fi

150

similarto

cotto

nsimilarto

cotto

nsimilarto

cotto

n

Polycon

densatefib

ers

Nylon

6(PA6)

Perlon,A

celon,

st120

20–30/5–15

(+)

+90

–100/90

–100

90–100/90

–100

20–21.5

Amilan,Anso,

fi120

20–30/5–15

(+)

+90

–100/90

–100

90–100/90

–100

20–21.5

Caprolan,Grilon,...

hd120–150

20–30/5–15

(+)

+90

–100/90

–100

90–100/90

–100

20–21.5

Nylon

66(PA66)

Nylon,A

ntron,

st120

20–30/5–15

(+)

+90

–100/90

–100

90–100/90

–100

20–21.5

Cantrece,Meryl,

fi120

20–30/5–15

(+)

+90

–100/90

–100

90–100/90

–100

20–21.5

Tim

brelle,U

ltron,...

hd120–150

20–30/5–15

(+)

+90

–100/90

–100

90–100/90

–100

20–21.5


ble9.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aHeat(air)

Light/weather

bBiologicalinfl

uencec

Chemicalsc

Fire

upto

t, C

Residual

Micro-

Insects

Residualtenacity,%

limiting

tenacity,%

organism

sAfter

1000

hat20

C/10hat100

Coxygen

[57],[58],

diluteacid

dilutealkali

index

[75],[76]

(LOI),%

Aramids

Poly(m

-phenyleneiso-

phthalam

ide)

Nom

ex,C

onex

fi180–200

/50

+80

–100/80

–100

90–100/90

–100

26–30

Poly(p-phenylene-

terephthalam

ide)

(PPT

A)

Kevlar29,T

waron,

fi180–200

65–80/after

16weeks

(+)

++

+

Kevlar49,T

waron,

Kevlar149,

fi/an

180–200

65–80/after

16weeks

(+)

++

+29

–31

Kevlar981,Tw

aron,

fi/hd

180–200

65–80/after

16weeks

(+)

++

+29

–31

KevlarHp

fi180–200

65–80/after

16weeks

(+)

++

+29

–31

Poly(ethylene

terephthalate)

(PET)

Dacron,Diolen,

st120–150

60–80/5–15

(+)

+90

–100/90

–100

90–100/90

–100

20–22

Fortrel,Grilene,

ap120–150

60–80/5–15

(+)

+90

–100/90

–100

90–100/90

–100

20–22

Terylene,S

erene,

fi120–150

60–80/5–15

(+)

+90

–100/90

–100

90–100/90

–100

20–22

Trevira,...

hd150–160

60–80/5–15

(+)

+90

–100/90

–100

90–100/90

–100

20–22

Poly(butylene

terephtalate)(PBT)

Trewira810,...813

st/fi

120

Poly(1,4-dim

ethylene

cyclohexaneterephthalate)

(PDCT)[59]

Kodel

st≈

200

+70

–80

HCl

50–70

Na 2

CO

3solutio

n

Polyarylate

Vectran,E

konol[60]

fi180–260

+/96

-36

Poly(ether

etherketone)

(PEEK)

Zyex

fi200–250

-99/23-74

selective

/95

30–35

Polyim

ide(PI)

P84

st/fi

260

80

(+)

36–38

Novolak

Kynol,P

hilene,

Novoloid

st200

+-

30–39


ble9.

(Contin

ued)

Fibername/polymer

Trade

names

Fibertype

aHeat(air)

Light/weather

bBiologicalinfl

uencec

Chemicalsc

Fire

upto

t, C

Residual

Micro-

Insects

Residualtenacity,%

limiting

tenacity,%

organism

sAfter

1000

hat20

C/10hat100

Coxygen

[57],[58],

diluteacid

dilutealkali

index

[75],[76]

(LOI),%

Poly(amideim

ide)

(PAI)

Kermel

st250

-+

(+)

31–32

Poly(ether

imide)

(PEI)

st/fi

160–170

+95

–100/

85–100/

33Po

lyurethane

elastomers

(spandex)

Dorlastan,L

ycra,...

fi120

0/0

++

selective;polyether

moreresistantthan

polyester

Polym

erizatefib

ers

Polyethylene

(HD)-PE

Hiralon,V

egon,,...

fi70

–90

+−

(+)

++

(HM

–HD–PE

:Mr

>10

6)

Spectra1000

hd80

–90

+−

(+)

++

Polypropylene(PP)

Herculon,

Meraklon,...

st/fi

≈120

0/0

−(+)

++

19–20

Polyacrylonitrile

(PAN)

e.g.,D

ralonT

fi/st

140

60–80/50–60

(+)

+90

–100/80

–100

90–100/60

–100

18–20

Copolym

erizates

with

PAN

≥85

%Dolan,D

ralon,

Euroacril,

Leacril,...

st/fi

140

60–80/50–60

(+)

+90

–100/80

–100

90–100/60

–100

18–20

Modacrylics(50–84

%PA

N)

Kanekalon,S

EF,...

st120

lower

than

PAN

++

++

25–30

Poly(vinyl

chloride)

atactic

Clevyl,Rhovyl,...

st/fi

<65

60–90/

++

++

37–46

syndiotactic[61]

st+

++

+37

–46

Poly(vinyl

alcohol)(PVA)

Kuralon,M

ewlon,

st140(w

ater

vapor:

120)

betterthan

nylon

20

Solvron,Vilo

n,...

fi140(w

ater

vapor:

120)

+/(+)

(+)

(+)

betterthan

nylon

+20

(HM:M

r>

106)

hd140(w

ater

vapor:

120)

betterthan

nylon

+20

Poly(tetraflu

oroethylene)

(PTFE

)Gore-TexFibers,...

st/fi

180

++

++

40

Poly(phenylene

sulfide)

(PPS

)Procon,R

yton,...

st/fi

190–200

-+

++/100

+/100

34–35

Melam

ineresinfib

erBasofi

lst

200–220

0≈

70/

30

ast=staplefib

er,fi

=filam

ent,hd

=highly

draw

n,an

=annealed

ap=antip

illing;

bno

UVstabilizersadded,one-year

exposure

inFlorida;

c+resistant,(+)moderatelyresistant,

−notresistant.


Table 10. Dyeing behavior of fibers

Fiber name/polymer Trade name Dyes

Natural fibersCotton substantiveWool anionicSilk anionic, cationic, substantive, reactive, vatRegenerate celluloseViscose rayon Evlan, Fibro,... substantiveCuprammonium rayon Asahi Bemberg,... substantiveCellulose acetate Arnel, Celco, Dicel, substantive, disperseCellulose triacetate Estron, Silene, Tricel,... substantive, disperseNMMO fiber Lyocell, Tencel,... substantive, reactivePolycondensate fibersNylon 6 Perlon, Capron, Grilon,... anionic, metal-complex disperseNylon 66 Nylon, Antron, Ultron,... anionic, metal-complex, dispersePoly(m-phenyleneisophtalamide) (aramid) Nomex cationic plus carrier, high-temperature

conditionsPoly(ethylene therephthalate) Dacron, Diolen,... disperse plus carrier, high-temperature

conditionsPoly(1,4–dimethylenecyclohexane) Kodel disperse plus carrier, high-temperature

conditionsPoly(butylene terephthalate) Trevira 810,..813 disperseNovolak Kynol,... dispersePoly(ether imide) dispersePolyurethane elastomers Dorlastan, Lycra anionicPolymerizate fibersPolypropylene Herculon, Meraklon,... dispersePolyacrylonitrile Dralon, Dolan,... cationic, disperseModacrylics Kanekalon, SEF,... cationic, dispersePoly(vinyl chloride) Clevyl, Rhovyl,... dispersePoly(phenylene sulfide) Procon, Ryton disperse

Figure 8. Specific tenacity (σ/) and modulus (E/) of high-performance fibers (= density)


Figure 9. Highest temperatures for fiber application without significant loss in tenacity

Values for fiber elongation, fiber shrinkage,and relative properties such as wet tenacity, looptenacity and other parameters are expressed aspercent. If properties such as fiber resistance tolight, weather, chemicals, or organisms cannotbe expressed numerically, they are characterizedin a simplified qualitative manner in Table 9. Inindividual cases, the respective conditions andthe type of attack (e.g., by certain kinds of pests[57], [58]) are such that widely differing resultscan be expected.

Some promising fibers that are still being de-veloped have also been included, in particular,high-performance fibers made from highmolec-ular mass poly(vinyl alcohol), the thermoresis-tant PEEK, PAI, PI (see Fig. 9, and the polyary-late “ Ekonol,” an example of a thermotropicpolymer [59]. Among the inorganic fibers, apartfrom carbon and glass, the properties of siliconcarbide, and ceramic fibers have been included.Figure 8 shows the ranges ofYoung’smoduli andtenacities of presently known high-performancefibers usedmainly for reinforcing organic resins.

Although fibers are highly anisotropic com-pared with other materials and therefore espe-cially strong in the axial direction their Young’smodulus is always inferior to the theoretical

(crystal) modulus. The ratio of fiber to crys-tal modulus attains about 0.1 for textile com-modity fibers, 0.3 for high-performance fibers(e.g., from HM-HDPE), especially those withextended chain structure, and as high as 0.8 forthe LC polymer Kevlar 149 with unfolded, ori-ented PPTA molecules. The deficit of the fibermodulus is a consequence of incompletely un-coiled and disentangled macromolecules in as-spun and drawn fibers. Themechanical responseof fibers is controlled by the fraction of taut tiemolecules connecting neighboring crystallites.This fraction can be estimated from measure-ments of the elastic modulus by using a simplerheological model or other methods to be about0.05 – 0.1 for drawn fibers [83].

Compressibility and lateral compliance in-creasewith increasingfiber anisotropy (ondraw-ing) and this is undesirable for reinforcing fibers(e.g., Kevlar or carbon fibers) in composites. Insome cases thermal aftertreatment of such high-performance fibers allows a compromise to befound between the desired compressibility andlower tenacity (see also compressive strength offibers in Table 4).

The applicability of industrial fibers at highertemperatures (see Tables 6 and 7) is of current


interest. Figure 9 reviews the thermal long-termstability in air.

This compilation of important data is by nomeans complete. For further information, see→Fibers, 4. Synthetic Organic and →Fibers,5. Synthetic Inorganic.

9. References

General References1. H. Batzer (ed.): Polymere Werkstoffe, Thieme

Verlag, Stuttgart 1986.2. R. Bauer, H. J. Koslowski:

Chemiefaser-Lexikon, 10th ed. DeutscherFachverlag, Frankfurt 1993.

3. J. Brandrup, (ed.): Polymer Handbook , 2nded., Interscience, New York 1976.

4. R.M. Brown, (ed.): Cellulose and OtherNatural Polymer Systems, Plenum Publishing,New York 1982.

5. M. E. Carter: Essential Fiber Chemistry,Dekker, New York 1971.

6. J. G. Cook: Handbook of Textile Fibres,Merrow, Watford 1968.

7. H. Driesch: Welche Chemiefaser ist das,Franckh, Stuttgart 1962.

8. A.A Dembeck: Guidebook to Man-madeTextile Fibres and Textured Yarns of the World,3rd ed. The United Piece Dyed Works, NewYork 1969.

9. H. Doehner (ed.):Wollkunde, Parey, Berlin1964.

10. H. F. Mark (ed.): Encyclopedia of PolymerScience and Technology, “Plastics, resins,rubbers, fibres,” Wiley-Interscience, New York1967.

11. B. Falkai (ed.): Synthesefasern, VerlagChemie, Weinheim 1981.

12. F. Fourne (ed.): “Herstellung undVerarbeitung,” Synthetische Fasern,Wissenschaftl. Verlags GmbH, Stuttgart 1964.

13. B. C. Gaswami, J. G. Martindale, F. L.Scardino: Textile Yarns, Wiley-Interscience,New York 1977.

14. M. Grayson (ed.): Encyclopedia of Textiles,Fibers, and Nonwoven Fabrics,Wiley-Interscience, New York 1984.

15. F. Happey: Applied Fibre Science, AcademicPress, London 1979.

16. H.W. Haudek, E. Viti: Textilfasern, Bondi,Wien 1980.

17. High polymers, a Series of Monographs on theChemistry, Physics and Technology of High

Polymeric Substances, Interscience, NewYork.

18. Internat. Baumwoll-Inst. (ed.): Handbuch derBaumwollstoffe, Frankfurt 1983.

19. H. Klare: Geschichte derChemiefaserforschung, Akademie Verlag,Berlin 1985.

20. P.-A. Koch, (ed.): Großes Textil-Lexikon,Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart 1966.

21. H.A. Krassig, J. Lenz, H. F. Mark: FiberTechnology, Dekker, New York 1984.

22. R. Vieweg, G.W. Becker (ed.):Kunststoff-Handbuch, Hanser Verlag,Munchen 1965.

23. P. Lennox-Kerr: The World Fibres Book, TheTextile Trade Press, Mancheser, 1972.

24. M. Lewin, S. B. Sello (ed.): Handbook of FiberScience and Technology, Dekker, New York1983.

25. W. Loy: Chemiefaserstoffe, Schiele undSchon, Berlin 1978.

26. J. A. Maclaren, B. Milligan:Wool Science,Science Press, Marrickville 1981.

27. H. F. Mark (ed.):Man-made Fibers, Scienceand Technology, Interscience, New York 1968.

28. R. Meredith: Elastomeric Fibres, Merrow,Watford 1971.

29. B. E. Messerli (ed.): Seide,Textilwerkstattverlag Hannover, 1986.

30. L. Miles: Cotton, Wayland, Have 1980.31. R. Moncrieff:Man-made-Fibres, 4th ed.,

Heywood, London 1966.32. J. S. Robinson (ed.): Fiber-forming Polymers,

Noyes Data Corp., Park Ridge 1980.33. J. S. Robinson (ed.): Spinning, Extruding and

Processing of Fibers, Noyes Data Corp., ParkRidge 1980.

34. J. S. Robinson (ed.):Manufactue of Yarns andFabrics from Synthetic Fibers, Noyes DataCorp., Park Ridge 1980.

35. W. J. Roff: Fibres, Films, Plastics andRubbers, Butterworths, London 1971.

36. Z. A. Rogovin: Chemiefasern, Thieme Verlag,Stuttgart 1982.

37. H. E. Schiecke: Wolle als textiler Rohstoff,Schiele und Schon, Berlin 1979.

38. K.A. Schmidt: Technologie textilerGlasfasern, Zechner, Speyer 1964.

39. Textil-Fakten: Markt- und Strukturdaten derTextil- und Bekleidungswirtschaft, DeutscherFachverlag, Frankfurt 1983.

40. Textile Faserstoffe, Fachbuchverlag, Leipzig1967.

41. C. A. Tisdell: Economics of Fibre Markets,Univ. New Castle, New Castle, Austr. 1977.


42. E. Wagner: Die textilen Rohstoffe, 6th ed.,Spohr, Wuppertal 1981.

43. A. Ziabicki: Fundamentals of Fibre Formation,Wiley Interscience, New York 1976.

44. A. Ziabicki: High Speed Fibre Spinning,Wiley Interscience, New York 1985.

45. F. Schultze-Gebhardt, “Survey of the MostImportant Properties of High-PerformanceFibers and their Technical Use,”Chemiefasern/Textilind. 43 (1993)T 194 – 196, E 135.

Specific References46. P.-A. Koch (ed.): Großes Textil-Lexikon,

Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart 1966.47. H. Batzer, (ed.): Polymere Werkstoffe, Thieme

Verlag, Stuttgart 1986.48. H. Staudinger et al., Phys. Chem. 126 (1927)

3.49. G. Henrici-Olive, S. Olive, Adv. Polym. Sci.

51 (1983) 1.50. K.-H. Umbach, Chemiefasern/Textilind. 33

(1983) 85, 136, 204.51. Chemiefasern/Textilind. 37 (1987) 182.52. J. D. Geerdes: World Fibre Production, Trends

and Outlok, Internat. Conference on ManMade Fibres, Beijing, Nov. 1985.

53. P.-A. Koch: Faserstoff-Tabellen,Konradin-Verlag Kohlhammer GmbH,Stuttgart 1968, 1977, 1979.

54. E. Kleinhansl, J. Mavely: DenkendorferFasertafeln 1986, Textilpraxis int.,Leinfelden-Echterdingen 1986.

55. F. Schultze-Gebhard: “MechanischeEigenschaften,” in B. von Falkai (ed.):Synthesefasern, Verlag Chemie, Weinheim1981, p. 64.

56. DIN 53 835 (1975).57. W. Kerner-Gang, H. Kuhne in G. Schreyer

(ed.): Konstruieren mit Kunststoffen, HanserVerlag, Munchen 1972.

58. H. Kuhne, TPI Text. Prax. Int. 29 (1974) 57;30 (1975) 598,718.

59. E. V. Martin, H. Busch, Angew. Chem. 74(1962) 624.

60. Sumitomo Chem. Com., US 4 503 005, 1983(K. Ueno, H. Sugimoto, K. Hayatsu).

61. C. Mazzolini: The Development of a NewFibre from Syndiotactic Polyvinylchloride,2nd Shirley International Seminar, Manchester1970.

62. DIN 53 843 (1976).63. DIN 53 842 (1976).64. R. Meredith, J. Text. Inst., Trans. 45 (1954)

T 489. N. Adams, J. Text. Inst., Trans. 47

(1956) T 530. I. D. Owen, J. Text. Inst., Trans.56 (1965) T 329.

65. C. L. Choy, W. P. Leung, J. Polym. Sci. Polym.Phys. Ed. 23 (1985) 1759 – 1780.

66. P. A. Koch, G. Feier, B. Hoffmann:“Untersuchungen uber die Quersprodigkeitneuer Synthesefasern,” Forschungsber.Landes Nordrhein-Westf. no. 2299,Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1973.

67. W. Gotze, F. Winkler, Faserforsch. Textiltech.18 (1967) 119, 385.

68. K. E. Perepelkin, Faserforsch. Textiltech. 25(1974) 251.

69. G.W. Urbanczyk, G. Michalak, J. Appl.Polym. Sci. 32 (1986) 3841 – 3846.

70. H. Hespe, E. Meisert, U. Eisele, L. Morbitzer,W. Goyert, Kolloid Z. Z. Polym. 250 (1972)797. D. J. Hourston, R. Meredith, J. Appl.Polym. Sci. 17 (1973) 3259.

71. G. Hinrichsen, Angew. Makromol. Chem. 20(1971) 121.

72. R. L. McGee, J. R. Collier, Polym. Eng. Sci. 26(1986) 239 – 242.

73. H. Boder, D. Golden, P. Rose, H. Wurmseher:“Kohlenstoffasern – Herstellung,Eigenschaften, Verwendung,” Z.Werkstofftech. 11 (1980) 275.

74. DIN 53 814 (1974).75. I. A. Ermilova, L. N. Alekseeva, I. I. Samolina,

V.A. Chochlova, Sowj. Beitrage Faserforsch.Textiltech. 19 (1982) 274 – 276.

76. Y. L. Hsieh, D.A. Timm, J. Merry, Textile Res.J. 57 (1987) 20 – 28.

77. G. Wu, J.-D. Jiang, P. A. Tucker, J. A. Cuculo,J. Polym. Sci.: B: Polym. Phys. 34 (1996)2035 – 2047.

78. F. Schultze-Gebhardt, Chemiefasern/Textilind.43 (1993) 432 – 433, E 66, E 68.

79. Chem. Fibers Int 46 (1996) 230. Econom.Fiber Bureau, Washington: Fiber Organon,Washington 1996.

80. T. F. N. Johnson, Chem. Fibers Int. 46 ( 1996)280, 282 – 284, 286.

81. S. R. Allen, J. Mater. Sci. 28 (1993) 853 – 859.82. G. J. Hayes, D.D. Edle, J.M. Kennedy, J.

Mater. Sci. 28 (1993) 3347 – 3257.83. M. Miwa et al., J. Mater. Sci. 31 (1996)

499 – 506.84. F. Schultze-Gebhardt, Acta Polym. 41 (1990)

512 – 513, Chemiefasern/Textilind. 40 (1990)T 56, T 58, E 49 – E 50.

85. B. Poulaert et al., Polym. Commun. 31 (1990)48 – 51.

86. C. L. Choy, Y. Fei, T. G. Xi, J. Appl. Polym.Sci. 31 (1993) 365 – 370.


87. D. T. Grubb, L.W. Jelinski,Macromolecules30 (1997) 2860 – 2867.

88. W. Albrecht, M. Reintjes, B. Wulfhorst:“Lyocell-Fasern, Faserstoff-Tabellen nachP.-A. Koch, 1. Ausg. 1997,”Melliand

Textilber. 78 (1997) 575 – 581.89. H. Blumberg, Chem. Fibers Int. 47 (1997)

36 – 41.90. J.M. Kure et al., Textile Res. J. 67 (1997)

18 – 22.

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Fibers Volume 1 - Wiley-VCH · 2008. 3. 7. · Fibers, 1. Survey 5...

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