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Ficus or Fig Tree.
Ficus is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes, and hemiepiphytein the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the
tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. The so-called Common
Fig (F. carica) is a temperate species from the Middle East and eastern Europe (mostly Ukraine),
which has been widely cultivated from ancient times for its fruit, also referred to as figs. The
fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic
importance or eaten as bushfood. However, they are extremely important food resources for
wildlife. Figs are also of paramount cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects of
worship and for their many practical uses.
A Ficus carica
Ficus is a pan-tropical genus of trees, shrubs and vines occupying a wide variety of ecological
niches; most are evergreen, but some deciduous species are endemic to areas outside of the
tropics and to higher elevations.Fig species are characterized by their unique inflorescence and
distinctive pollination syndrome, which utilizes wasp species belonging to the Agaonidae family
for pollination.
The specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but figs as a group are
relatively easy to recognize. Many have aerial roots and a distinctive shape or habit, and theirfruits distinguish them from other plants. The fig fruit is an enclosed inflorescence, sometimes
referred to as a syconium, an urn-like structure lined on the inside with the fig's tiny flowers. The
unique fig pollination system, involving tiny, highly specific wasps, know as fig wasps that enter
these closed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs, has been a constant source
of inspiration and wonder to biologists. Finally, there are three vegetative traits that together are
unique to figs. All figs possess a white to yellowish sap (latex), some in copious quantities; the
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twig has paired stipules or a circular stipule scar if the stipules have fallen off; and the lateral
veins at the base of the leaf are steep, forming a tighter angle with the midrib than the other
lateral veins, a feature referred to as a "tri-veined".
Unfortunately, there are no unambiguous older fossils of Ficus. However, current molecular
clock estimates indicate that Ficus is a relatively ancient genus being at least 60 million yearsold, and possibly as old as 80 million years. The main radiation of extant species, however, may
have taken place more recently, between 20 and 40 million years ago.
Some better known species that represent the diversity of the genus include the Common Fig
which is a small temperate deciduous tree whose fingered fig leaf is well-known in art and
iconography; the Weeping Fig (F. benjamina) a hemi-epiphyte with thin tough leaves on
pendulous stalks adapted to its rain forest habitat; the rough-leaved sandpaper figs from
Australia; the Creeping Fig (F. pumila), a vine whose small, hard leaves form a dense carpet of
foliage over rocks or garden walls. Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone
adaptive radiation in different biogeographic regions, leading to very high levels of alphadiversity. In the tropics, it is quite common to find that Ficus is the most species-rich plant genus
in a particular forest. In Asia as many as 70 or more species can co-exist.
Ecology and uses
Coppersmith Barbet feeding on White Fig (Ficus virens) fruit
Figs are keystone species in many rainforest ecosystems. Their fruit are a key resource for some
frugivores including fruit bats, capuchin monkeys, langurs and mangabeys. They are even more
important for some birds. Asian barbets, pigeons, hornbills, fig-parrots and bulbuls are examples
of taxa that may almost entirely subsist on figs when these are in plenty. Many Lepidoptera
caterpillars feed on fig leaves, for example several Euploea species (Crow butterflies), the Plain
Tiger (Danaus chrysippus), the Giant Swallowtail (Papilio cresphontes), the Brown Awl
(Badamia exclamationis), and Chrysodeixis eriosoma, Choreutidae and Copromorphidae moths.
The Citrus long-horned beetle (Anoplophora chinensis), for example, has larvae that feed on
wood, including that of fig trees; it can become a pest in fig plantations. Similarly, the Sweet
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Potato Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as potted plants and
is spread through the export of these plants to other localities. For a list of other diseases
common to fig trees, see List of foliage plant diseases (Moraceae).
Leaves of the Sacred Fig
The wood of fig trees is often soft and the latex precludes its use for many purposes. It was used
to make mummy caskets in Ancient Egypt. Certain fig species (mainly F. cotinifolia, F. insipida
and F. padifolia) are traditionally used in Mesoamerica to produce papel amate (Nahuatl: matl).
Mutuba (F. natalensis) is used to produce barkcloth in Uganda. Pou (F. religiosa) leaves' shape
inspired one of the standard kbach rachana, decorative elements in Cambodian architecture.
Weeping Fig (F. benjamina) and Indian Rubber Plant (F. elastica) are identified as powerful air-
cleaning plants in the NASA Clean Air Study. Indian Banyan (F. bengalensis) and the Indian
Rubber Plant, as well as other species, have use in herbalism. The latter is known to be a
hyperaccumulator of benzene and methane,[dubious discuss] and urban or potted plants should
be considered toxic for that reason.
Fig trees have profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. Among the
more famous species are the Sacred Fig tree (Peepul, Bodhi, Bo, or Po, Ficus religiosa) and the
Banyan Fig (Ficus benghalensis). The oldest living plant of known planting date is a Ficus
religiosa tree known as the Sri Maha Bodhi planted in the temple at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka by
King Tissa in 288 BC. It is one of the two sacred trees of Islam, and there is a sura in Quran
named "The Fig" or At-Tin( ), and in East Asia, figs are pivotal in Buddhism,
Hinduism and Jainism. Siddhrtha Gautama, the Supreme Buddha, is traditionally held to have
found bodhi (enlightenment) while meditating under a Sacred Fig (F. religiosa). The same
species was Ashvastha, the "world tree" of Hinduism. The Plaksa Pra-sravana was said to be afig tree between the roots of which the Sarasvati River sprang forth; it is usually held to be a
Sacred Fig but more probably seems to be a Wavy-leaved Fig (F. infectoria). The Common Fig
tree is cited in the Bible, where in Genesis 3:7, Adam and Eve cover their nakedness with fig
leaves. The fig fruit is also included in the list of food found in the Promised Land, according to
the Torah (Deut. 8). Other important plants reported included: wheat, barley, grapes,
pomegranates, olives, and dates (representing the honey). Jesus cursed a fig tree for bearing no
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fruit (Mark 11:12-14). The fig tree was sacred in ancient Cyprus where it was a symbol of
fertility.
Fig pollination and fig fruit
A Common Fig syconium (fruit)
Many are grown for their fruits, though only Ficus carica is cultivated to any extent for this
purpose. Furthermore, the fig fruits, important as both food and traditional medicine, contain
laxative substances, flavonoids, sugars, vitamins A and C, acids and enzymes. However, figs are
skin allergens, and the sap is a serious eye irritant. The fig is commonly thought of as fruit, but it
is properly the flower of the fig tree. It is in fact a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the
flowers and seeds grow together to form a single mass. The genus Dorstenia, also in the figs
family (Moraceae), exhibits similar tiny flowers arranged on a receptacle but in this case thereceptacle is a more or less flat, open surface.
Depending on the species, each fruit can contain up to several hundred to several thousand seeds.
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Inside of a ripe brown Turkish fig
Figs, fresh
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy 310 kJ (74 kcal)
Carbohydrates 19 g
Sugars 16 g
Dietary fiber 3 g
Fat 0.3 g
Protein 0.8 g
Percentages are relative to US recommendations
for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
Figs, dried
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,041 kJ (249 kcal)
Carbohydrates 64 g
Sugars 48 g
Dietary fiber 10 g
Fat 1 g
Protein 3 g
Percentages are relative to US recommendations
for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
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Cannabis
Cannabis (Cn-na-bis) is a genus of flowering plants that includes three putative species,
Cannabis sativa,[1] Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. These three taxa are indigenous to
Central Asia, and South Asia. Cannabis has long been used for fibre (hemp), for medicinalpurposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis plants
selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of THC (9-
tetrahydrocannabinol), a psychoactive molecule that produces the "high" associated with
marijuana. The psychoactive product consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to
produce high levels of THC. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced
from the plant
Cannabis is an annual, dioecious, flowering herb. The leaves are palmately compound or
digitate, with serrate leaflets. The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number
gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine),
depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again
diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf
arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature
plant.
Cannabis normally has imperfect flowers, with staminate "male" and pistillate "female" flowers
occurring on separate plants. It is not unusual, however, for individual plants to bear both male
and female flowers. Although monoecious plants are often referred to as "hermaphrodites," true
hermaphrodites (which are less common) bear staminate and pistillate structures on individual
flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on the
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same plant. Male flowers are normally borne on loose panicles, and female flowers are borne on
racemes. "At a very early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabis plant as dioecious," and
the (ca. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary defined xi "male cannabis" and fu (or ju )
"female cannabis".
All known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated and produce "seeds" that are technicallycalled achenes. Most strains of Cannabis are short day plants, with the possible exception of C.
sativa subsp. sativa var. spontanea (= C. ruderalis), which is commonly described as "auto-
flowering" and may be day-neutral.
Cannabis, like many organisms, is diploid, having a chromosome complement of 2n=20,
although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced. The plant is believed to have
originated in the mountainous regions northwest of the Himalayas. It is also known as hemp,
although this term is often used to refer only to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use.
Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids, which produce mental and
physical effects when consumed. Cannabinoids, terpenoids, and other compounds are secreted byglandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants.
As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flower buds (marijuana), resin (hashish), or
various extracts collectively known as hashish oil. In the early 20th century, it became illegal in
most of the world to cultivate or possess Cannabis for drug purposes.
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Populus
Populus is a genus of 2535 species of deciduous flowering plants in the family Salicaceae,
native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. English names variously applied to different species
include poplar, aspen, and cottonwood.
The genus has a large genetic diversity, and can grow from anywhere between 1550 m tall, withtrunks of up to 2.5 m diameter.
Mle catkins ofPopulus Canadensis
The bark on young trees is smooth, white to greenish or dark grey, often with conspicuous
lenticels; on old trees it remains smooth in some species, but becomes rough and deeply fissured
in others. The shoots are stout, with (unlike in the related willows) the terminal bud present. The
leaves are spirally arranged, and vary in shape from triangular to circular or (rarely) lobed, and
with a long petiole; in species in the sections Populus and Aegiros, the petioles are laterally
flattened, so that breezes easily cause the leaves to wobble back and forth, giving the whole tree
a "twinkling" appearance in a breeze. Leaf size is very variable even on a single tree, typically
with small leaves on side shoots, and very large leaves on strong-growing lead shoots. The
leaves often turn bright gold to yellow before they fall during autumn.
The flowers are mostly dioecious (rarely monoecious) and appear in early spring before the
leaves. They are borne in long, drooping, sessile or pedunculate catkins produced from buds
formed in the axils of the leaves of the previous year. The flowers are each seated in a cup-
shaped disk which is borne on the base of a scale which is itself attached to the rachis of the
catkin. The scales are obovate, lobed and fringed, membranous, hairy or smooth, usually
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caducous. The male flowers are without calyx or corolla, and comprise a group of 460 stamens
inserted on a disk; filaments short, pale yellow; anthers oblong, purple or red, introrse, two-
celled; cells opening longitudinally. The female flower also has no calyx or corolla, and
comprises a single-celled ovary seated in a cup-shaped disk. The style is short, with 24 stigmas,
variously lobed, and numerous ovules. Pollination is by wind, with the female catkins
lengthening considerably between pollination and maturity. The fruit is a two to four-valved
capsule, green to reddish-brown, mature in mid summer, containing numerous minute light
brown seeds surrounded by tufts of long, soft, white hairs which aid wind dispersal.
Poplars of the cottonwood section are often wetlands or riparian trees. The aspens are among the
most important boreal broadleaf trees.
Poplars and aspens are important food plants for the larvae of a large number of Lepidoptera
species -
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Willows
Willows, sallows, and osiers form the genus Salix, around 400 species[2] of deciduous trees and
shrubs, found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions of the Northern
Hemisphere. Most species are known as willow, but some narrow-leaved shrub species are called
osier, and some broader-leaved species are referred to as sallow (derived from the Latin word
salix, willow). Some willows (particularly arctic and alpine species) are low-growing or creeping
shrubs; for example the Dwarf Willow (Salix herbacea) rarely exceeds 6 cm (2 in) in height,
though spreading widely across the ground.
Willows are very cross-fertile, and numerous hybrids occur, both naturally and in cultivation. A
well-known ornamental example is the Weeping Willow (Salix sepulcralis), which is a hybrid
of Peking Willow (Salix babylonica) from China and White Willow (Salix alba) from Europe.
Description
Willows all have abundant watery bark, sap which is heavily charged with salicylic acid, soft,usually pliant, tough wood, slender branches, and large, fibrous, often stoloniferous roots. The
roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and tenacity to life, and roots readily grow from
aerial parts of the plant.
The leaves are typically elongated but may also be round to oval, frequently with a serrated
margin. Most species are deciduous; semi-evergreen willows with coriaceous leaves are rare, e.g.
Salix micans and S. australior in the eastern Mediterranean. All the buds are lateral; no
absolutely terminal bud is ever formed. The buds are covered by a single scale, enclosing at its
base two minute opposite buds, alternately arranged, with two small, opposite, scale-like leaves.
This first pair soon fall, and the later leaves are alternately arranged. The leaves are simple,feather-veined, and typically linear-lanceolate. Usually they are serrate, rounded at base, acute or
acuminate. The leaf petioles are short, the stipules often very conspicuous, looking like tiny
round leaves and sometimes remaining for half the summer. On some species, however, they are
small, inconspicuous, and fugacious (soon falling). In color the leaves show a great variety of
greens, ranging from yellowish to bluish.
Flowers
Willows are dioecious with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on different plants; the
catkins are produced early in the spring, often before the leaves, or as the new leaves open.
The staminate (male) flowers are without either calyx or corolla; they consist simply of stamens,
varying in number from two to ten, accompanied by a nectariferous gland and inserted on the
base of a scale which is itself borne on the rachis of a drooping raceme called a catkin, or ament.
This scale is oval and entire and very hairy. The anthers are rose colored in the bud but orange or
purple after the flower opens, they are two-celled and the cells open longitudinally. The
filaments are threadlike, usually pale yellow, and often hairy.
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The pistillate (female) flowers are also without calyx or corolla; and consist of a single ovary
accompanied by a small flat nectar gland and inserted on the base of a scale which is likewise
borne on the rachis of a catkin. The ovary is one-celled, the style two-lobed, and the ovules
numerous.
Fruit
Open capsules of Salix cinerea with seeds and hairs
The fruit is a small, one-celled, two-valved, cylindrical beaked capsule containing numerous tiny
(0.1 mm) seeds. The seeds are furnished with long, silky, white hairs, which allow the fruit to be
widely dispersed by the wind.
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Etymology
Native "criollo" avocados, the precursor to today's domesticated varieties
The word 'avocado' comes from the Nahuatl word ahuacatl ('testicle', a reference to the shape of
the fruit). Avocados were known by the Aztecs as 'the fertility fruit'. In some countries of South
America, such as Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay, the avocado is known by its
Quechua name, palta. In other Spanish-speaking countries, it is called aguacate, and in
Portuguese it is abacate. The fruit is sometimes called an avocado pear or alligator pear (due to
its shape and the rough green skin of some cultivars). The Nahuatl ahuacatl can be compounded
with other words, as in ahuacamolli, meaning 'avocado soup or sauce', from which the Mexican
Spanish word guacamole derives.
Also in some South American countries, the avocado is called "la manzana del invierno". This
translates to "the apple of the winter".[citation needed]
Cultivation
Persea americana, young avocado plant (seedling), complete with parted pit and roots
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Worldwide avocado output in 2005
Food and agriculture
Avocado fruit (cv. 'Fuerte'); left:
whole, right: in sectionCountry Quantity
(Tm)
World
Rank
Mexico 1,040,390 1
Indonesia 263,575 2
United States
of America
214,000 3
Colombia 185,811 4
Brazil 175,000 5
Chile 163,000 6
Dominican
Republic
140,000 7
Peru 102,000 8
China 85,000 9
Ethiopia 81,500 10[9]
The tree grows to 20 m (69 ft), with alternately arranged leaves 12 centimetres (4.7 in)
25 centimetres (9.8 in) long. The flowers are inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, 5 millimetres
(0.2 in) 10 millimetres (0.4 in) wide. The pear-shaped fruit is 7 centimetres (2.8 in)
20 centimetres (7.9 in) long, weighs between 100 grams (3.5 oz) 1,000 grams (35 oz), and has
a large central seed, 5 centimetres (2.0 in) 6.4 centimetres (2.5 in) long
The subtropical species needs a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the
humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination. When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur, although the Hass cultivar can tolerate temperatures down to
1C. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep. Yield is reduced when
the irrigation water is highly saline. These soil and climate conditions are available only in a few
areas of the world, particularly in southern Spain, the Levant, South Africa, Peru, parts of central
and northern Chile, Vietnam, Indonesia, parts of southern India, Sri Lanka, Australia, New
Zealand, the Philippines, Malaysia, Central America, the Caribbean, Mexico, California,
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Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Florida. Each region has different types of cultivars. Mexico,
the center of origin and diversity of this species, is the largest producer of the Hass variety, with
over 1 million tonnes produced annually.
Harvest and post-harvest
An average avocado tree produces about 1200 avocados annually. Commercial orchards produce
an average of 7 tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per
hectare. Biennial bearing can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor
yields the next. The avocado tree does not tolerate freezing temperatures, and can be grown only
in subtropical or tropical climates.
The avocado is a climacteric fruit (the banana is another), which means that it matures on the tree
but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in
coolers at 38 to 42F (3.3 to 5.6C) until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be
mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruitis picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick Hass-variety avocados when they have
more than 23% dry matter and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked,
avocados ripen in a few days at room temperature (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples
or bananas, because of the influence of ethylene gas). Premium supermarkets sell pre-ripened
avocados treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten the ripening process.[12] In some cases,
avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial
growers who seek the greatest return for their crop; if the fruit remains unpicked for too long,
however, it falls to the ground.