Fig101

33

Female reproductive strategies

Male reproductive strategies

Females can producea limited number ofchildren over atime span

Females seek maleswith resources forprotecting them andtheir offspring

Females attracted bylove acts that displaya male's resources

Males can conceivechildren frompuberty until death

Males evaluatefemales on thebasis of youth,health, and beauty

Males attracted bylove acts thatsignal a female'sreproductive capability

Females evaluatemales on such dimen-sions as earningcapacity, ambition,status, and possessions

Males seek femalescapable of reproducing

Fig11_3

11_02

Unbalancedequilibrium

Need(biologicaldisturbance)

Drive(psychologicalstate that providesmotivation tosatisfy need)

Equilibriumrestored

Behavior thatsatisfies need andreduces drive

Fig103

34

Cold wind

A simplehomeostatic

system

Hot sun

InRev11a

THEORIES IN MOTIVATION

Innate biological instincts guide behavior.

Behavior is guided by biological needs and learned ways of reducing drives arising from those needs.

People seek to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal, which differs from person to person. Maximum performance occurs at optimal arousal levels.

Behavior is guided by the lure of rewards and the threat of punishment. Cognitive factors influence expectations of the value of various rewards and the likelihood of attaining them.

Theory

Instinct

Drive reduction

Arousal

Incentive

Main Points

Fig104

36

1.5

Per

cen

t o

f g

rou

p d

yin

g e

ach

yea

r

Thinnest

2.0

Moderatelybelow average

1.0

Moderatelyabove average

Heaviest30 percent of people

MaleFemale

InRev11b

InRev11a

MAJOR FACTORS CONTROLLING HUNGER AND EATING

Levels of glucose and insulin in the blood provide signals that stimulate eating; neurotransmitters that affect neurons in different regions of the hypothalamus also stimulate food intake and influence hungers for specific kinds of foods, such as fats and carbohydrates. Stomach contractions are associated with subjective feelings of hunger, but they do not play a substantial role in the stimulation of eating.

Sights and smells of particular foods elicit eating because of prior associations; family customs and social occasions often include norms for eating in particular ways; stress is often associated with eating more.

Stimulate Eating

Biological factors

Nonbiological factors

Inhibit Eating

Hormones released into the bloodstream produce signals that inhibit eating; hormones such as leptin, CCK, and insulin act as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators and affect neurons in the hypothalamus and inhibit eating. The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus may be a “satiety center” that monitors these hormones.

Values in contemporary U.S. society encourage thinness, and thus can inhibit eating.

Fig11_6

9_5

2

Excitement

Plateau

Orgasm

(A) CYCLE IN MEN

ResolutionResolution

Refractory period

Excitement

Plateau

Orgasm

(B) CYCLE IN WOMEN

Resolution

Resolution

Resolution

C

A

B

11_07

Hypothalamus

Pituitary

Feedbackto brain

Secretes estrogenand progestins(estradiol andprogesterone)

Secretesandrogens(testosterone)

Ovary

Testis

Fig122

47

Male Characteristics Female Characteristics

Independent Emotional

Aggressive Grateful

Acts as leader Kind

Self-confident Creative

Dominant Gentle

Active Understanding

Ambitious Aware of others' feelings

Outspoken Enjoys art and music

Adventurous Tactful

Competitive Considerate

Likes math and science Home oriented

Takes a stand Cries easily

Makes decisions easily Devotes self to others

Skilled in business Strong conscience

Stereotypical Characteristics of Males and Females

Fig11_9

11_09

Esteem

(e.g., respect)

Belongingness and love

(e.g., acceptance, affection)

Safety

(e.g., nurturance, money)

Physiological

(e.g., food, water, oxygen)

Self-actualization

(e.g., maximizing one's potential)

Fig108

37Strong

Neutral

Strong

on off

Stimulus

Primary state

Emotional experience

Opponent state

11_10

Frontal cortex

Basal ganglia Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Pituitary

Cingulate cortex

Hippocampus

Amygdala

Sensoryinput

Locuscoeruleus

Activation of autonomicnervous system

Spinal cord

11_13PARASYMPATHETIC FUNCTIONS

Constricts pupil

Stimulates salivation

Slows respiration

Slows heartbeat

Stimulatesgall bladder

Stimulatesdigestion

Contracts bladder

Stimulates genitals

SYMPATHETIC FUNCTIONS

Dilates pupil

Inhibits salivation

Increases respiration

Accelerates heartbeat

Inhibits digestion Stimulates glucoserelease

Relaxes bladder

Inhibits genitals

Secretes adrenalineand noradrenaline

Sympatheticganglion

Parasympatheticganglion

Acetylcholinereleased

Targetorgan

Norepinephrinereleased

CNS

Fig11_13

11_14

4. Peripheral responses(e.g., increase inheart rate; change infacial expression)

Activation of CNSand peripheralnervous system

2. Cognitive interpretation(That bear can kill me!)

1. Sensation/perception(It's a bear!)

Perception ofperipheral responses

Cognitiveinterpretation ofperipheral responses

3.

5.

6.

Fig112

38

Emotionalexperience

Perceived event Physiological andbehavioral responses

Fig113

39

Physiological

arousal

Cognitive

interpretation

Emotional

experience

Fig114

40

Physiological andbehavioral responses

Emotionalexperience

Perceived event

InRev11c

InRev11bInRev11a

THEORIES OF EMOTION

The CNS generates specific physical responses; observation of the physical responses constitutes emotion.

The CNS generates nonspecific physical responses; interpretation of the physical responses in light of the situation constitutes emotions.

Parts of the CNS directly generate emotions; peripheral physiological responses are not necessary.

Theory

James

Schachter’s modification of James’s theory

Cannon

Evidence for Theory

Different emotions are associated with different physical responses.

Excitation generated by physical activity can transfer to increase emotional intensity.

People with spinal cord damage experience a full range of emotions without feedback from peripheral responses.

Source of Emotions

SOCIAL INFLUENCE

What role does arousal play in aggression? (p. 650)

HEALTH, STRESS, AND COPING

Can motivational conflicts cause stress? (p. 384)

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTSOF PSYCHOLOGY

How does your brain know when you are hungry? (p. 364)

LINKAGESto Motivation and Emotion