1
FILM CREW COMPOSITION AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT
by
Deborah Allison Joseph Lampel
EBK Working Paper 2006/05
2
Film Crew Composition and Project Management
Deborah Allison and Joseph Lampel City University
Cass Business School Bunnhill Row
London EC1Y 8TZ
United Kingdom Tel: +44-(0) 20 7040 8669 Fax: +44-(0) 20 7040 8328 E-mail: [email protected]
Paper to be published in Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film, 2006.
3
Introduction
Not all films have the vast crews that are now associated with big Hollywood
productions. Some of the earliest films required only a cameraman to perform
all the necessary duties, from selecting the subject to shooting, developing,
printing, editing and exhibiting the movie. As films became more complex and
increasingly relied on staged rather than documentary subjects, labour came to
be divided between the camera operator and the director. Manufacturers soon
discovered economic incentives for the simultaneous production of a range of
longer films. Whilst they required more workers and resources than their
predecessors, careful management allowed an increased economy in
production. Influenced by Frederick W. Taylor’s concept of ‘scientific
management’, producers deemed it most efficient to dedicate workers to
particular roles, encouraging increased levels of specialisation. The
development of the studio system in the United States during the 1910s helped
to establish the organisation of labour that has continued to characterise most
feature productions up to the present day. The crew are organised into
departments, each of which have distinct responsibilities in the filmmaking
process. Each of these departments employs a range of individuals with
specialised expertise, who work as a team to create the finished product.
The exact size of a film crew varies according to the budget, just as its
composition depends on the requirements of the specific film. For example, an
action thriller may require a large number of stuntmen, whereas an intimate
drama might not need any at all. A substantial wardrobe department would
have been needed to handle the 32,000 costumes used in Quo Vadis (1951),
4
and an abnormally large camera team for Ben-Hur (1925), which used 48
cameras to shoot its sea battle scene. The crews of low budget and short films
are likely to be more modestly sized than those of major Hollywood productions,
with people doubling up to perform more than one task. The director and
producer Roger Corman, famed for making profitable films on very low budgets,
always insisted that job titles were not important on his film shoots, with crew
members expected to help with whatever task needed to be performed. On
bigger budget productions using unionised film crews, unions often forbid this
practice. To protect the interests of their members, they may insist that the crew
work within the strict limits of their job descriptions and that an appropriately
qualified union member is hired to perform each duty. For instance, when British
director Ridley Scott went to L.A. to make Blade Runner (1982), he was not
allowed to act as his own camera operator and had to hire somebody else to do
that job.
Some short films and experimental films, as well as certain types of
documentary such as direct cinema, are made with incredibly tiny crews. There
are even films that have been made entirely by one person, which has normally
happened when the film is comprised of animation or found footage. One of the
most impressive single-handed achievements is surely José Antonio Sistiaga’s
feature length abstract animation, Ere erera baleibu icik subua aruaren (1970),
for which he painted each frame directly onto the film stock. Stan Brakhage
made Mothlight (1963) by sandwiching flowers, leaves and dead moths
between two strips of film. Because he did not use a camera, he did not need a
cameraman, lighting crew, actors, or anyone else to create this film. For
5
Notebook (1963), Marie Menken took her camera out into the street to film
interesting images such as reflections in a puddle. This too was completed
without the need for a film crew.
Most films, though, require lots of people who supply a wide range of expertise.
Some, such as the producer and, often, the director, are normally involved
throughout the production. Others are employed for only part of the process.
For example, a scriptwriter’s involvement often ends before filming even starts.
Others, such as the visual effects team, may not become involved until the
shoot is over. Some crew members, such as stunt men, may work on the film
for just a single day, and can therefore accrue very long lists of credits. The
division of labour across the production timescale is not always the same for
every film. For instance, the title sequence designer(s) may work with the
director from a very early stage in the production, as they did for Fight Club
(1999), or else they may not be brought in until a late stage of post-production
when a less ambitious title sequence may be one of the last elements to be
added before the film is complete.
As technology has changed so has the composition of the film crew. Technical
innovations have altered filmmaking practice and led to the creation of new
roles as well as reducing the need for others. The introduction of synchronised
sound in the late 1920s required a whole string of crew members to set up and
operate recording equipment and to edit the sound during post-production.
Conversely, the development of high quality digital cameras means that a
professional looking film can now be made without some of the crew previously
6
required to handle the less wieldy 35mm camera and the substantial lighting it
demands.
Screen credits are a guide to the main participants in creating a film, but are not
a reliable index of the different compositions of film crews. In particular, they are
a poor guide to the way in which crews have changed over time. A lengthening
credit list does not necessarily mean that films now employ larger crews than
before, but rather that a higher proportion of workers are named where many
previously remained anonymous. Unions have been a powerful force in
determining credit allocation, as they all wish to ensure their members receive
due recognition. In an era where most film workers are freelance, rather than
under studio contract, it is especially important for their career that they receive
credit since this may affect their payment as well as their future employment
prospects.
Because of the enormous size and range of crew employed in filmmaking, not
every role can be itemised here; The Matrix Revolutions (2003), for example,
credited over 700 participants. The list below includes the department heads,
employed on most contemporary feature films, and some of the most common
roles within each department, as well as examples of some of the more
specialised crew members that certain films require. Entries are arranged in an
order roughly chronological to a film shoot, beginning with the producers’ team,
and progressing through pre-production, production and post-production.
7
Producers and the Production Office
Film producers come in several varieties. The Producer initiates and
supervises all the processes involved in making a film. Core responsibilities
include selecting or commissioning the script, securing finance, hiring the
director and other departmental heads, monitoring the expenditure and
progress of the production to try to ensure that the film is completed on time and
within budget, and negotiating the sale of the film to distribution companies.
Films often have more than one producer and they are sometimes given
specific job titles according to the division of duties between them. An
Executive Producer does not have a hands-on involvement in the production
process, focuses on business rather than creative issues, and often supervises
other producers. An Associate Producer performs tasks delegated by a
producer or executive producer. Co-Producers work as a team so that between
them they are involved in all the different producer functions, including both
creative and managerial roles. A Line Producer is a manager who is intimately
involved in the day to day production processes.
Various supervisory staff oversee the different stages of film making to ensure
that they are completed on time and budget. The Production Manager works
in a similar way to the line producer to ensure the smooth running of the
production process, supervising staff and expenditure. The Production
Accountant handles the finances for the film, dealing with invoices and
financial reporting requirements. The Post-Production Supervisor is
responsible for overseeing the tasks that need to be completed after the shoot
has ended. A dedicated Post-Production Accountant may also be employed.
8
The publicity department is in charge of promoting the film. Although the most
intensive marketing activity occurs in the immediate run-up to the film’s release,
gaining exposure for the film is an ongoing process beginning before production
even starts. The Publicity Director designs and oversees the publicity
campaign, and is based at the studio or head office. If the production company
is also distributing the film, they will take responsibility for commissioning and
approving materials such as posters and trailers. The Unit Publicist is often
present on the set and is responsible for arranging media interviews, collecting
information for press notes and selecting photographs to be issued to the press.
The Stills Photographer is present on set to take publicity pictures. They may
also take still pictures for use in the film, or photographs that act as records to
assist continuity.
The Director and Their Team
The Director has the main creative responsibility for the film. He or she is
normally involved in the project from an early stage and participates in hiring the
heads of department, the casting process, and working with one or more writers
to perfect the script. During filming, they direct the actors, supervise the
activities of the crew, and decide which takes to print. Directors often remain
involved after shooting ends, working with the editor and other post-production
personnel to ensure that the film is completed in accordance with their design.
9
Because the director’s area of responsibility is vast and diverse, he or she
normally has several assistants, each with designated roles. During pre-
production, the 1st Assistant Director breaks the script down into shots and
prepares the shooting schedule. During production, he or she conveys the
director’s instructions to the cast and crew, coordinating their performance in
order to keep pace with the schedule. The 2nd Assistant Director is
responsible to the 1st assistant director. Their many duties may involve the
preparation of call sheets and the distribution of scripts. The 2nd 2nd Assistant
Director, or 3rd Assistant Director, focuses on such floor duties as managing
the movement of extras. This can be an enormous task, as in Gandhi (1982),
which used an estimated 300,000 extras.
The Script Supervisor, or Continuity Girl, keeps track of the progress of
filming, and any deviations from the written script. He or she also helps the
director remember the details of shots that have already been made, ensuring
that details such as hair and make-up remain the same from one shot or scene
to the next. In order to do this, a detailed continuity report is maintained.
Specialised crew members may be employed to assist the director in eliciting
the desired performances from the actors. Roles include Choreographer, who
designs any dance sequences, Dialogue Coach, who trains the actors in the
creation of appropriate accents or dialects, Animal Trainer, who coaches the
animal actors, and Wrangler, who handles babies, animals, or other
participants, such as vehicles, that do not respond to verbal instruction. A Stunt
Co-ordinator is responsible for designing stunt work and ensuring that it is
10
conducted safely. An Action Vehicles Co-ordinator and/or Fight Director
may also be employed. A Creative Consultant or Technical Advisor may
offer specialised advice about any one of a range of topics.
Many films use a second unit, headed by a Second Unit Director. This self-
contained subsidiary crew comes complete with all the personnel required for
filming. It is normally used for shooting such material as street scenes that do
not feature the main actors.
Pre-Production: The Script, Casting and Locations
The first draft of a script is produced by a Screenwriter, who may create
original material or adapt existing material, such as a novel or a play. A script
invariably goes through many drafts before a final version is agreed, and other
writers are often brought in to assist with this process. Additional writers are
sometimes known as Script Editors, or Script Doctors, and may specialise in
polishing a particular element of the script, such as the dialogue. A Storyboard
Artist may work with the director to translate all or part of the script into a series
of still pictures to be used as a template for shooting.
The Casting Director is responsible for auditioning and selecting the actors, as
agreed with the director and producer, and for negotiating their contracts.
Sometimes one casting director auditions major roles whilst one or more Local
Casting Directors hire supporting actors for location filming. Extras Casting
may be performed by a different person or agency from the speaking roles.
11
If any parts of a film need to be shot outside the studio, sites are selected by a
Location Manager, whose research is often aided by a Location Scout. The
location manager obtains permission to film from authorities or private owners
and negotiates any fees that must be paid. Throughout the shoot they are
responsible for liaising with area film councils or other relevant authorities.
Visual Design
The Production Designer has one of the most important jobs in a film, as they
are responsible for planning its whole look, from individual sets to overall colour
schemes. Normally one of the first people involved in the production, they
delegate specific tasks to other members of the crew who are in turn
responsible for creating designs on a more detailed level or for supervising or
executing the work needed to transform the designs into reality.
Set building is the responsibility of the construction department. Plans are
produced by a Draftsperson for the guidance of the Construction Manager.
The construction department includes a range of workers including Carpenters,
Plasterers, Painters, Sculptors, Drapers and Signwriters, who work with
materials purchased by the Construction Buyer. Standby Painters and
Standby Carpenters stay around after the set has been built to handle
alterations required during filming.
12
Once the basic sets are constructed, the art department takes over. Supervisory
responsibility is normally assumed by the Art Director, although sometimes the
roles of production designer and art director are combined. A Set Designer has
the duty of planning in detail the sets suggested by the head of department. A
Production Buyer is responsible for purchasing the required materials.
If flat pictures are used at the rear of the set to create the illusion of a space that
does not exist, this is the responsibility of the Scenic Artist. Sometimes the
background paintings are not physically incorporated into the set, but combined
through optical effects. These images are created by a Matte Artist and were
traditionally painted onto glass, although techniques are changing with the
growing sophistication of digital effects.
The Set Decorator is responsible for transforming a basic set into the illusion of
a complete environment, with all the details needed to make it look convincing.
They are normally assisted by a Lead Person, who is in charge of the Swing
Gang. This comprises miscellaneous personnel handling set dressing and
props, who often work overnight to ready the set for the next day’s filming. The
Set Dresser physically places the set dressing items, such as chairs and
tables. A Greensperson places and maintains any necessary foliage. The
Property Master provides mobile objects, such as books or kitchenware, which
may be handled by actors. These are maintained by a Property Assistant.
Some types of prop may be supplied and/or supervised by a specialist such as
an Armourer, who is responsible for weaponry.
13
The wardrobe department is headed by the Costume Designer, who works
with the director and the production designer to ensure the film has the desired
‘look’. The role of the Wardrobe Supervisor is to ensure that the outfits
specified by the costume designer are created, hired or purchased within the
budget. If costumes need to be made specially, this is done by a Seamstress
and Cutter/Fitter. The Wardrobe Master/Mistress and Wardrobe Assistants
maintain the costumes during production, supervising washing and mending as
well as ensuring that the costumes are available when and where they are
required. A Dresser may be employed to help the performers get in and out of
their outfits.
The Hairstylist is responsible for designing and maintaining hair and wigs.
Make-up Artists design and create the facial and body make-up effects
required for the performers (sometimes animal as well as human). The Special
Make-Up Effects credit belongs to artists who create more major alterations in
appearance. These may include the simulation of serious injuries or
disfigurements, or the transformation of an actor into a monster. Prosthetic
Makeup is a specialised task that generates radical transformations by
attaching latex or other materials to an actor’s skin, using prosthetic appliances
created by a Foam Technician.
Camera, Lighting, Electrical and Production Sound Departments
The Camera Crew is headed by the Director of Photography, who works
closely with the director. Together they select the camera(s) and film stock and
14
plan the camera angles and movements. The director of photography also takes
responsibility for selecting camera lenses and designing the lighting.
The director of photography may also operate the camera, but normally this
task is delegated to a Camera Operator. For multi-camera shooting, several
operators are needed, and these may be credited with such titles as B Camera
or Additional Camera. The camera operator may be supported by an
Assistant Cameraman, who is responsible for the care of the equipment, as
well as preparing the camera report, or dope sheet. The Clapper Loader has
various duties, including loading the camera with film and operating the
clapperboard at the start of each take. This board displays the film title, scene
number and take number. The clapper loader stands before the camera and
reads these details out before closing the hinged clapsticks. This device allows
the sound and image tracks to be accurately synchronised during post-
production as well as identifying the contents of a film strip or sound recording.
Although the traditional board is still in use, more sophisticated electronic
versions are now available. The Focus Puller ensures that the image remains
in focus, making adjustments when either the camera or the actors move. To
allow instant evaluation of takes, video footage may be recorded and played
back by the Video Assist Operator.
If a camera is required to move during the take, additional crew members are
needed. The Dolly Grip takes responsibility for the camera dolly, a wheeled
support which allows the camera to be moved along tracks. A 1973 invention
now allows a Steadicam Operator to move the camera in a special device
15
attached to his/her body, which minimises the shakiness of the operator’s
movements. A Crane Operator may be employed where a camera (and
sometimes its operator) needs to be elevated for very high angled shots.
The electrical department is headed by the Gaffer, who is responsible for
delivering the lighting effects required by the director of photography. The
gaffer’s first assistant is the Best Boy Electric (a title used irrespective of
actual gender) and the department also employs Electricians, or Sparks. A
Generator Operator may be needed where extra power is required, especially
common when shooting on location.
Since the demands of lighting placement are often complex, the gaffer relies
heavily on the Grips, physical labourers who handle and maintain a range of
equipment used on the set, and who are particularly associated with the lighting
and camera departments. The Key Grip works closely with the director of
photography, the camera operator and the gaffer in order to plan ways to meet
the physical requirements of lighting and camera movement. The key grip’s first
assistant is known as the Best Boy Grip. Construction Grips, or Riggers,
erect any scaffolding required for the camera or lighting, as well as helping to
disassemble and reassemble sets.
Some sound is normally recorded during filming, although much of the
soundtrack is created during post-production. On set, the Production Sound
Mixer is responsible for selecting microphones and supervising their placement.
Several different types may be used. These include microphones concealed
16
around the set – behind furniture, for instance – and radio microphones worn
under the performers’ clothing. A boom, or long rod, is often used to suspend a
microphone above the action and out of the camera’s range. This is handled by
the Boom Operator. The Cable Puller handles the masses of wiring that the
microphones require. The Sound Recordist operates the tape recording
equipment on the set.
Performers
The Stars and Supporting Actors are rarely the only performers in a film. Most
also use Extras, who perform small non-speaking roles, often as part of a
crowd. Many films also require Stunt Performers to execute potentially
dangerous physical actions, such as catching fire.
Some performers work as Doubles, imitating an actor who is unavailable, and
are often filmed in long shot or from a rear view. Stunt Doubles can be used to
create the illusion that an actor is performing his/her own stunts. Body Doubles
are used when an actor does not possess the required physical attributes or
where a star refuses to appear naked. Other performers are not seen physically
but feature on the soundtrack. These include Voice-over Artists, who are used
for spoken narration, and Voice Actors, who create the character voices in
cartoons. Sometimes the voice of a live actor is replaced, a practice especially
common when singing is required. The Hollywood star Rita Hayworth had her
Singing Voice recorded by several other artists, including Nan Wynn, Martha
Mears, Anita Ellis and Jo Ann Greer.
17
Stand-ins do not appear in the final film, but have a very important function.
During the preparation of a shot, when lighting is set up and camera
movements are rehearsed, they replace the actors in order to allow them time
to prepare for the scene in other ways, such as having their hair and make-up
fixed.
Other Production Crew
Most films require some special effects. This term normally refers to illusions
created on the film set, rather than in post-production. The department is
headed by the Special Effects Supervisor and its members may include such
crew as a Pyrotechnician, who is an expert in creating fires and explosions, a
Model Maker, a Puppeteer, and a Projectionist, who operates the equipment
needed for back projection. The special effects crew normally work closely with
other departments, such as make-up or stunts, so that there may be no clear
division between them.
Some other crew members commonly employed include Runners or
Production Assistants, Security Guards, a Maintenance Engineer, a Health
and Safety Advisor and a Unit Nurse. Additional services are required for
location work. The Transportation Captain organises the movement of actors,
crew members and equipment between sets and locations. A Transport Co-
ordinator may also be employed to supervise the availability of Drivers and
vehicles. Catering is a crucial service during the shoot, and is provided by a
18
company or group of individuals who supply the main meals to cast and crew.
The Craft Service maintains the availability of drinks and snacks throughout the
day.
Post-Production Sound
Music, sound effects and even some of the dialogue is recorded as well as
edited during post-production. The musical score is designed by a Composer,
who writes the main themes but may not provide detailed designs for each
moment of the film. A Music Arranger or Orchestrator may be also be
employed to adapt the composition for each part of the film for which music
needs to be recorded. If the score includes songs, then a Lyricist and one or
more Singers may be required. A Conductor may be employed during the
process of recording the Musicians. If the soundtrack uses non-original music,
then the duty of obtaining rights clearance falls to the Music Supervisor.
Sound effects are created by a Foley Artist, who recreates noises such as
slamming doors and jangling keys, using a variety of everyday items that are
often quite different from the objects they mimic. Dialogue rerecording is known
as ADR, or Automatic Dialogue Replacement. An ADR Editor is responsible for
recording the dialogue and matching it to the filmed lip movements.
Synthesising these different tracks normally involves an array of specialised
editors. These may include a Dialogue Editor, a Sound Effects Editor and a
Music Editor, who are all responsible to the Supervising Sound Editor. The
19
Sound Re-Recording Mixer combines the dialogue, sound effects and music
to create the final soundtrack.
Editing, Visual Effects, Animation and Titling
Processing and printing of the film is performed by laboratories, rather than
members of the film crew. The Editor is responsible for selecting shots from the
raw footage and arranging them into the order specified in the shooting script.
Further reworking is often supervised by the director. The editing process may
be done by physically cutting sections of the printed film strip, or may now be
done on a computer, using systems such as Final Cut or Avid. Much of the
technical and administrative work is performed by an Assistant Film Editor.
The photographed images may still require additions or modifications. Whereas
special effects are created in front of the camera, visual effects are added in
post-production under the direction of the Visual Effects Supervisor.
Alterations to the image may include erasing a boom or a light that has
accidentally got into the frame, integrating digitally created characters with live
action, or changing the colour of the sky so that shots filmed at different times
match up when edited together. Most visual effects work is now done using
computer technology. Some common crew members include Modellers and
Animators, who create the components that need to be integrated with live
footage, and Digital Compositors, who combine various visual elements.
20
An Animator creates a series of individual frames which produce the illusion of
movement when filmed sequentially. Animation may sometimes be incorporated
into live action films, but is often designed not to be perceptible as such. This
kind of work normally falls to the visual effects department. Some of the main
roles include the Key Animator, who creates strategic frames, such as the
poses a character takes at the start and end of a movement, and
Inbetweeners, who create the intermediate frames, guided by the dope sheet
on which the appointed timings are detailed. In cel animation, an Opaquer
colours in the outlines drawn onto each frame. Now that much animation is
done digitally, new roles have emerged such as Rendering, which involves
applying texture, colour and detail to the 3D ‘wire-frame’ contour of a character
or object, and Software Engineer, who designs and programmes the computer
systems.
The Title Designer is responsible for the placement of cast and crew credits,
and may also design the title sequence in its entirety. Much of the work is now
done digitally, as motion graphics have eroded the separation between pictures
and text. Sometimes a whole department is needed to create the title sequence,
if live action footage needs to be shot, animation needs to be created, or
complex visual effects are required. For this reason, the work is often
outsourced to dedicated title houses.
References
Baker, B. 2004. Let the Credits Roll : Interviews With Film Crew. Gardners Books. Cleve, B. 2005. Film Production Management. Focal Press; 3 edition.
21
Fairservice, D. 2002. Film Editing: History, Theory and Practice : Looking at the Invisible. Manchester University Press. Goodell, G. 1998. Independent Feature Film Production : A Complete Guide from Concept Through Distribution. St. Martin's Griffin; Rev&Updtd edition. Honthaner, E. L. 2001. The Complete Film Production Handbook, Third Edition. Focal Press. Kompanek, S. 2004. From Score To Screen: Sequencers, Scores, And Second Thoughts : The New Film Scoring Process. Schirmer Books. Malkiewicz, K. 1986. Film Lighting. Fireside; Reissue edition. Ondaatje, M. 2002. The Conversations : Walter Murch and the Art of Editing Film. Knopf. Scorsese, M. 2005. On Film-making : An Introduction to the Craft of the Director. Shand, J. 1990. Don't Shoot the Best Boy!: The Film Crew at Work. Currency Press. Silver, A., and Ward, E. 1992. The Film Director's Team. Silman-James Press. Squire, J.E. The Movie Business Book, Third Edition. Fireside; 3rd edition. Staiger, J. (1985a). The Hollywood mode of production to 1930. In D. Bordwell, J. Staiger, & K. Thompson (Eds.), The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960 (pp. 85-153). London: Routledge. Staiger, J. (1985b). The Hollywood mode of production, 1930-1960. In D. Bordwell, J. Staiger, and K. Thompson (eds.), The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960: 85-153. London: Routledge. Taub, E. 1995. Gaffers, Grips and Best Boys : From Producer-Director to Gaffer and Computer Special Effects Creator, a Behind-the-Scenes Look at Who Does What in the Making of a Motion Picture. St. Martin's Griffin.