Final paper.docx Curriculum Development

Running Head: Overview of Curriculum Development in Ecuador

EDCI 803

Curriculum Development

Overview of Curriculum Development in Ecuador

July 28, 2014

Ximena Naranjo


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Introduction

How do children learn best and how do teachers teach best to meet their students’ needs,

are two essential questions for curriculum development; these questions have been answered

through multiple perspectives and by many philosophers, psychologists, pedagogues and

sociologists through time. Teachers and students are the protagonists of the most important life

changing event in a person´s life “Education”. I mention two groups, but the process of education

involves more than teachers and students. It includes at the macro, meso and micro level, the

instructional contents, materials, resources, and evaluation of educational experiences. In broad

terms, the curriculum is everything that is related to the teaching and learning process.

Curriculum is frequently defined as “what is taught in the school” (Sorenson, Goldsmith,

Mendez, Maxwell, 2011, p. 96). Bobbit (1918) cited by Wiles and Bondi, (1998) define

curriculum in two ways: as the range of experiences both, indirect and direct concerned in

unfolding the abilities of the individual or as a series of consciously directed training experiences

that schools use for completing and perfecting the individual (Wiles & Bondi, 1998). It is also

important to cite other authors who see curriculum from different perspectives. Ralph Tyler, who

is cited by Wiles and Bondi (1998), states that “curriculum is all the experiences that individual

learners have in a program of education. Its purpose is to achieve broad goals and specific

objectives which are planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past or present

professional practices” (p.11). Hilda Taba (1945) described curriculum as a “plan for learning”,

(p.2), while Peter Oliva said it was “a plan or program for all the experiences which the learner

encounters under the direction of the school” (Armstrong, 1989, p.2; Wiles & Bondi, 1998).


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Incidentally, when referring to what is being taught in the school, it is important to

discuss the overt, explicit, or written curriculum, which is the written part of formal instruction of

school experiences (Oliva, 2005). The hidden, cover, or implicit curriculum, which relates to

rules, values, perceptions and attitudes that educators have about topics events or people. The

null, nonexistent, not present curriculum, which is the content that is deliberately avoided in

teaching sending students the message that is not important, because it is left out or overlooked

(Shambaugh & Magliaro, 2006). This combination, the implicit, explicit and null curriculums is

what every teacher presents to the students through multiple perspectives in different learning

experiences. Thus, meaningful learning is the result of what teachers present to students as a form

of curriculum- in- use (Oliva, 2005). Consequently, based on what is curriculum and how it is

enacted in the teaching learning process, it is essential for educators to look for the most

appropriate curriculum based contents, skills and values to contribute to the society in the

process of educating better human beings.

Specifically, this paper will discuss the basics of the curriculum development in the world

and in Ecuador as part of the strengthening process intended to improve an integral, integrated,

decentralized and flexible educational system. The Ecuadorian government is promoting a

structure to satisfy social and individual learning needs, support cultural identity and foment

unity and diversity. This new educational system wants to consolidate an intercultural society to

support Ecuador as a pluri-nationality and multi-ethnic country with democratic, critical,

inclusive, flexible, and universal education. This government also wants to base the educational

transformation on values, skills and knowledge that assure the competitive, productive, scientific

and technical development of Ecuador. The government intent is to reach our sustainable

development without compromising the ability of future generations.


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In sum, the general objective of education is to create an education inspired by ethic,

pluralistic, democratic, and scientific principles that promote respect for human and collective

rights. Education should develop critical thinking, foment civicism, and develop skills for

efficient work and production. It should also stimulate creativity and full development of the

personality. Through these personal skills, education encourages intercultural solidarity and

peace. That is to say, an education that prepares citizens for production of knowledge and for

working collaboratively.

Ultimately, the Ecuadorian government is promoting a sequence of changes at all levels and areas

of the curriculum with the Ten Year Education Plan 2006-2015 through two slogans that speak

by themselves. “Educamos para tener patria” “We educate to have a fatherland” and

“Educación un compromiso de todos para cambiar la historia” “Education is everybody´s

commitment to change history”. Hopefully the education planned for all the Ecuadorians does

that, prepares us to face life with multiple skills and through different perspectives.

Social Forces

Social and Cultural Influences in Curriculum

Social and cultural influences affect curriculum directly or indirectly. The influence is

direct, if the curriculum development processes are backed up by authorities, influential

politicians, governing bodies, federal legislation. These organizations restrict curriculum

developers from doing or not doing what is the most convenient for the schooling system and the

society. Indirectly, if community realities of the social and cultural environment put pressure on

curriculum specialists to make decisions, which sometimes were not planned (Armstrong, 1989).


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For instance, as a direct social influence, the Ecuadorian government signed the

Salamanca Treaty (1994) encouraged by the UNESCO to create a more inclusive education. The

Ecuadorian Constitution also enforces social justice and quality education for all Ecuadorians.

(Ministry of Education, 1994). There are several other direct influences in the Ecuadorian

Education system that guarantee children equal access to education (Plan Nacional del Buen

Vivir 2013-2017)

Indirect social influences are also part of the curriculum development. For example, the

students of second year of high school have to take three months of “Catedra de Montalvo” in

Language and Literature. Teachers from my city, Ambato, have to plan instruction based on

Montalvos´work, as the most prominent writer from Ecuador who was born in this city. This

addition to the curriculum was the result of the community in relation to the importance of Juan

Montalvo in Ecuador and Latin America (Ministerio de Educación, Acuerdo Ministerial No.

000198, 2006).

Socio economic influences. The country´s economy also affects the curriculum and

schools as a whole because the money movement revitalizes income in the society. Some

governments make cuts or improvements to the educational system budget, therefore, schools’

finances are affected by receiving more infrastructure and professional development. The

economic policies and the world recession are a big reason why schools facilities and curriculum

areas are affected (Brunner, 1940).

Ponce and Bedi (2010) stated that there are several economic problems in education.

They, along with the social problems, have affected the educational system in Ecuador. For

instance, the conditional cash transfer which goal is to influence the human accumulation of


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resources and reduce poverty impacts the Ecuadorian education, economy, and health. The ideas

of the government to give an amount of money to families who have no income and live in low

human conditions have helped to move the economy. Educational studies also demonstrate that

these programs helped to increase school enrollment, ensured regular school attendance and led

to a reduction in child labor (Ponce, and Bedi, 2010).

The American economy is undergoing a transformational process from predominantly

industrial production to information and service (Walker, 2003). Along the same line, the

Ecuadorian government established a rise of 15, 31% in the budget of education in the year 2014

(Ministerio de Economia y Finanzas, 2014). With this increase comes closer supervision on how

the education budget is spent. This plan aims at improving the quality and consistency of

teaching in Ecuador (Ministerio de Educacion, 2005).

Population diversity and migration. Society is becoming more multiethnic as

immigration and differential birth rates add physical and cultural differences to the population.

Families’ diversity also needs to be considered at the time of planning curriculum, divorce and

marriage or remarriage misplace children among families. Additionally, mobility weakens bonds

between generations. And as a result of this lack of parenting children relay more on peers for

emotional support (Walker, 2003). As a matter of fact, in the year 2013 there was a rise of 37.8%

of immigration in the country, without considering our population of mestizos, indigenous, and

afro-Ecuadorian among other ethnicities (Instituto Ecuatoriano de Estadisticas y Censos, 2014).

These characteristics are influential at the time of planning content, objectives, processes and

evaluation of the curriculum.


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Globalization. Taylor who is cited by Rizvi and Lingard ( 2009) states that neoliberal

discourses of globalization are embedded within a social imaginary and that this transformation

requires the exercise of collective political agencies in imagining the world differently (Rizvi &

Lingard, 2009 ). In general, globalization is a concept that includes the globe and the people

inhabiting it. Globalization relates to the interaction of people everywhere, anywhere and at any

time. Globalization relations don´t distinguish economic, political, cultural and technological

differences. Globalization affects education as it connects directly or indirectly with many school

related activities that teachers can use to develop knowledge. Globalization promotes the

development of education. Teachers and parents need to connect the dots between global and

local. They need to understand the depth of globalization in order to see the importance of

changing the way we thinking about teaching and learning (Sinagatullin, 2006).

Sinagatullin (2006) states that globalization “builds and destroys, ameliorates and

deteriorates, joins and separates, and performs many activities at a time”(p. 51). The author

compares globalization to language; it can be used for communicating, generalizing, ideas,

constructing educational programs, writing constitutions and laws, praising one´s colleagues and

their work, and educating children. On the other hand inappropriate language can humiliate

people and cause harm (Sinagatullin, 2006) .

Leadership. Leadership is a transactional process. School leaders have to link the

individual needs with the tasks of the organizations (Wiles & Bondi, 1998). Leithwood Jantzi

cited by Brundrett, Burton, and Smith (2003) identifies six major categories of leadership models

in education. The instructional style focuses on student learning; moral leadership considers that

there are particular duties of instructors who care for learners and states that values should


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predominate in leadership and it is also associated with democracy. Participative leadership

focuses on shared decision-making. Managerial is related to cold achievement of targets,

contingent leadership adapts the leader´s demands to the group and context. Jantzi also considers

that transformational leadership is the one that offers a comprehensive approach to leadership,

helping and serving present and future schools to respond productively to the new challenges

(Brundrett, Burton, & Smith, 2003).

Religion. According to the last census 2010, Catholicism is Ecuador´s primary religion. It

was in the 1800s after Ecuador won its independence from Spain. Today, the influence of

Catholicism can be seen throughout the country; from the architecture of old and new churches,

to the celebration of holidays in the country. Religious education contains sociologic doctrines,

customs and rites to live in community. The Ecuadorian State promotes freedom of cults and rites

as an Ecuadoran right, according to the United Nations Organization and the Ecuadorian

Constitution, 2008. Religion influences the Ecuadorian society giving special cultural

characteristics to the inhabitants. It affects education through the possibility of parents to choose

from the many religious private schools as option´s for schooling (Lara, 2009).The Ministry of

Education gave educational institutions an open prospect to insert religion in the institutional

curriculum that by consensus could apply it independently (Ley Orgánica de Libertad de Igualdad

Religosa, 2011).

Media. Shambaugh and Magliaro (2006) consider that media and technology are related.

Media carries messages and information for instructional purposes. Furthermore, the use of

media for instruction is based on the idea of instructional experiences. Students can see things

from different spaces and times. Media and technology can be combined for curriculum planning


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to gain students attention, inform objectives, stimulate prior learning, present new content,

provide learning guidance, prompt students’ performance, provide feedback, assess performance,

and enhance retention of learning (Shambaugh, & Magliaro, 2006).

The Ecuadorian Ministry of Education started a Project named EDUCA. It is a media

program which was promoted by executive decree N. 0233-13, 2013 to stimulate audiovisual and

multimedia educative content to strengthen the Ecuadorian community in the process of looking

for the “Good Living”. The “Ley Orgánica de Comunicación (2013) states that all of the media

channels have to transmit one hour of official programs of “tele-education” with content like

health and human rights. EDUCA generates innovative experiences for the community to support

the learning processes (Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador, 2013)

Technology. Society is being transformed by computers, and knowledge bases are

blowing up and have become totally uncontrollable in schools. Students develop academically

along new ways and through different lines. This innovative learning characteristic brings

challenges to curriculum improvement. Wiles and Bondi (2002) state that this technological era

and “the internet age brings with it new problems and lots of considerations. The web based

learning is highly individualized, nonlinear, traditional, deductive; logic of philosophy/ goals/

objectives/ programs/ activities/ lessons may not be appropriate procedure for curriculum

construction” (p. 127).

The government is trying to implement new technologies along with infrastructure to

provide schools with better facilities. For instance, The Millennium Schools offer technologically

equipped schools to the rural areas. These schools aim to reach a percentage of students who have

difficulty in accessing schools and provide these children from rural areas with mini libraries,


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facilities, computers, and tools for farming. This program supports teachers with continuous

technical assistance. The basic areas of studies are: mathematics, language and communication,

social studies, and natural science. Teachers from these schools are required to meet periodically

to share experiences, establish compromises and to implement innovation in their pedagogy of

education (Ministerio de Educacion, 2011)

History of Ecuadorian Educational Progress in Relation to Politics

The education system in Ecuador has had governments who prioritized their government

concentrated policies to country´s guidelines to reach high standards in Education. There was an

idea of having education as a privilege better than a human right for the Ecuadorians.

Politics, the major social force of Ecuador, influenced the educational development. Most of the

Ecuadorian presidents from Juan Jose Flores (1830) to Francisco Robles (1859) didn´t support

the country´s educational system. Except from Vicente Rocafuerte (1835) who founded schools,

high schools, museums, none of the other presidents empowered or gave importance to the

Ecuadorian Education (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, 2014; Palma, 2010).

Garcia Moreno encouraged important changes in public education in 1861. He planned

physical implementation of educational institutions, printing stores and polytechnic schools. The

new infrastructure made Ecuador the first country that considered education as a motor for

development in South America. Garcia Moreno brought a Curricular Project from Europe which

needed specialized people for implementation. That was how the Jesuit Priests came to Ecuador

to be in charge of elementary schools. The Christian congregations were also responsible for boy

institutions until they finished elementary education. The Sisters of Charity taught girls in the


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same level as well as established hospitals. Additionally, the Sisters of the Holly Heart were

brought for teaching high school students. Higher education was also led by German teachers

who gave a more specialized education.

The eighties was a time when obedience was the main premise for Ecuadorians. The

Liberalism, a political current, encouraged physical implementation; however, it was religion

centered. The progressive period of Ecuadorian political life couldn´t keep up with Garcia

Moreno´s changes and didn’t take care of education as Moreno did. The number of illiterate

people increased in the country after his government.

Eloy Alfaro, at the end of the XIX century, established education as a public, free,

compulsory, and religion free until the elementary level in 1897. The religion free education was

very difficult to apply as there were well structured religious groups that maintained educational

institutions. The Ecuadorian constitution of 1907 established the separation between the state

matters and religion as the first step of giving Ecuadorians the options to choose religion and

schooling. This separation also implied new educational processes that pursued utilitarian

knowledge. Eloy Alfaro created the first Normales institutions to form the new teachers for the

country. After the Liberal period of Eloy Alfaro, Ecuador suffered a time when governments

imposed their ideologies and personal doctrines. Every government had its own idea of

education, which was imposed as a personal policy, rather than State policy. Jose Maria Velasco

Ibarra again directed his eyes to education in 1946 with the Sixteenth Constitution. It stated that

education is the children´s right and parents ´obligation. The political variability of the time was

once again reflected in education. Ecuador couldn’t have curriculum development projects for

about seventeen years. The educational system couldn´t not give access to public education to all


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Ecuadorians nor could it develop well prepared teachers who provide the citizens with quality

education. However, The Junta Militar created a Literacy Program which improved adult literacy

as means or reducing illiteracy in rural areas. Higher education also faced problems with the

Central University, which was closed for three times due to social problems of that time.

After the Military Dictatorship, Ecuador had a time of bonanza due to the Petroleum

exploitation. Bilingual education was promoted and more schools were built in the highland

region. The democratic period started with Jaime Roldos Aguilera with a National Literacy Plan.

The first Organic Educational Law was created after our former president died. Later, the Law for

Professional Development was passed and teachers were more organized and stable (Palma,

2010).

The movement Education for Everybody promoted by UNESCO encouraged

governments to satisfy the children’s learning needs and guarantee free access to education.

However, by the year 2000, Ecuador couldn´t make a well-structured plan to include five year old

children in the regular process of education. Around the same time, Abdala Bucaran signed a

decree of education emergency in 1996. This was an excuse to abuse the educational budget

planned for building schools and implementation. This was the most corrupt time in Ecuadorian

political history (Palma, 2010).

The Ecuadorian president Jamil Mahuad in 1998 and the national Constitution of 1998

required from the state to guarantee equal conditions and opportunities. This Constitution stated

that education was an ethic, pluralistic democratic, humanistic, scientific and undeniable human

right. This constitution also guaranteed the education for people with special needs. It gave free

content options and prioritized the rural areas and borderlands communities. There were several


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improvements at that time: the new Higher Education Law, the strengthening of the kindergarten

education, and the division of the schooling process into two levels basic and high school. High

schools offered students several specialties: Sciences (Mathematics, Biology and Social

Education), Technic (Informatics, Accountant, Mechanics, Electronics). Even though there were

several improvements, the education system was still disorganized. The high school system

suffered a process of experimentation. Some institutions signed an agreement with the

Universidad Andina Simon Bolivar, offering an option for finishing the schooling system. The

other option was provided by the Ministry of Education creating disorganization (Palma, 2010).

Current Policy

Ecuador created new educational policies to reach new goals for education. The Ministry

of Education started the Pan Nacional para Todos 2003 - 2015 making new special agreements.

The National Consult of 2006 resulted in the acceptance of the Decenial Plan Objectives by a

67 .08% (5’030.612) which resulted in improvements in infrastructure and professional

development (p.29). Therefore, it is expected from the Ecuadorian State to guarantee equity,

intercultural, and inclusive education. The State has to respect human rights to strengthen unity in

diversity. The 2008 Ecuadorian Constitution also adds new policies to the educational system.

The creation of a new curriculum and the strengthening of the whole process of education is a

key element in this new law. Most importantly, it conceives education as a state duty, and

provides free access to higher education, if the assessment criteria are met. It is undeniable to say

that the most valuable contributions to education have been given during Rafael Correas´

presidency. His progressive policies revolutionized the idea of seeing education as a way to

change history (Palma, 2010).


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Five Major Educational Philosophies

School systems, choose their philosophy of education based on their views and values as

well as the society and political currents they are immersed in. The philosophy describes the view

of reality and idea of truth and goodness. In this way, the mission of the school and school system

is to find the best approach to guide the work (Wiles & Bondi, 1998).The root philosophies of

education are Perennialism, Idealism, Realism, Experimentalism, and Existentialism (Wiles &,

Bondi, 1998; Wiles & Bondi, 2002). However, four philosophies emerged from them to guide the

educational processes. These new currents are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism,

Deconstructionism (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).

Perennialism is a conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. It is based on the

view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths-especially related to God. It believes that

people find truth through reasoning and revelation and that goodness is found in rational

thinking. As a result, schools exist to teach reason and God's will. Students are taught to reason

through structured lessons and drills. Idealism believes in refined wisdom. It is based on the view

that reality is a world within a person's mind. It believes that truth is in the consistency of ideas

and that goodness is an ideal state to strive to attain. As a result, schools exist to sharpen the mind

and intellectual processes. Students are taught the wisdom of past heroes. Realism believes in the

world as it is. It is based on the view that reality is what we observe. It believes that truth is what

we sense and observe and that goodness is found in the order of the laws of nature. As a result,

schools exist to reveal the order of the world and universe. Students are taught factual

information. Experimentalism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on the

view that reality is what you experience. It believes that truth is what works right now and that


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goodness comes from group decisions. As a result, schools exist to discover and expand the

society we live in. Students study social experiences and solve problems. Existentialism believes

in the personal interpretation of the world. It is based on the view that the individua l defines

reality, truth and goodness. As a result, schools exist to aid children in knowing themselves and

their place in society. Students learn what they want and discuss subjects freely (Wiles & Bondi,

1998; Ornstein, & Hunkins, 1988). Oliva (2005) suggests that it is good for education to apply a

combination of several of these philosophies or approaches in order to provide a more inclusive

education. This combination is called Eclecticism (Oliva, 2005).

“Change Agents” of Curriculum in Ecuador

Everyone is a change agent in the Ecuadorian curriculum. It is a sociopolitical process

that involves the national level, the Executive, Legislative and Judicial powers. They contribute

with guiding principles and information to base the transformational process.

The social forces and social and management groups influence educational priorities. These

groups like Unions dictate expectations according to their needs. For instance, the Ecuadorian

government, the National Assembly and the Supreme Court are the most important organizations

ruling the country. There is a second step in the hierarchy when working in curriculum

development. This involves the Ministry of Education and the Sub- Secretary´s Office, which

both contribute with ideas. There is always a team of experts who are members from the cited

organizations who are put in charge of designing the macro and meso curriculum. They also

provide guidelines to teachers who in the end will be the Change Agents who put into practice

their guidance, their philosophy of teaching and the professional judgment at the time of working

to achieve the planned goals of education (Van Damme, Aguerrondo, Crespo, Robalino, 2013).

The philosophy that impacts curriculum in Ecuador


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Wiles & Bondi (1998) described the determinants for educational philosophies. The

authors considered that the philosophies are based on three criteria: What is good? What is true?,

and What is real?. However, the answer to these questions may be up to individual perceptions of

goodness (axiology - values), truth (epistemology – mediums of learning) and reality (ontology-

reality, substance of learning) (Wiles & Bondi, 1998).

The Ecuadorian education philosophy is to generate social opportunities to improve the

Ecuadorian quality of life and contribute to the reduction and elimination of poverty (Ministerio

de Educación del Ecuador, 2006). Ideally, our education will improve the equal of resources,

distribution, and improve the Ecuadorian economy through science, technology and innovation.

Additionally, productivity and competency developed appropriately will give to the country´s

sustainable development. Education´s function is also to develop learnings that enable children

and adults to make good use of their rights and responsibilities to participate in public and private

spaces. Additionally, the Ecuadorian educational system wants to include pluricultural and

multiethnic feelings, which will revive our cultural tangible and intangible patrimony to

consolidate our national identity (Consejo Nacional de Educación, 2006). The Ecuadorian

educational principles are equity of education, quality of education, belonging, inclusion,

efficiency, participation, unity, continuity, flexibility, and alternativeness. What is more

important, the Ecuadorian education develops values like honesty, justice, respect, peace,

solidarity, responsibility, plurality, ethics, democracy, humanity, investigation. (Ministerio de

Educación del Ecuador, 2006; Hacia el Plan Decenal de Educación del Ecuador, 2006).

Even though the idea is well described and incudes values, mediums of learning and the

substance of learning, I have to admit that the president´s philosophy and the curriculum

specialists will mark the processes. We will never have a pure structure, the team perceptions and


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social and educational forces will add specific details to the present and oncoming projects. In

sum, according to my description, I can say that Ecuador´s educational philosophy is primarily

Progressive and social Reconstructionist.

Aspects of Psychology and Child development that Affect Curriculum Development

Several psychologists, sociologists, and pedagogues have researched about human cognition.

Piaget, Vygotsky, Havighurst, Erickson, and Gilligan have described the aspects of psychology

that affect human learning in multiple theories.

The psychologist Jean Piaget described children cognitive progress in a series of four

stages. Each stage of development and characteristics shows how children develop and

understand the world. Piaget considered that children are natural discoverers and that they try to

explore and make sense of the world around them through their curiosity. Piaget developed a

phase theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages: the sensorimotor

stage, from birth to age 2; the preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7; the concrete

operational stage, from age 7 to 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins in

adolescence and spans into adulthood (Wiles & Bondi, 1998).

Vygotsky is one of the most important contemporary psychologists. Vygotsky´s

framework states that children construct their knowledge and that learning can lead them to their

development. Besides, he claims that children´s development is associated with and through

their social context which also involves language. Besides, Havighurst describes three sources for

human developmental tasks: the biological, psychological and cultural areas (Wiles & Bondi,

1998). He describes tasks that relate to physical maturation, for example learning to walk, talk,

and control of bowel and urine. He describes behaviors and acceptable manners to the opposite


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sex and adjusting to changes like menopause. There were a second group of tasks that related to

personal values like choosing an occupation, or determining philosophical perspectives. A third

group related to tasks that were originated in social pressure like learning to read, or be

responsible citizen. Based on this theory, teachers can find out the “teachable moment” which is

the time that is the most appropriate to teach (Wiles & Bondi, 1998).

Erickson explained the human development of personality in eight stages from infancy to

adulthood. Each sequential stage determines that a person confronts, and masters, different

challenges. However unsuccessful completion of any stage may cause problems in the future

development. Erickson stages are described by their psychosocial aspects and their human basic

virtues according to the learners´ age: infancy, trust and mistrust and hope; early childhood,

autonomy, shame, and will; play age, initiative and guilt and purpose; school age, industry and

inferiority and competency; adolescence, ego identity and role confusion and fidelity; young

adult, intimacy and isolation and love; adulthood, generativists and stagnation and care; and

maturity, ego integrity and despair and wisdom (Sowell, 2000).

Ausebel’s theory described how individuals relate new knowledge to relevant concepts

they already know. This new knowledge interacts with the learner’s knowledge previous structure

to develop meaningful learning. Ausubel believes that the students’ knowledge is hierarchically

organized. He said that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what

the students already know (Wiles & Bondi, 1998). Moreover, Kohlberg Stages of Moral

Development describe how humans develop their morality trough six stages grouped into three

categories: pre - conventional, conventional and post - conventional. Children at the pre-

conventional level are only interested in securing their own benefit. The conventional level


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determines learning about rules and authority. The post- conventional level demonstrates that

children can make differences between what is right and wrong in the moral aspect and in

relation to rules (Wiles & Bondi, 1998). Along the same line, Gilligan describes his theory of

moral development in three groups: Individual survival (from selfishness to responsibility), self-

sacrifice and social conformity (from goodness to truth) and morality and nonviolence (Morales,

2014).

Summary of Psychology. A good way to plan curriculum for the students’ developmental

needs is to include perspectives, the human learning psychology and the teaching philosophies.

That is to say how learners evolve in their cognitive, physical, emotional, moral, and social areas

and how the people involved in education plan education considering those needs. The

curriculum design has to consider the developmental characteristics that help educators; parents

and psychologist understand and differentiate between their development stages from the

sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete to the abstract stages. The behaviors and highlights

which determine that a person is going through the process of childhood, puberty or adulthood

have to be known and addressed carefully. Curriculum has to consider the profound intellectual,

physical and emotional changes in development. Additionally, age and development

characteristics make learners´ thinking become more complex; conversely, curriculum has to

include all of these characteristics from multiple perspectives. In sum, curriculum specialists have

to understand the instructional needs of students to support their physical, cognitive, social and

emotional development (Wiles & Bondi, 1998).

Needs of the Curriculum


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Ralph Tyler cited by (Armstrong, 1989) described three sources of the curriculum, the

society, the learners and the subject matter. So, in this way the curriculum has to fill the needs of

the society mediated by the philosophies of education and psychology of learning. According to

Tyler´s point of view, Ecuadorian curriculum must provide the society education based on

quality, equity, inclusion, belonging, flexibility, and efficiency as the main characteristics. The

curriculum needs to articulate different components of the national education through the

compromise and participation in the social construction, with implementation of projects that

promote human development to satisfy the socio educative requirements of the community.

(Armstrong, 1989; Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador, 2006)

Essential Elements in the English Curriculum

English as a Second Language needs to develop the communicative competence by

developing the linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences in the learner with a good

level of fluency of reading speaking, reading and writing based on the principles of

communication.

According to the Curriculum Guidelines 2012:

“The main objective of the present English curriculum design is to help students develop

their communicative language skills through the consideration of the following principles:

• Language is a system for the expression and conveyance of meaning.

• The primary function of language is interaction and communication.

• The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses (p.5)

Models of Curriculum Development

Amstrong, (1989) describes a list of tasks that curriculum specialists should develop at the

time of working on curriculum construction. These are some of the steps that different models


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have followed, and they can serve as a guide to follow depending of the educational needs.

Identify needs and purposes, select and organize participants, develop a master program and

management scheme, develop components needed for each setting, pilot tests, assess and

reorganize, disseminate and implement, evaluate and revive (Amstrong, 1989)

Tyler’s Rational – Linear Approach. Ralph W. Tyler stated that there are four guiding

questions when developing curriculum. These four questions guide curriculum specialists when

selecting objectives, learning experiences, organizing learning experiences and evaluating in a

sequential order. That is why Tyler’s model is known as rational- lineal model. Tyler also

identified three sources of knowledge: learners, the society and subject matter. He explained that

these sources determine the objectives. The educational philosophy and psychology of learners

are screening processes for analyzing the objectives. The next step is to identify learning

experiences which are different learning activities that will help the students to obtain the

objectives. The third concern of Tyler is how to organize the learning experiences in order to

meet the objectives. Finally, Tyler considers that evaluation determines if the objectives are

achieved by identifying changes in the students’ behavior (Oliva, 2005; Tyler, 2013).

The Taba Model. Hilda Taba suggested an inductive approach to curriculum

development. She considered that teachers should design the curriculum rather than the higher

authorities. Taba Model of developing the curriculum includes a series of steps. The first step is

diagnosis of the students’ needs. The second one is formulation of objectives. The third step is

the selection of content. The fourth step is the organization of content. The fifth step is the

selection of learning experiences, which will help the students learn the content. The final step is

the evaluation (Oliva, 2005).


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Eisner’s Artistic Approach. Elliot W. Eisner designed seven components in his

curriculum development model. He included goals and priorities. The second is the content of

the curriculum. The third one is the types of learning opportunities. The fourth is the

organization of learning opportunities and the fifth is the organization of content areas. The sixth

is the mode of presentation and mode of response. The last is the types of evaluation procedures

(Oliva, 2005).

Peter Oliva´s Model. Peter Oliva´s model is very useful for educators. Oliva’s model

presents a good framework for schools curriculum development and for instruction. Besides,

authorities and faculty can use this model to make pragmatic decisions of the curriculum

structure, or use it as a guide for instruction. It has twelve components divided into planning

phases and operational phases, characteristics that make it easy to follow. It illustrates a step-by-

step process of developing the curriculum from specifying the needs of students in general and

the needs of the society, to evaluating the curriculum, something which is similar to what Tyler

describes as the philosophical and psychological screening. Oliva suggests a comprehensive and

systematic model combining a scheme for curriculum development and a design for instruction.

One important feature of this model is the feedback lines that evaluate the curriculum goals as

well as the instructional goals. This model shows the requirement for constant adjustment of the

components of the sub-cycles. Oliva´s model integrates two sub-models: the curriculum sub-

model and the instructional sub-model. The curriculum sub model includes mostly the planning

stages and it cannot be completed if it is not transformed into the instructional sub

model. Oliva’s model answers the limitations of the Taba model in terms of diagnosing only the

need of the students before formulating the objectives (Oliva, 2005).

What knowledge is of worth?


23

Curriculum should include knowledge that promotes intellectual development and the

organization of new cognitive skills. The curriculum should embrace contents as means of

learning to develop the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills. It should also contain

subjects that are wide and deep related to human environment, and that can help humans develop

personally and professionally in the local setting, but also at national and international level. (ICE

47, 2004)

The Levels of Control

Planning curriculum takes many important ascendant levels. People involved in education

have decreasing opportunities to participate in this process as planning into upper levels to help

the members reach the goals. Classroom planning is the most important step in curriculum

control because this is where the curriculum impacts on the leaners. All of the teachers in their

classrooms at educational institutions participate in the curriculum development. The second step

is the schools; most teachers participate in curriculum planning at the school level. Third, the

district, level at where some teachers contribute to the process. The regional, national and

international levels also give fewer curriculum specialists to participate in the curriculum

development process. Each step gives curriculum planners unequal.

Personally, teachers have to promote constructive relations among the members of the

community, evaluate permanently according to the current law, and provide an inclusive

education according to the students’ cultural and linguistic diversity. Support the students

learning process; develop competencies, knowledge, abilities and attitudes. Coordinate with the

authorities the curriculum work to guarantee permanent inclusion in the learning process.

Promote physical, psychological and sexual integrity respecting the students´ human rights


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At the classroom level, the teachers are classroom managers and counselors, they have to

understand student learning needs, it is their responsibility to supervise the children assuring a

good process as well as their safety. Teachers also have to work collaboratively with colleagues

to build the institutional curriculum in a student friendly way.

The district makes the human resources department, control and citizen support, regulates and

administers school finances and risk management. The districts help to organize and unify

schools making Educational Unities.

The Ministry of Education is in charge of planning the national education, establish the

best criteria and regulate the educational processes. This organization sets the technical and

quantitative and qualitative parameters that contribute with accessibility, quality and equity to all

children and adolescents to the all modalities, elementary, and high school public and private day

and night shifts. This institution plans educational development programs including national

organizations, educational institutions and he society in general so that they join forces to

contribute to the economic and social development of the country.

Education systems around the world have two modalities, the centralized system and the

decentralized system. Centralized system, the federal or national ministry offices found in most

developed countries and private schools tend to handle the old curriculum. The state provides the

framework for schools and schools work on the curriculum framework for different subjects

outsourcing is explored. The Centralized system is handled by the government and holds all

power and decision making authority, it focuses on nation building and national developing

curriculum as its locations. The ministry of education and the curriculum development center

exercises close supervision on what happens in schools so all of the curriculum systems are made


25

by agency bodies, like state departments, district education offices and so on. There are many

contributor of the curriculum. In some countries some groups take leading roles. The Ecuador the

National level policy makers from the ministry of education, they decide almost everything about

the curriculum that should be implemented at the school level. And also include special groups’

professor vocational professor and curriculum specialist (Ornstein, 1988).

Roles of Curriculum Developers

Teachers are the initiators and change agents in the process of the curriculum

development. Teachers plan, design, revise and collaborate units and lessons to deliver in class

every day. Teachers have to be knowledgeable about the teaching practice and present the best

clinical expertise available (Ornstein, 1988)

Principals and authorities play an important role in this process. They know the school

organization, climate, and people in the institutions. Authorities set the tone in the schools

creating an atmosphere for good working relationship. They are willing to take risks and deliver

dynamic programs as well an implementing them in the institutions. A principal is a facilitator

who fosters professional growth and leadership and skills (Ornstein, 1988). Facilitators and

coordinators also contribute with the development of curriculum. These people concentrate the

process of implementation and evaluation. Supervisors monitor the curriculum during the entire

development and implementation. The supervisors provide direction and guidance. They work

collaboratively and give leadership responsibilities to other members of the team. They keep

channels for communications assisting to the total faculty (Ornstein, 1988).

Curriculum police makers

This is the group of experts who have the responsibility of developing he curriculum at

the macro level. They are accountable for including all professional organizations and most


26

particular legal groups into the project. They can be part of state, local boards of education, tax

payers, parents, and students. National level policies makers decide almost everything what

should be implemented in the schools. They include specialist and consultants from other

countries too.

Selecting the Appropriate Curriculum Model: Oliva´s Model

The curriculum development process includes a series of steps that need to be planned,

implemented and assessed carefully. Considering the different elements described by Tyler,

Taba, Eisner, Saylor Alexander and Lewis, and Oliva, I have chosen Oliva´s model as a pattern to

follow at the time to develop curriculum at the macro, meso, and micro levels. Some of them

have similarities while others are entirely different. Some are linear, inductive and prescriptive

while others are deductive and prescriptive. However, all of them include parts of the previous

models which were updated and modified according to the needs.

I will describe how the curriculum can be developed according to Peter´s Oliva´s eyes.

Peter Oliva’s Model has twelve components divided into components for curriculum

development and for instruction. It illustrates a step-by-step among the 12 planning and

operational stages. This process of developing curriculum goes from specifying the needs of

students in general and the needs of the society to evaluating the curriculum.

Planning the Curriculum

Rationale. Every country and school curriculum should be authentic and integrated. It

must address the children´s needs. It should teach students how to learn while encouraging

creativity innovation and collaboration. It has to develop high order thinking skills and problem

solving. Planning implementation and evaluation are systematic processes at the time of thinking

of curriculum development. The educational system members have to be self- accountable of


27

their roles and responsibilities to achieve the aims goals and objectives of education. Students

need a constructivist approach developing methodologies and strategies that promote

communication, collaboration, and hands-on instructional experiences.

The curriculum has to be adapted to the society and students’ needs responding to the

evolution of time. It has to be updated constantly including community as change agents of the

process. It has to consider the society evolution, technology and new knowledge as fundamental

changes based on group decisions. Curriculum needs planning, monitoring, evaluation and

support by adequate internal and external resources. The learners’ knowledge evolution and

technology updates have to be combined with the needed time for reaching the goals and

qualified personnel. Curriculum changes look for finding out how learners become independent

and productive individuals, socially competent and effective contributors with the society. Thus,

curriculum has the responsibility to prepare students to face today´s challenges combining roles

consistent with the purpose of education (Sowell, 2000)

Component I: Identify the Aims of Education and their Philosophical and

Psychological Principles. Curriculum developers need to state the aims of teaching based on the

educational philosophy and psychological principles. Oliva considers that students´ needs the

society and the subject matter need to be well-thought-out when stating the aims of education

screened by the philosophical and psychological principles. This approach is similar to Tyler’s

considerations for selecting the objectives (Oliva, 1992).

Peter Oliva´s model starts with stating the aims of education and the philosophical and

psychological principles. The aims proposed by Oliva come from the society, the individual

needs and the subject matter as the same as Tyler´s model. Additionally, Sowell (2000) stated


28

that educational aims are extensive declarations that provide form and course to a set of more

complete targets for the future. Aims are “Philosophical and long term” (p. 145) “Aims show the

direct target, thus an effort directed to a specific end” (Saylor & Alexander, 1974).

The National Education Association reported seven Aims for education in 1918 calling

them The Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education “Health, command of fundamental

processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical

character” (Flinders & Thornton, 2013, p. 399). They were considered as guiding educational

aims of that time. Along the same line as the system looks for aims for the 21st century, the

cardinal aims are reaffirmed as they are still looking for educating “Whole persons”. These aims

deal with general processes of education, they transform into goals when they narrow into a

school system and subject. The educational aims for a changing world are abilities to

communicate effectively, ability to work as a team member, preparedness to face chances and

challenges, flexibility, preparedness to identify and solve problems, skill in analysis and

conceptualization, capacity and willingness to learn new things, ability to question challenges and

innovate, willingness and capacity to assume personal responsibility, and capacity for self-

reflection and self- management (Flinders & Thornton, 2013).

According to the Ecuadorian Good Living plan 2013- 2017 these are the aims for the Ecuadorian

Life:

“To Foster Social and Territorial Equality, Cohesion, and Integration with Diversity ; To

Improve the Citizens’ Capabilities and Potentialities; To Improve the Quality of Life of

the Population; To Guarantee the Rights of Nature and Promote; a Healthy and

Sustainable Environment ; To Guarantee Sovereignty and Peace; to Promote Ecuador’s


29

Strategic Insertion in the World, and Latin American Integration; To Guarantee Stable,

Fair and Dignified Work in its Diverse Forms ; To Build and Strengthen Public and

Intercultural Spaces for Social Interactions ; To Affirm and Strengthen National Identity,

Diverse Identities, Plurinationalism and Interculturalism ; Objective 9: To Guarantee

Rights and Justice ; To Guarantee Access to Public and Political Participation; To

Establish a Sustainable Socio-economic System Based on Solidarity ; To Build a

Democratic State for Good Living” (Secretaria Nacional de Planificación y Desarrollo,

2013, pp.70-82).

Component II Analyze the needs of the community. Peter Oliva considers that the

needs of particular students in particular locations have to be measured because they vary from

place to place. It is also important to identify the needs of the curriculum which are related to the

students, society and subject matter.

Tyler considers that students have physical needs like necessity of food water activity,

likes. He also describes the students ‘social needs of affection, belonging, status, respect. Among

the students ‘needs it is described the philosophy of life which determines the vision and attitudes

to see their own lives. Both, Tyler and Oliva recognize human beings regardless of races, social

or economic status. They consider that human beings must have equal opportunities to participate

in social activities.

Component III Specify curriculum goals. Curricular goals are based on aims and

beliefs. Goals consider the students’ needs the community and the subject matter. In general,

goals are statements of end points or outcomes of education. They reflect the philosophical

preferences; they determine the scope of an education program. They are specific statements


30

used as guidelines to achieve particular purposes. Goals come from aims and provide instructors

with broad statements of what they can accomplish in terms of students learning as a result of a

subject or educational programs (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).

Goals are statements of the intended outcomes of education. They are considered the

building blocks of educational planning. Goals have different levels of specificity. The

association for Supervision and Curriculum development, a national organization of curriculum

specialist proposed a group of learning goals “that reflected the holistic nature of individuals”

they proposed ten major goals for youth: self-esteem, understanding others, basic skills, interest

and capability for continuous learning, responsible members of society, mental and physical

health, and creativity (Wiles & Bondi, 2002, p. 104).

Component IV Specify Curriculum Objectives. Oliva defines this stage for planning

general objectives, pragmatic objectives and expectations, Wiles & Bondi (2002) describe three

levels of objectives: the Level I objectives that are broad goals or purposes, formulated at the

district level by councils or school boards, they are seldom revised. The level II goals that are

general, but more specific than level I formulated at school or department level, they contain an

outline of process to accomplish Level I objectives. And the Level III objectives that are

behaviorally stated, they are formulated by teams of teachers or single teachers. These level

objectives describe expected results, the evidence for assessing outcomes and level of

performance. Behavioral objectives contain three essential elements: an observable action

demonstrating learning, the description of the condition under which the behavior is expected and

the criteria of the acceptable performance.


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Objectives.Objectives are statements that enable curriculum decision makers, developers,

teachers and students and community members find out the particular intent of a particular action

(Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988). Objectives are more specific than goals. They are used as a basis of

instructional development at school. Saylor & Alexander (1974) state that objectives are overt

changes in student behavior, the ones that are expected to obtain from participation in a unit of

learning activities, the objectives help to develop goals. Objectives are statements that enable

curriculum decision makers, curriculum developers, teachers, and even students and members of

the society identify the particular intent of an action. Objectives that are stated precisely will

improve the quality of teaching and learning. Besides, they have to be meaningful and useful in

guiding educators (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).

Hilda Taba cited by Ornstein, and Hunkins (1988) considered that educational objectives

can be of two sorts: the ones that describe school wide outcomes and the ones that describe the

behavior to be obtained after a unit or a subject course or a grade level program. The general

curriculum objectives related to subject or grade level and unit objectives and unit or lesson

objectives classroom level. Along the same line Robert Zais cited by Ornstein and Hunkins,

(1988) classify school objectives as curriculum goals and specific objectives as curriculum

objectives.

Components of objectives. Ornstein and Hunkins (1988) consider that objectives either

behavioral or none behavioral refer to specific characteristics intended to the learners. They

describe an environmental condition in which the students perform. However, the behavioral

objectives describe the conduct and the statement of the criterion or acceptable performance

explicitly (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).


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Guidelines for Formulation Objectives. Educators must pay attention to several aspects at the

time of formulating objectives for example: Matching: Objectives must be related to the goals

and aims. Worth: Obtaining objectives must have values for students at present and future paying

attention to updated knowledge. Wording: Use of appropriate words stating the intended purpose.

The types of objectives must describe a general subject, grade objectives, unit objectives, lesson-

plan objectives. All of them must meet the descriptive criteria. Appropriateness: Pay attention to

the instructional and content demands. Logic grouping: Objectives have to show good

organization and coherence. Periodic revision: Curriculum developers need to analyze the

objectives through the time because students, society, realm of knowledge and instructional

strategies change constantly ((Wiles & Bondi, 1998).

Behavioral Objectives.Ornstein, and Hunkins, (1988) state that behavioral objectives are

statements of outcomes in terms of observable performance expected of students after instruction.

These objectives describe the behavior of the learner, at demonstrating the achievement of the

objective, the condition under which the students will determine the mastery of the objective and

the level of acceptable proficiency. They are clear, people know what they mean and determine

the extent of the outcomes. They use words like “name”, “describe” “solve” “write” “build”

(Ornstein, & Hunkins, 1988). Behavioral objectives help to identify the specific objectives to be

changed, increase the interschool and intraschool communication, direct instructional activities in

the classroom, and provide a meaningful basis for evaluation. However they are sometimes too

simple as the human behavior is a more than the sum of the parts, they do not consider the human

activity, limit choice of alternatives, and the learning in the classroom (Willes & Bondi, 1998)


33

On the other hand, nonbehavioral objectives are general in wording and use words like

“appreciate” know” “understand”. Ornstein and Hunkins (1988) state that objectives describing

high order learning are not considered in this group as they don´t allow precise measurement.

Taxonomic Levels of Objectives. Curriculum developers need to pay attention to the

cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning. The best classifications of learning

objectives are proposed by Benjamin Bloom, David Krathwohl and Anita Harrow.

The Cognitive Domain. Benjamin Bloom proposed a cognitive taxonomy. It has been the most

familiar and the greatest influence in the formation of objectives. The levels of Bloom´s

taxonomy are: Knowledge, this level includes objectives that recount knowledge facts,

terminology and means of dealing with specific conventions and universal abstractions.

Comprehension, relates to translation, interpretation and extrapolation of information.

Application, describes the use of abstraction in particular situations. Analysis, describe objectives

when students have to break a whole into parts, elements, relationship and organizational

principles. Synthesis, it is to put parts together in a new form developing unique communication,

plan for operation setting for abstract relationships. Evaluation, this is the highest complex level

they describe internal evidence or logical consistency in the content (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).

The affective Domain. David Krathwohl presented the taxonomy of objectives in the affective

domain. The levels of Krathwohl s Taxonomy are: Receiving, which is related to the learners

sensitivity. It includes awareness, willingness to receive, and select attention. Responding, this

refers to the learners’ active attention to stimuli like acquiescence, willing responses, and feelings

of satisfaction. Valuing, this describes the learners believes and attitudes of worth like

acceptance, preference, commitment. Organization, this describes internalization of values and


34

beliefs like conceptualization and organization of a new value system. Characterization, this

relates to the behavior that reflects the highest level of internalization of values a generalized set

of principles and a characterization of the philosophy of life (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).

The Psychomotor domain. Anita Harrow developed the taxonomy of the psychomotor domain

according to this description. Reflex movements include segmental and intersegmental reflexes.

Fundamental movements are related to running, jumping, pushing, pulling, and manipulating.

Perceptual abilities are kinesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile and coordination abilities. Physical

abilities like strength, flexibility, agility, reaction- response time and dexterity. Skilled

movements are objectives related to games, sports, dances, and the arts. Nondiscursive

communication related to expressive movements like postures, gestures, facial expressions, and

creative movements (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).

Planning for Instruction

Curriculum developers have to establish the instructional goals and objectives clearly. It includes

the validation process deciding on instructional strategies and approaches. Wise planning is the

first and the most important step for effective curriculum. Teachers must know what they need to

accomplish and how they are going to do it. They have to consider macro objectives, the national

standards, and objectives for subject and year. Start visualizing instruction in terms of

methodologies, strategies, contents, materials and evaluation over a period of time.

Component V Organize and Implement the Curriculum. Organize and implement

curriculum stablishing its structure. Oliva suggests a linear model. It follows a certain order or

sequence of progression through the various steps. The term “linear” is used for models whose


35

steps proceed in a more or less sequential, straight line from beginning to end. This is a deductive

model as it proceeds from the general (examining the needs of society to the specific specifying

instructional objectives. It is a descriptive model suggesting what ought to be done. However,

curriculum workers should exercise judgment as to the entry points and analyze the

interrelationships of components of the models to see what is applicable to the individual, society

and subject matter needs ( Oliva, 2005).

Instructional Goals and Objectives

Component V I Specify Instructional Goals. Oliva´s model requires objectives for each

level and subject. Instructional goals are reports of presentation estimated of each student in a

class, phrased in overall terms without standards of achievement. They are programmatic. They

refer to the accomplishment of individual students and are derived from the macro curriculum to

the class. They are statements of performance expected of each student in a class. They are

phrased in general terms without criteria of achievement.

Component VII Specify Instructional Objectives. Additionally, this model requires

instructional objectives. They are statements of performance to be demonstrated by each student

in the class, derived from an instructional goal, and phrased in observable and descriptive terms.

Component VIII Select Strategies. Instructional strategies the teaching styles and

teaching skills are chosen and implemented to fulfill educational goals and objectives.

Instructional strategies come from a multiple sources like the objectives, the subject matter,

students the community and the teacher. For example, teachers have different teaching methods,

specific competences, generic skills that teachers are good at. Oliva (2005) states that


36

“instructional strategies must be appropriate to the teacher style, model and skill” (Oliva, 2005, p.

370).

Teachers have to choose instructional strategies for working with students considering that

students must have new experiences. Good selections of strategies give them the opportunity to

practice the kinds of behaviors implied by the objectives. They need to obtain satisfaction from

carrying learning outcomes. Strategies need to consider the reactions desired in the experience

within a range of possibilities for the students involved. It is very important to contemplate the

learning practices that develop thinking skills and let students acquire information, develop social

attitude, and motivates interest.

Component IX Preliminary Selection of Evaluation. Good selections of evaluation

techniques, refine, add and complete the range of means to evaluate pupil performances. This

stage finds out how far the learning experiences were developed and organized and if they are

producing the desired outcomes in the evaluation. This stage will identify strengths and

weaknesses of the plan. Oliva (2005) says that evaluation instruction must begin at the time of

selecting instructional goals. He implies the need of pre assessment for identifying the

prerequisite knowledge and the other at the end to identify if students achieved the goals. He also

considers that formative assessment helps to monitor the students’ progress (Oliva 2005).

Component X Implementation of Instructional Strategies. Curriculum evaluators have

to analyze the objectives to see what they want to evidence, and then identify the situation that

will give students the opportunity to see the expected behavior. Instructors have to examine the

available instructional instruments to see if they are going to serve the purpose desired. It is


37

mandatory to look for means of recording the students’ behavior. Additionally, develop an

evaluation instrument analyzing if it meets the criteria of objectivity, reliability, and validity.

Component XI Final Selection of Evaluation. Evaluation of instruction has to be

planned carefully. It has to cover the three domains cognitive, psychomotor, and affective.

Evaluation is an integral part of the instructional development process. It is the most reliable step

for continuous improvement in the curriculum process. It provides constant feedback to improve

instruction as well as to rebuild the curriculum if needed.

Component XII Evaluation of Curriculum. Oliva (2005) concludes that there is no

fixed model of curriculum to follow. They can be changed or modified according to after a

process of evaluation. The evaluation of curriculum goal is to improve the school program. All

aspects of evaluation must adhere to the planned criteria. The process of evaluation provides

curriculum developers information about the degree to which the aims were met. Teachers and

school administrators must be involved in the process of evaluation. The evaluation provides

information about how well curricula met the aims. Evaluators collect data from school staff and

community members to provide additional information on the effectiveness of the curriculum.

Evaluators examine both processes and product to analyze and interpret data in terms of

limitations. The outcomes result in decisions about continuation and modification of the

curriculum (Sowell, 2000). The evaluation of the curriculum must consider the scope of the

curriculum, the relevance of the content, Integration of disciplines, sequence, continuity,

articulation, transferability (Oliva, 2005)


38

Conclusion

Teachers are curriculum developers. The classroom gives educators the opportunity to develop

instruction, the most important step in the education process. Teachers bring to the classroom

their strengths and pedagogical philosophies which impact the students through their education.

Several authors cited in this review said that curriculum is a program. It refers to the plans or

programs for the learning experiences that the students encounter under the direction of the

school. Whereas, instruction is the method. It is the means for making the curriculum operational.

Instruction includes the techniques that teachers use to make curriculum more available to the

learners. Both curriculum and instruction are combined when planning, implementing and

evaluating educational changes.

Curriculum development occurs on several levels hierarchically: classroom, grade,

school, district, and state. Therefore, teachers, school leaders, authorities, community members,

parents, professional personnel, and curriculum specialists are all involved in this process. Some

of them take leadership in the development, but all of them are influenced by several social forces

that implicitly or explicitly affect the changes.

Instructional outcomes must be identified in three major domains: cognitive, affective,

and psychomotor. Indeed, the taxonomies for each domain organize objectives in a categorized

mode. By extension, aims, goals, and objectives are planned carefully. Likewise, aims of

education and society are considered nationally and internationally. Curriculum specialists plan

the goals and objectives that light the road where the members of the educational system walk.

A very important piece of curriculum refers to the evaluation processes: diagnostic, formative or

summative. These processes help curriculum developers interpret data to modify or change

curriculum based on reliable information.


39

In sum, our curriculum is everything which is related to the learning process. It reflects who we

are and what we do in terms of education.


40

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