Final Report - CANADA

8/3/2019 Final Report - CANADA

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Contents

1. Introduction...............................................................................................................................4

2. Minerals in the National Economy of Canada .............................................................................5

3. Geology and Natural Resources of Canada .................................................................................6

4. THE MINERALS OF CANADA .......................................................................................................8

4.1 Iron ore....................................................................................................................................8

4.1.1 Occurrence ........................................................................................................................9

4.1.2 Iron ore mining companies ................................................................................................9

4.1.3 Iron ore production .........................................................................................................10

4.1.4 Value Addition.................................................................................................................11

4.1.5 Developments and Exports ..............................................................................................11

4.2 Diamond ................................................................................................................................12

4.2.1 Occurrence ......................................................................................................................12

4.2.2 Mining Companies and Mines..........................................................................................13

4.2.3 Diamond Production .......................................................................................................14

4.2.4 Value Addition.................................................................................................................15

4.2.5 Exports ............................................................................................................................15

4.3 Copper ...................................................................................................................................16

4.3.1 Copper mine in Canada ...................................................................................................16

4.3.2 Property of copper ..........................................................................................................17

4.3.3 Copper alloys...................................................................................................................18

4.3.4 Companies and Organizations linked to Copper Mining in Canada ...................................18

4.4 Silver......................................................................................................................................19

4.4.1 Silver mine in Canada ......................................................................................................19

4.4.2 Companies and Organisations linked to Silver Mining in Canada......................................21

4.5 Manganese ............................................................................................................................22

4.5.1 Companies and Organizations linked to Manganese Mining in Canada ............................24

4.6 Mica.......................................................................................................................................25

4.6.1 Other names of Mica .......................................................................................................26

4.6.2 Properties .......................................................................................................................27

4.7 Mineral sand..........................................................................................................................28

4.7.1 Quartz .............................................................................................................................29


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4.7.2 Chalcedony......................................................................................................................29

4.7.3 Sanidine ..........................................................................................................................29

4.7.4 Orthoclase and microcline ...............................................................................................30

4.7.5 Plagioclase ......................................................................................................................30

4.7.6 Estimated ilmenite production in thousands of tons for 2006 according to U.S. GeologicalSurvey......................................................................................................................................30

4.7.7 GYPSUM ..........................................................................................................................31

4.7.7.1 Companies and Organisations linked to GYPSUM Mining in Canada..............................33

4.8 Nickel.........................................................................................................................................33

4.8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................33

4.8.2 Occurrence......................................................................................................................33

4.9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................36

4.

9.

2 Occurrences....................................................................................................................

364.9.3 Consumption...................................................................................................................36

4.9.4 Lead Produce Company ...................................................................................................37

4.10 Antimony .............................................................................................................................37

4.10.1 Main Uses .....................................................................................................................37

4.10.2 Production And Trade....................................................................................................38

4.11 Tungsten ..............................................................................................................................38

4.11.1 Uses ..............................................................................................................................38

4.1

2 COAL....................................................................................................................................

39

4.12.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................39

4.12.2 Occurrences in Canada ..................................................................................................40

4.12.3 Coal mining methods.....................................................................................................41

4.12.4 Environmental effects ...................................................................................................42

4.12.5 Recycling .......................................................................................................................43

4.12.6 Coal Mining Companies at Canada.................................................................................44

4.13 Gold .....................................................................................................................................44

4.13.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................44

4.13.2 Occurrences of Gold ......................................................................................................44

4.13.3 Occurrences in Canada ..................................................................................................45

4.13.4 Gold Separation Method ...............................................................................................46

4.13.4 Value addition of Gold and their benefits ......................................................................47

4.13.5 Substitutes of Gold ........................................................................................................49


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4.14 Magnesium ..........................................................................................................................49

4.14.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................49

4.14.2 Occurrences of Magnesium ...........................................................................................49

4.14.3 Worlds Magnesium Production .....................................................................................50

4.14.4 Magnesium Production by Canada ................................................................................50

4.14.5 Magnesium production in Canada .................................................................................50

4.14.6 Uses ..............................................................................................................................51

4.15 Platinum ..............................................................................................................................52

4.15.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................52

4.15.2 Occurrences of Platinum ...............................................................................................52

4.15.3 Production Of Platinum Worldwide ...............................................................................53

4.15.4 Usage of Platinum .........................................................................................................53

4.15.5 Uses ..............................................................................................................................54

4.15.6 Industrial Applications ...................................................................................................55


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1. Introduction

Every sector of society in every country in the world uses minerals and mineral

resources every day. The roads we ride or drive on and the buildings we live learn and workin all contain minerals are best examples to show our huge usage in minerals merged with our

existences. We can found out when we look back to our past, the minerals have been used

since various eras of civilization. Most of the earths ancient civilization eras are named

according to the primary mineral that was used at that period like Stone Age, Bronze Age and

Iron Age. Researchers say that in most countries, an average person consumes or uses 40,000

pounds of minerals every year. Over the course of a lifetime, an individual will use more than

1,050 pounds of lead, 1,050 pounds of zinc, 1,750 pounds of copper, 4,550 pounds of

aluminum, 91,000 pounds of iron and steel, 360,500 pounds of coal, and one million pounds

of industrial minerals such as limestone, clay, and gravel. Above details will support in

realizing how important minerals are to us, to a country and finally to the world. For example

it is interesting to know that about 13 million tons of copper are currently produced and used

annually. Copper is used for electrical conductors, motors, appliances, piping and in metal

alloys. Also we would not be surfing the internet, given that in excess of 40 different minerals

are necessary in the manufacturing of computers.

Minerals do not occur uniformly everywhere in the world. We cannot find them

where we want and neither the available ones become resources unless they are explored.

Different countries have different levels of mineral abundances, productions and usages. A

countrys development is mainly depending on the rate of achievement in each above factors.

In this case Canada can be listed in the highest level in all of above factors. Canada is a

nation rich in mineral resources. In the case of Canada's history, Canadians have discovered

and brought into production a wide variety of minerals (metals, industrial minerals and

Energy resources), making Canada one of the world's leading mineral-producing countries. It

is one of the leading mining countries in the world and ranked among the top five globalproducers for several major minerals and metals. Canadas metals, industrial minerals, and

energy sectors contributed 5% of its GDP. The Canadian mineral industry encompassed

about 3,000 domestic and possibly 200 overseas companies. With thousands of mining

projects underway (which included exploration, mine development mining operations) since

Canada is one of the worlds most active mining countries.


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Fig.1: Diavik Diamond in Canada

2. Minerals in the National Economy of Canada

Minerals play a major role in the Canadas national economy since minerals areimportant requirements for a developed country. They improve the standard of living of its

people, encompassing an important force on the societal and monetary development of

Canada. Minerals are mined and processed in all 10 major Provinces of Canada. In 2009,

about 72.4% of the total value of solid minerals was contributed by the Provinces of Ontario

(19.7%), Quebec (19.3%), British Columbia (17.8%), and Saskatchewan (15.6%). Provincial

governments are responsible for the mining activity within their respective Province.

Fig.2: Map of Canada with mineral claims

Changes happen in the mineral industry in the last decade were most promising forthe Canadas economy. For example, the nickel ore output increased by 17.0%, and its value

increased by 56.8%; copper ore output increased by less than 0.1%, and its value increased to

56.2%; diamond output increased by 17.3%, and its value increased by 34.8%; potash (K2O

content) increased by almost 17%, and its value increased by 20%; and zinc ore output

decreased by 2.9%, and its value increased by 12.9%. This increase in the value of mineral


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manufacture makes the economy very prolific. Also especially only about 15% of Canada's

metal production is consumed internally, with the balance exported. They make much profit

to the country. In 2009 as a whole, Canadas mining and mineral processing industries

contributed $32 billion to Canadas GDP, directly employed about 300000 individuals and

exported minerals and metals value $66 billion. Minerals and metals accounted for almost

one-third of Canadas exports to China, which is the worlds fastest-growing and second-

largest economy. In 2009, Canada ranked among the top five countries in the world in the

production of major minerals and metals such as aluminum, diamonds, nickel, platinum

group metals, potash, uranium, and zinc. Canada's mineral industries are dependent not only

on a continuing supply of new ore discoveries, but also on the economic well-being of

Canada's trading partners in the world economy. Since the Canada is the worlds foremost

exporter of minerals and metals, Canada enjoyed economic benefits from its mineral industry

that included a significant contribution to its trade balance.

3. Geology and Natural Resources of Canada

It is better to know the countries geological conditions and explored natural resources

before going deep in to the produced minerals themselves in Canada. Canada is covered by

ten provinces among three territories. The country is located in the northern part of the

continent, where it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the

west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. The countries overall area is about 9.9 million. It

is the world's second-largest country by total area. The country has six major geological

regions, where different minerals are indigenous to each different region. Following details

briefly explain about the geological conditions and minerals associated in each region.

The first region is Canadian Shield which is an enormous area of Precambrian rock

cover about half the total area of Canada at the center. Most of the Canadian base metals,

gold, iron ore and uranium are obtainable in this region since it is a vast expanse of ancient

Precambrian igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks and glacial overburden. Still now

many new minerals are discovered in these regions.

The next region is known as Interior Platform. It is between the Canadian Shield and

the Cordilleran mountain region of western Canada, and stretching from the US border to the

Arctic Ocean. This region is a significant source of coal, potash and salt, all contained in

thick sequences of gently inclined sedimentary rocks. West of the Interior Plains is the


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Fig.3: Extent of the geological regions

Canadian Cordillera, a hilly region with

plateaus and valleys that is underlain by

various igneous and sedimentary rocks.

This region covers most of British

Columbia, the Yukon and the western part

of the Northwest Territories. This area is a

widespread and diverse mineral resource

such as mainly sources for many kinds of

metals, coal and certain industrial

minerals. Southeast of the Shield, the Appalachian region of eastern Canada consists of a

broad band of mountains, hills and plains. It underlies all of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia

and Prince Edward Island, western Newfoundland, and that part of Qubec lying south of the

St Lawrence River. This area is a huge reserve of minerals for significant deposits of Zinc

and Lead occur near Bathurst, New Brunswick. Also salt, potash and Gypsum are found in

these regions. Innuitian Region is the next region which lies mainly in the Arctic

Archipelago, a set of islands which are underlain by gently dipping sedimentary rocks that

contain petroleum resources, zinc, lead, oil sands, coal, salt and gypsum. These minerals are

identified in these regions but they are not exploited since the unfavorable mining conditions

present.

Canada has the world's second-largest continental margin - the vast submerged areathat is the geological continuation of Canada's landmass into the seas. It extends from the

coasts of Canada, underlain mainly by seaward-dipping sedimentary and, in places, volcanic

rocks. They include the Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic continental shelves. Here mainly oil and

gas are present. By referring to the above particulars it can be acknowledged that Canada is

country rich in many mineral resources. Every bit of land has a reserve of any kind of

mineral. Some researches represent there are nearly 60 Mineral commodities: metals,

nonmetals, structural materials and mineral fuels. In the beginning mineral extraction in

Canada started with simple quarrying and mining surface metals and until now they have

explored vast amount of lands and enter into several attractive mining sectors such as gold

mining and diamond mining.


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4. THE MINERALS OF CANADA

Since there are many kinds of minerals can be found in the Canadian mineral

industry, briefly discussing about each of them will be most productive. Some are mined as

mineral and processed as it is. But some are mined in order to process only one compound or

a constituent. So in that case following mineral details which are related to Canada are given

under each compound, each constituent or under the mineral name.

4.1 Iron ore

Canada is one of the biggest iron ore producers in the world, after Australia and

Brazil and South Africa. It is one of Canada's single most important mineral products in

terms of both tonnage and value. Canadas production is of great importance as a supplier to

international markets. In the present days china has turned out to be the main consumer of

most Canadas iron.

Generally the iron is found in the form of magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3),

goethite, limonite, or siderite. Hematite is the frequently abundant form which also known as

natural ore. Ores containing a higher percentage of iron are more valuable in the iron ore

industry. If ore has more than 54% iron, it is classified as a high-grade ore and requires no

further beneficiation other than sizing. Ore grading less than 54% iron is considered low-

grade and requires further processing. Lump ore is produced by high-grade iron ore which

have ore constituent parts greater than 8 mm in size. In other case the ore having particle sizelower than. In iron ore industry mainly the quantity and quality are concerned very much.

Since the easiest tradable product is in mineral rather than processed metallic form, the

quality and quantity of the ore itself taken from any mine in Canada is concerned very much.

There are many chemical and physical variants of iron ore. However, they all provide the

same purpose: providing the iron component of steel.

Fig.4: an open pit iron ore mine in Canada


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4.1.1 Occurrence

There are many iron ore deposits discovered around the country in every region. Nearly all of

Canadas iron ore production comes from the Labrador Trough area in northern Quebec in

the Canadian Shield. Since the closure in 1998 of the Algoma Iron Ore Division near Wawa,

Ontario, nearly all of Canadas iron ore production has been concentrated in the LabradorTrough, a major geological belt extending through northern Quebec and Labrador.

Fig.5: Iron ore reserves and mining areas in Canada

The Labrador Trough contains world-class iron deposits that have been mined since

1954. This band broadens for about 1100 km southeast of Ungava Bay through both Quebec

and Labrador. When going further south, it turns southwest direction towards the Wabush

and Mount Wright areas to within 300 km of the St. Lawrence River. The degree of

metamorphism is erratic, varying from concentrated in the northern and southern portions to

green schist facies in the central portion. Numerous deposits of exceedingly metamorphosed

magnetite-specularite iron formation (medium- to fine-grained) are located west of Ungava

Bay. North of Schefferville, several billion tones of taconite are outlined in fine-grained,

cherty magnetite-iron formation. In the area from Wabush Lake to Mount Wright, a medium-

to coarse-grained friable specularite-quartz iron forms several large deposits.

4.1.2 Iron ore mining companies

There are large numbers of iron ore mining and producing companies in Canada. Out

of them some are large companies which perform active iron ore mining in Canada. Some of

the iron ore companies are listed below:

1. Iron Ore Company of Canada (The IOC)

2. ArcelorMittal Mines Canada (previously QCM),

3. Cliffs Natural Resources Inc. (Wabush)


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4. Consolidated Thompson Iron Mines Ltd. (CLM).

5. AltaSteel Ltd

6. Labrador Iron Mines Limited (LIM)

7. Quebec Cartier Mining Company

8. Baffinland Iron Mines Corporation

9. Mano River Resources Inc.

IOC is Canada's largest iron ore producer and a leading global supplier of iron ore

pellets and concentrates. The company employs almost 1900 people in the provinces of

Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador. IOC is owned by several companies such as Rio

Tinto, Mitsubishi Corporation and the Labrador Iron Ore Royalty Income Fund (15.1%) but

the IOC operates within the Rio Tinto Iron Ore group. The facilities began operation in 1962

and have produced more than 1 billion t of crude ore with an average iron content of 39%.The site still has a significant resource base available.

ArcelorMittal Mines Canada (previously known as Quebec Cartier Mining Company

[QCM]) is another leading suppliers of iron ore to steel markets around the world, generating

some 40% of Canadas total production. The company produces about 19.3 Mt of iron ore

concentrate and about 14.1 Mt of iron oxide pellets. The company manages two large open-

pit mines: one in Mount Wright, which is the largest of its kind in North America, and one in

Fire Lake. The Mount Wright mining complex includes a concentrator and automated

concentrate train-loading system. The site is linked by company rail to the Port-Cartierindustrial complex, which comprises the pellet plant, storage areas, and port facilities.

Cliffs Natural Resources (Canadian operation) employs roughly 990 workers. The

company produces four grades of pellets two standards and two fluxed and is a supplier

of high- and low-manganese concentrates to the sinter market. Shipments of its iron ore are

done via the QNS&L railway from Wabush to Pointe-Noire. The mine has an estimated

annual capacity of 6.0 Mt.

4.1.3 Iron ore production

As previously declared that Canada is become a largest iron ore producer in the

world. To be exact Canada ranked among the top nine global producers of iron ore based on

estimates of 2009 iron ore production. Most of the excavated iron ore in the country is

exported (roughly 96% in 2009 and 88% in 2008 of total iron ore production was exported).

The value of exports increased by 10.9% from 28.1 Mt in 2008 to 31.1 Mt in 2009 and in the


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same time Canadian ore imports decreased by 63.9% from 9.4 Mt in 2008 to 3.4 Mt in 2009.

Most Canadian iron ore mines are open cast mines where used huge trucks and shovel

types. To improve the iron grade in Canadian production, the producers use a range of

beneficiation processes, such as the use of spirals, high- and low-intensity magnetic

separators, and high-tension separators to improve the iron content by removing the silica

content and other impurities.

4.1.4 Value Addition

Steel manufacture is the main driving force for almost all iron ore demand. However,

technological changes in iron ore mining through the production of finished steel have beenmajor contributors in determining the quantities and properties of the iron ore demanded. In

steel production iron ore pelletizing is turn out to be the major important stage in iron ore

production. About 25% of excavated iron ore is pelletized. Some iron ore which is produced

in western Canada is directly taken for the coal industry in the country.

4.1.5 Developments and Exports

There are new explorations are carried out all around the country. Also many new mines were

started during last two years after the economic crisis. Some of special development cases inthe iron ore industry can be exemplified as follows.

y Labrador Iron Mines Limited (LIM) has acquired licenses for mining project where

estimated 100 Mt of high-grade iron ore going to be excavated in northwestern Labrador.

The company expected to start-up of commercial production at its iron ore mines in 2010

which involves the development of eight direct shipping iron ore deposits.


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y Baffinland Iron Mines Corporation (Baffinland) is developing a on Baffin Island in

Nunavut, 160 km south of Pond Inlet on northern Baffin Island. Deposit is believed to

contain up to 200 Mt of iron ore graded at 65% Fe, which would be exploited over a

period of 25+ years.

y Roche Bay plc owns one of the world's largest known undeveloped magnetite (iron ore)

resources located at Roche Bay on the Melville Peninsula in Nunavut. In two families of

deposits, referred to as the Eastern and Western deposits, Roche Bay has over 4 billion t

of resources and over 460 Mt of drilled resources.

These are some of the developments can be seen in the iron ore industry in Canada. They all

benefit the country and also the world. Data show that Canada exported close to 31.1 Mt of

iron ore valued at $3360.6 million, of which 62.7% was pellets valued $2323.3 million and

37.3% was concentrates valued $1037.3 million for a 10.9% increase in total exports from

2009.

4.2 Diamond

Canada is relatively new to the Diamond industry but in the present it is competing to

govern the worlds diamond market. Diamond exploration began in Canada as early as the

1960s, but major kimberlite findings were not made until the 1980s. The first economic

diamond deposit was discovered in the Lac de Gras area of the Northwest Territories in

1991and Canada became a diamond producer in October 1998 when the Ekati diamond mine

opened in Yellowknife.

4.2.1 Occurrence

Diamonds are formed inside Kimberlites rock formations. Generally diamonds are

formed at a depth greater than 150 kilometres within the earth crust. After their formation,

diamonds are carried to the surface of the earth by strong volcanic activity. This mixture of

magma, transported rock and diamonds forms pipes called kimberlites as it reaches the

surface.

In Canada these Kimberlite rock formations are found in several provinces. They are mainly

Prince Edward Island, Ontario, Alberta, British Columbia and Northwest Territories Nunavut.

In these provinces many explorations have carried out. By the end of 2003, the total number

of kimberlites discovered in Canada was close to 600, most of them in the Archean Slave

Craton in parts of the North West Territory and Nunavut. But until now only four diamond


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deposits were converted as large scale diamond mines. Those four mines are: the Ekati,

Diavik, and Snap Lake mines.

Fig.6: Kimberlite pipes locations in Canada

4.2.2Mining Companies and Mines

Since only four mines are operating its better to refer in the name of the mine initialyl

rather than referring the company and then its related mines.

1. Ekati Mine

This mine is the Canadas first diamond-producing mine which came into production

in 1998. It is owned by a company known as BHP Billiton Ltd. It is also the first

surface and underground diamond mine in North America. It is located 310 km north-

east of Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, and about 200 km south of the Arctic

circle, near Lac de Gras.

2. Diavik Mine

This mine is the Canadas second diamond mine which began production in early

2003. It is an unincorporated joint endeavor between Diavik Diamond Mines Inc.

(DDMI), which owns 60%, and Harry Winston Diamond Mines Ltd. (HWDML),

which owns 40%. DDMI, the manager of the mine, is a wholly owned subsidiary of

Rio Tinto plc, while HWDML is a wholly owned subsidiary of Harry Winston

Diamond Corp. of Toronto, Ontario.

3. Snap Lake Project

The Snap Lake diamond deposit, 100% owned by De Beers Canada Inc. (part of the

De Beers Group), is located approximately 220 km northeast of Yellowknife.The


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deposit is unique in that the kimberlite is in the form of a dyke, as opposed to the more

common carrot-shaped pipe.

4. Victor Project

In northern Ontario, about 90 km west of the coastal community of Attawapiskat on

the James Bay coast, the fully owned De Beers Victor project was commenced at

the end of December 2007 and was officially opened on July 26, 2008.

4.2.3 Diamond Production

Between 1998 and 2009, only by the ekati mine has produced 45 million carats (8,000

kg / 17,636 lb) of diamonds out of six open pits. In 2009, Ekati achieved a production level of

4.2 Mct. The Koala underground mine of ekati is expected to supply 25% of the mine feed

and 40% of the diamond output by value in the coming years. In the present the ore reservesare estimated at 38.5 Mt grading 0.476 ct/t, for a total of about 18.3 Mct. Production at

Diavik in 2009, occurring from the A154 South and North kimberlites, as well as from the

A418 kimberlite, reached 5.6 Mct for an average grade of 4.09 ct/t. This industry generates

mining revenues estimated in 2009 at $1.7 billion and provides an estimated 4000 direct

Canadian jobs and an equivalent number of indirect jobs in the service industries. Roughly

Canada contribute about 17% to the world diamond production

Fig.7: Share of world diamond production

Canadas total primary exports of diamonds in 2009 are estimated to be valued at $1.79

billion


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4.2.4 Value Addition

The mined diamonds are used in several industries. Some are directly exported or

used domestically for various purposes without processing. The largest mark-up in the

pipeline for diamonds is at the jewellery stage. There are approximately 20 major plants

located mainly in the Toronto region with a few in Montral. There are also several smaller

plants in Montral.

The other uses of candian diomands are Diamond products manufactured in Canada

include drill bits, segments for circular blades, grinding wheels, and specialty tools. The

major manufacturing plants are Fordia and K&Y Diamond Limited at Ville St-Laurent,

Diamond Production and North Star Abrasives at Montral, Diacan at Qubec City, and

Diamond Systems at Dorval, all in Quebec; Tru-Form Diamond Tool Company at

Georgetown, JKS Boyle, Longyear, JKS Lamage, and Pilot Diamond Tools, all in North Bay,

Diatech Diamond Tools in Toronto, Hammond Diamond Tooling Ltd. in Collingwood, and

Northern Super Abrasives at Oakville, all in Ontario; Dimatec at Winnipeg, Manitoba; Diaset

Products Ltd. at Delta, British Columbia; and Hobic Bit Industry at Richmond, British

Columbia.

4.2.5 Exports

Canadas total primary exports of diamonds in 2009 are estimated to be valued at $1.79

billion. The Canadas rough diamond is the most important diamond export item representing

unsorted diamonds. Exports under this item were mostly directed towards the United

Kingdom (82%) and Belgium (18%).

Fig.8: Canadian Diamond exports


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The second most important trade diamonds are non-industrial, unworked or simply sawn,

cleaved or bruted, and large diamonds. These mined diamonds that are sorted before export

and are specifically destined for cutting and polishing and exported to Belgium (60%), the

United Kingdom (35%), and India (4%). The third most important type is cut gem-quality

diamonds. These exports are sent mostly to the United States (70%), Mexico (19%), and

Belgium (5%) in 2008, have significantly increased over the past decade and reflect the

increase in cutting and polishing capacity and branding efforts in Canada.

4.3 Copper

4.3.1 Copper mine in Canada

Canada is the third largest copper producer in the world, after Chile and the USA. It is

also the worlds largest zinc and second largest nickel and lead producer. Canada produced

534,287 t of copper concentrate in 2003, representing a continuing decrease as a result of

several mine suspensions and closures. Most of Canada's copper production comes from

mines in Ontario, British Colombia and Quebec.

The production of copper in Canada is associated with the production of other metals

(and sulphuric acid). There is no Canadian copper mine whose revenue from its domestic

operations is derived entirely from copper. Most of Canadas base metals are hosted by

massive sulphide sources (e.g. the Sudbury complex) as well as porphyry deposit (e.g. the

Highlands Valley Porphyry).


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In most cases copper is produced as a co product with nickel, zinc, lead and gold.

Although Noranda is a world leading zinc and nickel producer, it also produces significant

amounts of copper from four lead zinc silver mining operations in New Brunswick and

Quebec. The Gaspe undergrounds mine, situated at Needle Mountain, Quebec, closed in

1999.

Falconbridge (of which Noranda owns 55 %) produces nickel and copper at its world

class nickel copper deposits at Sudbury, Raglan and Kidds Creek. Sudbury division is

comprised of five underground mines.

Raglan was officially opened in 1998 and has proven and probable reserves estimated

at 19 Mt grading at an average 2.85% nickel and 0.77% copper. The Kidds Creek division

comprises three mines of which the No 1 mine produces more than 50%.

Boliden acquired the Myra Falls underground zinc copper mines on Vancouver

Island, British Colombia in 1998. After suspending operations for several months due to poor

ground conditions, production resumed in March 1999. Myra Falls produced 52 000t zinc, 15

000 t copper, 21 500 oz gold and 0.5 M oz silver. The mine has estimated proven and

probable reserves of over 6.7 Mt grading at an average of 7.7% zinc, 1.5% copper, 0.4 %

lead, 1.4 g/t gold and 35 g/t silver.

Canadas largest base metal mine, Highlands Valley, suspended operations for five

months 1999 due to the poor copper prices. The mine is located 75 km southwest of

Kamloops, in central British Columbia. Highlands Valley Copper is owned by Teck Cominco

(64% interest) and Billiton Base Metals (33.6%), and Highmont 2.5%. The mine has

remaining proven and probable reserves of 417 Mt grading at 0.42% copper.

4.3.2 Property of copper

Copper (Cu) is a malleable, ductile, reddish metal that melts at 1083C. Copper has both

a high electric and thermal conductivity. OnlySILVERis a better thermal and electrical

conductor. In general, copper has good resistance to corrosion, although when exposed to

the environment, the surface of the metal oxidizes to form a light green patina or a black

oxide coating.

y Melting point: 1083C (1982F)


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y Boiling point: 2567C (1408F)

y Atomic number: 29 (one copper 63 atom contains 29 protons, 34 neutrons, and 29

electrons).

y Relative atomic mass: 63.546

y Density: 8.96 g/cc

4.3.3 Copper alloys

Copper alloys are made by mixing copper with one or more other metals to produce a

new material that combines some of their best properties. The best-known copper alloys are

bronze and brass.Bronze is an alloy mostly containing copper and tin, sometimes with

added zinc or lead, and it's harder, stronger, and more resistant to corrosion than pure copper.

Different types of bronze have varying proportions of these ingredients. For example, the

hard bronze used in making statues is typically 78.5 percent copper, 17.2 percent zinc, 2.9

percent tin, and 1.4 percent lead. Brass is an alloy of copper and typically anything from 10-

50 percent zinc, depending on how it will be used.

4.3.4 Companies and Organizations linked to Copper Mining in Canada

y Africo Resources Limited

y Amera Resources Corporation

y Belvedere Resources

y Breakwater Resources Ltd

y Cancor Mines Inc.

y Chapleau Resources Ltd

y Dorex Minerals Inc.

y Douglas Lake Minerals Inc.

y Dundee Precious Metals Inc.

y El Nino Ventures Inc.


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Year Production Unit of Measure % Change

2002 603498 Metric tons NA

2003 557082 Metric tons -7.69 %

2004 562795 Metric tons 1.03 %

2005 595383 Metric tons 5.79 %

2006 603295 Metric tons 1.33 %

2007 596249 Metric tons -1.17 %

2008 606999 Metric tons 1.80 %

4.4 Silver

4.4.1 Silver mine in Canada


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Silver has been an important mineral product for Canada's economy ever since the

Cobalt boom which followed the discovery of rich veins of the metal near here in 1903.

Although the production of the Cobalt silver mines began to decline in the 1920s, new

sources were developed, principally in the lead and zinc mines of British Columbia and

Ontario, which have maintained Canada's position in the world as a leading supplier of silver.

The Cobalt boom was also important as a stimulus to future mining development in the

Canadian Shield, and as an influence on government mining policy.

The North American nation is amongst the top world-leading producers of uranium,

zinc, potash, nickel, molybdenum, and gold. However, in terms of silver production, Canada

ranks 11th with 19.6 million ounces produced in 2009, according to the Silver Institute.

While global silver mine production rose by nearly 4 percent in 2009, its seventh

straight annual gain, Canada posted a loss of more than 1 million ounces, says the Institute.

Most mined silver is a by-product from other metal mines, and silver production in

Canada fits that description. According to Natural Resources Canada (NRC), the nations

mines are primarily polymetallic; so, its no surprise that the main sources of silver in Canada

are copper-zinc, copper-nickel, gold, and lead-zinc ores.


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Silver is mined as a by-product of base metal or gold mining in new foundland, New

Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, the Yukon and the

Northwest Territories. The Samatosum mine and Equity Silver mine in British Columbia

were the last mines to primarily produce silver; they closed in 1992 and 1994, respectively. In

2003 Canada had an estimated output of 1,255t of silver.

4.4.2 Companies and Organisations linked to Silver Mining in Canada

y Amera Resources Corporation

y Avalon Ventures Ltd.

y Avino Silver & Gold Mines Ltd.

y Breakwater Resources Ltd

y Cancor Mines Inc.

y Continuum Resources Ltd

y Cream Minerals Ltd

y Dorex Minerals Inc.

y Silver Pursuit Resources Ltd


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Year Production Unit ofMeasure % Change


2003 1310 Metric tons -6.96 %

2004 1337 Metric tons 2.06 %

2005 1123.83703613281 Metric tons -15.94 %

2006 995.023986816406 Metric tons -11.46 %

2007 860.448974609375 Metric tons -13.52 %

2008 727.710021972656 Metric tons -15.43 %

2009 608 Metric tons -16.45 %

4.5Manganese

Hard and brittle manganese is widely distributed in the Earth's crust. In its impure

state, this transition metal is chemically reactive and burns readily in oxygen.

Manganese possesses many physical and chemical properties similar to those of iron,

and traces of manganese are often found associated with iron ores. Hard manganese, as an

additive in the manufacture of steel, improves the strength and wear resistance of the steel.

Canadian Manganese Inc. has developed a low-cost, environmentally friendly

hydrometallurgical process to recover manganese (Mn) from lower grade resources

containing pyrolusite (MnO2), psilomelane and other four valent Mn oxides. As part of the

development work, American Manganese contracted Kemetco Research Inc. to undertake an

extensive metallurgical test program. The purpose of this program has been to conduct bench

scale testing of unit operations, that when combined, form the basis of a complete conceptual

Process flow sheet to process lower grade Mn resources into high purity Mn metal in a

Robust and economically viable manner.


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In Canada, manganese is primarily employed in the steel industry, where it is used to

counteract the effects of sulphur, as a deoxidizing agent and as an ingredient in special alloys.

Manganese is also used in the manufacture of dry cell batteries and as an oxidizing agent in

the chemical industry. In 1985, about 25 398 t of ferromanganese, 6979 t of silicomanganese,

102 048 t of manganese ore and 3240 t of manganese metal were imported into Canada; 22

408 t of ferromanganese were exported.



2003 78000 Metric tons -2.50 %

2004 54000 Metric tons -30.77 %

2005 50000 Metric tons -7.41 %

2006 65000 Metric tons 30.00 %

2007 16300 Metric tons -74.92 %

2008 2000 Metric tons -87.73 %


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4.5.1 Companies and Organizations linked to Manganese Mining in Canada

y Ecometals Limited

y Blackstone Resources

y Capstone Mining Corp.

y Monroe Minerals Inc

y Vena Resources Inc.

y Buchans Minerals Corporation

Buchans Minerals Corporation owns a 100% interest in the 5,800

hectare Woodstock Manganese Property in New Brunswick, Canada that is

host to three zones of sediment-hosted-manganese and iron mineralization,

including the historic Plymouth deposit. Based on historical work, these

deposits have the potential to become one of the largest undeveloped

manganese resources in North America.

BMC Industry Average Grade

open pit underground unspec.

Mn (%) 48.37 26.80 21.52

Zn (%) 5.20 9.56 6.78

Ag (g/t) 39.06 377.31 127.37

Cu (%) 1.06 2.18 1.50

Fe (%) 96.93 - 66.38

Pb (%) 2.17 5.52 3.09


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4.6Mica

Mica is invaluable in the electrical industry because of its unique combination of

physical, chemical and thermal properties, low power loss factor, dielectric constant and

dielectric strength. In Latin it is known as micare, which mean to shine or to glitter or the

Latin mica is a crumb or grain. Nowadays mica is finding increasing use in equipment that

encounters very high temperatures like rockets, missiles and jet engine ignition system. It is

reported that in the manufacture of Telestar transmission satellites by teh USA, good use of

mica has been made.

A group of minerals having perfect basal cleavage and capable of splitting into thin

laminae is called mica. Chemically they contain complex silicate of aluminium and alkalies

with hydroxyl. They crystallize in monoclinic system. Some varieties may contain iron,

magnesium, lithium and rearely fluorine, barium, manganese and vandium. There are seven

important mica minerals:

y Muscovite or potassium mica

H2KAl3(SiO4)3

y Paragonite or sodium mica

H2NaAl3(SiO4)3

y Lepidolite or lithium mica

K Li Al(OH, F)2Al(SiO4)3

y Phlogopite or magnesium mica

H2KMg3Al(SiO4)3

y Biotite or magnesium iron mica

(H2K)(Mg, Fe)3Al(SiO4)3

y Zinnwaldite or lithium iron mica

Li2K2Fe2Al4Si7O24

y Lepidomelane or iron mica

(H, K)2(Fe, Al)4(SiO

y Muscovite is the commonest of all and whenever the word mica is used it is

understood to mean muscovite.


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4.6.1 Other names ofMica

y Cat-gold

y Cat-silver

yGlimmer

y Glist

y Katen-silber

y Katzen-silber

y Katzengold

y Or des chats

y Rhomboidal Mica

Mica is found in pegmatites intruding mica schists. It is found to occur in book form in

the pegmatites. The mode of formation of mica which is found in the form of small flakes to

big slabs cleavable into the fine laminae is still the subject of active research. The presence

of tourmaline crystals and decomposed feldspar in the pegmatites shows the possibility of

finding good quantity of mica.Mica pegmatite consists of quartz core with felspar on the

sides adjoining the country rock, mica-schists. In the quartz and felspar zones, which usually

form the core, the formation of mica is sparsely found and also the flakes are not big in size.


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2003 17500 Metric tons 0.00 %

2004 17500 Metric tons 0.00 %

2005 17500 Metric tons 0.00 %

2006 17500 Metric tons 0.00 %

2007 18000 Metric tons 2.86 %

2008 17000 Metric tons -5.56 %

2009 15000 Metric tons -11.76 %

4.6.2 Properties

Muscovite finds the largest use while phlogopite has a limited application. Phlogopite does

not possess the splitability and flexibility of muscovite. On the other hand phlogopite is

superior to muscovite in heat resistance. Muscovite can withstand temperatures up to 700C,

and phlogopite up to about 1000C. Phlogopite is, therefore, preferred where a high

temperature is required. Other mica have no use except for lepidolite which is a source of

lithium. The quality of mica for commercial purposes depends largely on the amount of

staining, air inclusions, the degree of flatness, and the colour.

The staining is caused by mineral inclusions which occur intergrown with muscovite or

between cleavage planes. The most common minerals which occur as inclusions are biotite,

quartz, magnetite, hematite, garnet, plagioclase, apatite, clay minerals and the alteration

products of biotite and iron oxides.


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4.7Mineral sand

Tiomin Resources Inc. of Toronto Canada is a transnational corporation (TNC) with

various miningoperations all over the world. It is listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange with

shares actively tradingon the exchange. Indeed in January 2001, Tiomin Resources Inc

announced that it has raised US$5million (approximately Sh400 million) to finance its Kwale

titanium-mining project.

Heavy mineral sands are a class of ore deposit which is an important source of

zirconium, titanium, thorium, tungsten, rare earth elements, the industrial minerals diamond,

sapphire, garnet, and occasionally precious metals or gemstones.

Heavy mineral sands are placer deposits formed most usually in beach environments

by concentration due to the specific gravity of the mineral grains. It is equally likely that

some concentrations of heavy minerals (aside from the usual gold placers) exist within

streambeds, but most are of a low grade and are relatively small.

Oil sands exploration incorporates both mining ("conventional" methods) and in-situ

(non-conventional) production methods. Mining of the oil sands involves excavation of the

bitumen-rich sand using open pit mining methods. This is the most efficient method of

extraction when there are large deposits of bitumen with little overburden. In-situ methods

involve processing the oil sand deposit so that the bitumen is removed while the sand remains


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in place. These methods are used for oil sands that are too deep to support surface mining

operations to an economical degree. 80% of the resource in Northern Alberta lies deep below

the surface.

There are some example of mineral sands:

4.7.1 Quartz

There is no other mineral that is as important in sand as quartz. It is really almost

everywhere and forms the bulk of sand composition in most cases. Pure quartz is transparent

but quartz can have almost any color. The grains are usually rounded and they may be

covered by a very fine hematite pigment which gives them a rust colored appearance. Why is

quartz so common in sand? It is a widespread rock forming mineral and it is also extremely

resistant to weathering. Quartz has no cleavage. So we never see planar surfaces on fresh

fractured grains. Rocks that contain lots of quartz are sandstone, quartzite, gneiss, granite,

and many others.

4.7.2 Chalcedony

Chalcedony is very fine-grained quartz. It is so fine-grained that individual quartz

crystals are impossible to see with the naked eye. Even light microscope is of little help.

Chalcedony is formed by the crystallisation of silica gels. It is common cementing material in

sedimentary rocks. Chert (rock type) is composed mostly of chalcedony and many sand

grains composed of chalcedony are actually small chert fragments.

4.7.3 Sanidine

Sanidine is one of feldspars which are very important rock forming minerals.

Feldspars make up more than half [sic] of the composition of the Earths crust. Sanidine itself

is definitely not the most common among them. It occurs primarily in volcanic rocks

(rhyolite, trachyte, phonolite). We have best chances to encounter sanidine in volcanic sandsof felsic composition. Sanidine is one of K-feldspars (potassium rich feldspars). Other

common K-feldspars are microcline and orthoclase which are more common in clastic

sediments (sand).


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4.7.4 Orthoclase and microcline

Common K-feldspars but they are not as resistant to weathering as quartz. K-feldspars

weather to clay minerals. It may be quite difficult to differentiate feldspars from quartz but

they generally appear to be more blocky. Feldspar grains sometimes have planar cleavage

surfaces and they often show signs of weathering. K-feldspars are commonly white, yellow

or pink in color. Microcline generally forms deeper in the crust than orthoclase but it is pretty

complicated task to differentiate one from the other. K-feldspars are the most important

building block of granite.

4.7.5 Plagioclase

Plagioclase feldspars are definitely the most widespread feldspars overall but their

resistance to weathering is not good. Plagioclase decays faster than K-feldspars. We have

best chances to see plagiocalse containing sand in volcanically active areas where fresh sand

rich in volcanic minerals is abundant. Plagioclase crystals are often elongated. They are

usually different shade of gray in color. Plagioclase is common mineral in mafic igneous

rocks (basalt, gabbro).

4.7.6 Estimated ilmenite production in thousands of tons for 2006 according to U.S.

Geological Survey

Country Production(tons)

Australia 1,140,000

South Africa 952,000

Canada 809,000

China 400,000

Norway 380,000

USA 300,000

Ukraine 220,000

India 200,000


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4.7.7GYPSUM

One of the softest minerals known to exist is the basis for one of Iowa's most durable

mineral resource industries. Gypsum is a gray to white-colored mineral that can be easily

scratched with a fingernail, and is referred to chemically as a hydrous calcium sulfate. Some

of its other, perhaps more familiar, names are based on its various forms of occurrence. For

example, alabaster is a massive form; satin spar is a fibrous variety; and selenite is its

crystalline form. Gypsum often occurs in varying proportions with anhydrite (calcium

sulfate), a slightly harder and more dense mineral that lacks water in its chemical make-up.

Gypsum has several principal uses. Ground gypsum is added to Portland cement to

slow the setting time of the cement. Pulverized gypsum, and to a lesser extent anhydrite, is

used in agriculture as a soil conditioner and as an animal-food additive. The best known use

of gypsum is as the principal ingredient in the manufacture of wallboard and plaster. This is

possible because of gypsum's unique property of rehydrating with the addition of water after

having been ground, calcined (baked to a powder), and mixed with other wallboard

ingredients. Anhydrite is considered a contaminant in this case because it cannot be hydrated

like gypsum.

North American gypsum demand will rise 2.7 percent annually through 2013, based

mainly on a recovery in US new housing. Synthetic gypsum will continue to increase its

Brazil 130,000

Vietnam 100,000

Mozambique (750,000)

Madagascar (700,000)

Senegal (150,000)

Other Countries 120,000

Total World 4,800,000


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share of crude gypsum production. Regular gypsum board, water-resistant board, veneer

board and mobile home board will benefit the most from the housing turnaround.

Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS) Minerals Resources Program


2002 8378 Thousand metric tons NA

2003 9339 Thousand metric tons 11.47 %



2006 9035.79296875 Thousand metric tons -3.87 %

2007 7562 Thousand metric tons -16.31 %

2008 5740 Thousand metric tons -24.09 %


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4.7.7.1 Companies and Organisations linked to GYPSUMMining in Canada

y National Gypsum (Canada) Ltd

y Cgc Inc

y 9184-5685 Quebec Inc

y National Gypsum (Canada) Ltd

y Certainteed Gypsum Canada, Inc

4.8 Nickel

4.8.1 Introduction

Most of the nickel mined in Canada comes from the Thompson Nickel Belt in

Manitoba, the Sudbury Basin of Ontario; and the Ungava peninsula of Quebec. Nickel

exploration is currently underway in most provinces and territories in Canada. Some notable

hot-spots include CVRD's Voisey's Bay deposit in Labrador and Bucko Lake deposits in

Manitoba, and Starfield Resources' Ferguson Lake deposit in Nunavut. NRCan produces a

yearly review of the Canadian Nickel industry.

Nickel is hard, corrosion resistant and has a relatively high melting point of 1453C,

nearly as high as that of iron. It is, nevertheless, malleable and ductile, allowing it to be

readily worked into sheets or wire. It has excellent strength and toughness at extreme

temperatures. It has low thermal and electrical conductivities, and is capable of being

magnetised, although not as strongly as iron. It is very durable as a pure metal, and alloys

readily with many other metals.

4.8.2 Occurrence

Nickel occurs in the Earths crust principally as oxides, sulphides and silicates. The

majority of economic nickel deposits occur in two geological environments. These are

magmatic sulphide deposits and lateritic deposits. Sulphide deposits may be formed during

slow crystallisation of a magma body at depth or in ancient lava flows. The principal ore


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mineral is pentlandite [(Ni,Fe)9S8]. Nickel-bearing lateritic ores are formed by tropical and

sub-tropical surface weathering. The principal ore minerals are nickeliferous limonite

[(Fe,Ni)O(OH)] and garnierite (a hydrous nickel silicate). Mining exploits both sulphide and

laterite ores in almost equal proportions, although laterites currently account for around 70

per cent of known nickel resources. Nickel ores are widespread, but the principal nickel

mining countries are Russia, Canada, Australia, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Colombia and

Brazil. Important nickel refineries treating imported raw materials operate in Norway,

Finland, France, Japan and the United Kingdom.

Nickel is normally extracted from sulphide ores using pyrometallurgical processes

(smelting) followed by electrolytic refining. Lateritic ores may be smelted directly to

ferronickel or treated by hydrometallurgical leaching processes, using either ammonia or

acids. New bioleaching methods are currently under development for the treatment of low-

grade ores and waste dumps.

Primary nickel is marketed as nickel metal with varying purities, and as nickel oxides.

Ferronickel, with a nickel content of 25 to 40 per cent, is an intermediate product that is

added to alloy steel melts particularly in the production of stainless steel.

Nickel in the form of scrapped alloy steel or nickel-based alloy is readily recycled, and large

tonnages of this material are used to supplement newly mined metal.

WORLD WIDE NICKEL PRODUCION

YEAR 2005 2006

Australia 189,000 191,000

Botswana 28,000 28,000

Brazil 52,000 74,200

Canada 198,000 230,000

China 77,000 79,000

Colombia 89,000 90,000

Cuba 72,000 73,800


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Dominican Republic 46,000 46,000

Greece 23,200 24,000

Indonesia 160,000 145,000

New Caledonia 112,000 112,000

Philippines 26,600 42,000

Russia 315,000 320,000

South Africa 42,500 41,000

World total (rounded) 1,490,000 1,550,000

4.8.3Mining Companies

COMPANY LAST PRICE(Us dolers) VOLUME(Metric

ton)

Osisko Mining Corporation 9.84 626471

Altius Minerals Corp. 10.79 42270

Lionore Mining International Ltd. 4.99 825807

First Nickel Inc. 0.11 168275

Goldbrook Ventures Inc. 0.23 349089

GobiMin Inc. 0.58 19500Donner Metals Ltd. 0.29 23500

4.8.4 Uses

Nickel is used as pure metal only in electroplating applications for corrosion

resistance, e.g. medical equipment, scissors and cosmetic applications such as domestic

fittings and vehicle parts, giving them a hard, tarnish-resistant surface. More than 80 per cent

of nickel production is combined with other metals, especially iron, chromium and copper, to

form alloys. Nickel adds

toughness, strength, rust resistance and other electrical, magnetic and heat resistant

properties. Stainless steels account for around 65 per cent of nickel consumption

(International Nickel Study Group, 2010) and are used in construction, the chemical and

food-processing industries, and household products. Nickel-based high-performance alloys


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are critical in the aerospace industry. Nickel is also used in the manufacture of rechargeable

(nickel-cadmium) batteries, incomputer hard discs, in coinage, jewellery and in electrical

components

4.9 Lead

4.9.1 Introduction

Lead is bright and silvery when freshly cut but the surface rapidly tarnishes in air to

produce the commonly observed dull luster normally associated with lead. It is a dense,

ductile, very soft, highly malleable, bluish-white metal that has poor electrical conductivity

when compared to most other metals. This metal is highly resistant to corrosion, and because

of this property, it is used to contain corrosive liquids (for example, sulfuric acid). Because

lead is very malleable and resistant to corrosion it is extensively used in building construction

for example in the external coverings of roofing joints

4.9.2 Occurrences

Metallic lead does occur in nature, but it is rare. Lead is usually found in ore with

zinc, silver and (most abundantly) copper, and is extracted together with these metals. The

main lead mineral is galena (PbS), which contains 86.6 % lead by weight. Other commonvarieties are cerussite (PbCO3) and anglesite (PbSO4).

4.9.3 Consumption

Lead is a soft, heavy, inexpensive metal, which makes it useful in the manufacture of

many consumer products such as pipes, sheeting, and as filler in the automobile body

industry. In Canada, the major use of lead is in the manufacture of (lead-acid) batteries used

in automobiles. It is also used in ammunition, fishing weights, and solder. Lead pigments areadded to glass to prevent radiation exposure from television and computer screens, to storage

containers for nuclear waste and to x-ray shielding aprons. Lead-acid batteries account for the

most significant proportion of global lead consumption


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4.9.4 Lead Produce Company

Company TickerLast Price

(native)

Change

(native)Change (%) Volume

Teck Cominco Ltd. TCK-B.TO 35.91 0.70 1.99% 1,010,745

Inmet Mining Corp. IMN.TO 65.50 0.10 0.15% 176,870

Lundin Mining Corp. LUN.TO 3.87 0.00 0.00% 3,927,306

HudBay Minerals Inc. HBM.TO 10.14 0.23 2.32% 297,730

Nevsun Resources Ltd. NSU.TO 5.66 0.15 2.72% 236,280

Capstone Mining Corp. CS.TO 2.78 0.01 0.36% 179,148

4.10 Antimony

General Information antimony trioxide (Sb2o3) is a slightly soluble, white crystalline

powder. it is produced from the smelting of antimony containing ores or by reacting

antimony trichloride with water. antimony is not abundant in the earths crust. Antimony

trioxide may also be referred to as DaT (diantimony trioxide), antimony oxide or in

manufacturing as antimony white. There are numerous other synonyms and product names;

see HSDB for more information .The epidemiological literature is not extensive and is

limited by difficulty in controlling for confounding variables. recent reviews of studies

reporting excesses of lung cancer in antimony exposed smelter workers acknowledge that

factors such as smoking, exposures to paHs and other metals (eg. arsenic), were not

appropriately controlled.

4.10.1Main Uses

Use in Canada

PET was produced in Canada as of 2003 by 2 companies,mostly in the form of plastic

bottles, but also as fibres for thetextile industry .

Searches of MSDS and industry databases yielded the following results on current usage of

antimony trioxide in Canada


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4.10.2 Production And Trade

ACTIVITY QUANTITY YEAR

Canadian Production 234 t (of antimony) 2001

Domestic Consumption 517 t (of antimony) 2000

Export

Mainly to US 41 t of antimony oxides 2007

Import

Mainly from China, 1600 t of antimonyoxides 2007

Mexico

4.11Tungsten

Tungsten was first identified in 1781 and first isolated in 1783. It has the highest

melting point of any pure metal, at 3 410 C. Until 1986, Canada was a major producer of

tungsten ore and concentrate. Annual production reached a high of 3715 t (8% of world)

tungsten content in 1984, after which prices collapsed as a result of increased exports from

the Peoples Republic of China. The low-priced material from China eventually forced theclosure of most Canadian operations. In 2003 (3,654 t) tugsten was produced only in the

Northwest Territories.

Minly 3 companies have been involved to mine the Tungsten in Canada

1 North American Tungsten Corporation.

2 Primary Metals Inc.

3 Tiberon Minerals Ltd.

4.11.1 Uses

Tungsten is used in the production of hard steels and, when it is mixed with carbon,

the result is tungsten carbide. Tungsten carbide is often used to produce tool tips employed in


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high-speed machining. Other applications of tungsten include filaments for light bulbs, andnew applications are being developed as it is increasingly being used as a substitute for lead,

which is not environmentally benign.

Tungsten production in Canada

Year Production (metric tons)2003 3636

2005 384

2006 1983

2007 2305

2008 2277

2009 1964

4.12 COAL

4.12.1 Introduction

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in

rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as

anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated

temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable

quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Throughout history, coal has been a useful resource for human consumption. It is

primarily burned as a fossil fuel for the production of electricity and/or heat, and is also used

for industrial purposes such as refining metals. Coal forms when dead plant matter is

converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then anthracite. This involves

biological and geological processes that take place over a long period of time. Domestic

resources of graphite are relatively small, but the rest of the worlds inferred resources exceed

800 million tons of recoverable graphite.


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Anthracite coal

Bituminous coal

Anthracite (Ibbenbren, Germany)

4.12.2 Occurrences in Canada

In North America, coal occurs in rocks of three major geologic periods: the

Carboniferous of the Appalachian region, the Cretaceous of the Rocky Mountain region, and

the Tertiary of the Rocky Mountain and Gulf Coast regions. Of these three periods,

Cretaceous-age strata contain the most coal. Early in this century, there was some

development of Cretaceous and Tertiary coals to fuel the railroads in the western United

States and Canadian provinces.

The decline of the steel industry and the substitution of coal by oil and gas for

domestic heating and transportation caused a substantial fall in coal production by the middle

of the century. Since the early 1960's, however, there has been a steady increase in the

production of coal, mainly as a result of the development of major coal fields in the western

United States and Canada. Today over 50 percent of the United States' electricity is produced


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from coal. Approximately one third of coal mined in the United States is from Cretaceous and

Tertiary strata.

Worldwide demand for graphite was very weak during the last quarter of 2008 and in

the first half of 2009, owing to the global recessions impact on the industrial sectors that use

it. However, during the second half of 2009 worldwide demand for graphite began a slow

increase, which continued steadily throughout 2010. Principal import sources of natural

graphite were, in descending order of tonnage, China, Mexico, Canada, Brazil, and

Madagascar, which combined, accounted for 98% of the tonnage and 90% of the value of

total imports. Mexico provided all the amorphous graphite, and Sri Lanka provided all the

lump and chippy dust variety. China and Canada were, in descending order of tonnage, the

major suppliers of crystalline flake and flake dust graphite. During 2010, China produced the

majority of the worlds graphite, and Chinas graphite production is expected to continue

growing. In recent years, Canada has opened a number of new graphite mines, and this trend

is expected to continue through the next few years. Advances in thermal technology and acid-

leaching techniques that enable the production of higher purity graphite powders are likely to

lead to development of new applications for graphite in high-technology fields. Such

innovative refining techniques have enabled the use of improved graphite in carbon-graphite

composites, electronics, foils, friction materials, and special lubricant applications. Flexible

graphite product lines, such as graphoil (a thin graphite cloth), are likely to be the fastest

growing market. Large-scale fuel-cell applications are being developed that could consume asmuch graphite as all other uses combined

4.12.3 Coal mining methods

Two major factors are involved in determining which coals are currently economic for

mining: the cost of transportation to areas where the coal is utilized and the environmental

concerns associated with mining and utilization. From a geologic perspective, the quality,

thickness, dimensions and depth of coal are important in determining whether or not a coal is

mineable. Coal contains inorganic impurities (ash) that are left after burning. Cretaceous

coals generally contain only moderate amounts of ash. The amount of sulfur in coal is also

important because it is a major contributor to emissions that cause acid rain. Cretaceous coals

are relatively low in sulfur. The rank of coal largely depends on the depth to which it was

buried through geologic time-the deeper the coal, the greater the amount of energy that can be

produced per unit of weight. Cretaceous coals are generally bituminous in rank, which is


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higher than most Tertiary coals and lower than Carboniferous coals. Cretaceous coal beds

reach a maximum thickness of about 100 feet, but most are less than 10 feet thick and few

less than 6 feet thick are mined.

4.12.4 Environmental effects

There are a number of adverse health and environmental effects of coal

burning especially in power stations, and of coal mining. These effects include: Coal-fired

power plants shortened nearly 24,000 lives a year in the United States, including 2,800

from lung cancer

Generation of hundreds of millions of tons of waste products, including fly ash, bottom

ash, flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and

other heavy metals

Acid rain from high sulfur coal

Interference with groundwater and water table levels

Contamination of land and waterways and destruction of homes from fly ash spills such

as Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill

Aerial photograph of site taken the day after the event


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Impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact on other land-uses

Dust nuisance

Subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure

Uncontrollable underground fires which may burn for decades or centuries.

Coal-fired power plants without effective fly ash capture are one of the largest sources of

human-caused background radiation exposure

Coal-fired power plants emit mercury, selenium, and arsenic which are harmful to human

health and the environment

Release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, which causes climate change and global

warming according to the IPCC and the EPA. Coal is the largest contributor to the

human-made increase of CO2 in the air

With increasing environmental concerns, much research has been conducted to discover

cleaner ways of burning coal. Over the last decade, a relatively clean use of some deep coal

resources has been developed by the in situ extraction of methane from coal beds. Sites of

coal development in the next century will be determined by the combination of new

technologies for extraction and utilization, environmental concern, energy demand, and

geologic investigations.

4.12.5Recycling

There are various graphite recycling methods.Refractory brick and linings, alumina-

graphite refractories for continuous metal castings, magnesiagraphite refractory brick for

basic oxygen and electric arc furnaces, and insulation brick led the way in recycling of

graphite products. The market for recycled refractory graphite material is growing with

material being recycled into products such as brake linings and thermal insulation.

Recovering high-quality flake graphite from steelmaking kish is technically feasible, but not

practiced at the present time. The abundance of graphite in the world market inhibits

increased recycling efforts.


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Import Sources (200609): China, 46%; Mexico, 23%; Canada, 21%; Brazil, 6%; and other, 4%.

Country Mine production 2009 (x1000T) Mine production 2010 (x1000T) Reserves

United States - - -

Brazil 76 76 360

Canada 25 25

China 800 800 55,000

India 130 130 5,200

Korea, North 30 30

Madagascar 5 5 940

Mexico 5 5 3,100

Norway 2 2

Sri Lanka 11 11

Ukraine 6 6

Other countries 3 3 6,400

World total (rounded) 1,100 1,100 71,000

.

4.12.6 Coal Mining Companies at Canada

y Sherritt International Corporation (Sherritt)

y Teck Resources Limited (Teck Resources)

y Walter Energy, Inc. (Walter)

4.13Gold

4.13.1 Introduction

Gold was among the first metals to be mined because it commonly occurs in its native

form, that is, not combined with other elements, because it is beautiful and imperishable, and

because exquisite objects can be made from it.

Gold is called a "noble" metal (an alchemistic term) because it does not oxidize under

ordinary conditions. Its chemical symbol Au is derived from the Latin word "aurum". In pure

form gold has a metallic luster and is sun yellow, but mixtures of other metals, such as silver,

copper, nickel, platinum, palladium, tellurium, and iron, with gold create various color hues

ranging from silver-white to green and orange-red.

4.13.2Occurrences of

Gold

Gold is relatively scarce in the earth, but it occurs in many different kinds of rocks

and in many different geological environments. Though scarce, gold is concentrated by

geologic processes to form commercial deposits of two principal types: lode (primary)

deposits and placer (secondary) deposits.


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Lode deposits are the targets for the "hardrock" prospector seeking gold at the site of its

deposition from mineralizing solutions. Geologists have proposed various hypotheses to

explain the source of solutions from which mineral constituents are precipitated in lode

deposits.

Another hypothesis suggests that gold-bearing solutions may be expelled from magma

as it cools, precipitating ore materials as they move into cooler surrounding rocks. This

hypothesis is applied particularly to gold deposits located in or near masses of granitic rock,

which represent solidified magma.

A third hypothesis is applied mainly to gold-bearing veins in metamorphic rocks that

occur in mountain belts at continental margins. In the mountain-building process,

sedimentary and volcanic rocks may be deeply buried or thrust under the edge of the

continent, where they are subjected to high temperatures and pressures resulting in chemical

reactions that change the rocks to new mineral assemblages (metamorphism). This hypothesis

suggests that water is expelled from the rocks and migrates upwards, precipitating ore

materials as pressures and temperatures decrease. The ore metals are thought to originate

from the rocks undergoing active metamorphism.

4.13.3 Occurrences in Canada

Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such

as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds and lead. Several of Canada's largest companies are basedin natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. The

vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also many

secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones.

Canada is one of the world's top gold producers, after South Africa, the USA and

Australia. Canada produced 140,529 kg of gold in 2003 from 330 gold mines which

accounted for more than 90% of production. Several of Canada's gold mines have closed as a

result of the low gold price and exhausted ore reserves. Remaining production came from

placer workings and base metal by products.

The low price of gold and the depletion of reserves are responsible for the closure of

nine mining operations over the past two years. By the end of 2002, there were only about 30

mines remaining in Canada; 10 years earlier, there were more than 50. This decrease in the

number of operations is forecast to continue for a few years with 8-10 other mines expected

to cease operations by 2005 when their economic reserves are depleted. The lost production


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resulting from these closures is not expected to exceed 5 t of gold and could be compensated

for by the expansion and resumption of production at existing mines. Gold produced in

Canada comes primarily from gold mines, which account for 92.5% of the total. The

remainder is produced by base-metal (6%) and placer (1.5%) mines. Almost 90% of

Canadian gold mines are underground operations where productivity is relatively high, which

keeps production costs among the lowest in the world.

Several major mining companies are actively producing gold from Canada, including

Placer Dome, Barrick and TVX Newmont Americas (TVXNA). Other major producers are

Miramar Mining, Kinross Gold, Newmont and Cambior. Gold is also produced as a by

product from most of the base metal mines in Canada. The merger between Barrick and

Homestake produced one of the world's largest gold mining companies.

Canada ranked third in world gold production, as its output increased slightly to 3.7billion

dollars. It is 15.5% to 28.4% of worlds gold production.

Goldcorp which is one of the largest gold mining companies, it operated three mines

in Ontariothe Musselwhite, Porcupine, and Red Lake Mines. In 2009, the Red Lake Mine

produced 19,400 kg of gold approximately. The Porcupine and Musselwhite Mines produced

9,900 kg and 7,230 kg of gold, respectively, which was 9% and 10% more than in 2008,

respectively, because of higher mill throughput and higher grades.

Country Percentage%

USA 79.2

EU 6.8

China 2.1

Japan 2.0

Mexico 1.8

Other 8.1

Export Percentage of Mine Gold by Customer

4.13.4Gold Separation Method

Impure gold, as it commonly occurs in deposits, has a density of 16 to 18, whereas the

associated waste rock (gangue) has a density of about 2.5. The difference in density enables

gold to be concentrated by gravity and permits the separation of gold from clay, silt, sand,

and gravel by various agitating and collecting devices such as the gold pan, rocker, and

sluicebox.


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Mercury (quicksilver) has a chemical affinity for gold. When mercury is added to

gold-bearing material, the two metals form an amalgam. Mercury is later separated from

amalgam by retorting. Extraction of gold and other precious metals from their ores by

treatment with mercury is called amalgamation. Gold dissolves in aqua regia, a mixture of

hydrochloric and nitric acids, and in sodium or potassium cyanide. The latter solvent is the

basis for the cyanide process that is used to recover gold from low-grade ore.

Highly toxic sodium cyanide (NaCN) is used increasingly by the international mining

community to extract gold and other precious metals through milling of high grade ores and

heap leaching of low grade ores. In Canada, more than 60% of the mined gold is extracted

from ores with the cyanidation process. This process consists of leaching gold from the ore as

a gold-cyanide complex, and gold being recovered by precipitation . there are many negative

effects of this method. By milling and heap leaching require cycling of millions of liters of

alkaline water containing high concentrations of potentially toxic NaCN, free cyanide, and

metal cyanide complexes that are frequently accessible to wildlife. Some milling operations

result in tailings ponds of 150 ha and larger. Heap leach operations that spray or drip cyanide

solution onto the flattened top of the ore heap require solution processing ponds of about 1 ha

in surface area. Although not intentional or desired, puddles of various sizes may occur on

the top of heaps where the highest concentrations of NaCN are found Exposed solution

recovery channels are usually constructed at the base, of leach heaps. All of these cyanide-

containing water bodies are hazardous to wildlife if not properly managed. In this account we

emphasize hazards of cyanide from mining operations to fish and wildlife species and

proposed mitigation to protect them.

4.13.4 Value addition ofGold and their benefits

Aside from monetary uses, gold is used in jewelry and allied wares, electrical-

electronic applications, dentistry, the aircraft-aerospace industry, the arts, and medical andchemical fields.

1. Jewelry

The production of ornamental objects was probably the first use of gold over 6000 years ago.

Gold is found in the pure state, is very easy to work and was probably the first metal used by


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humans. Today, most of the gold that is newly mined or recycled is used in the manufacture

of jewelry. About 78% of the gold consumed each year is used in the manufacture of jewelry.

2. Financial Gold

Because gold is highly valued and in very limited supply it has long been used as a medium

of exchange or money. The rarity, usefulness and desirability of gold make it a substance of

long term value. Gold works well for this purpose because it has a high value, is durable,

portable and easily divisible.

3. Electronic Applications

The most important industrial use of gold is in the manufacture of electronics. Solid state

elect

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