Final Report Refined

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The Hydrogen Future:

Fuel Replacement Proposal Report

Jacob R Lambuth

Paradigm Technologies


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Hydrogen Future ii

Jacob R. Lambuth2100 Paradox LaneMorgantown, WV 26505304 298 4332

[email protected]

April 26, 2011

Angus DeLorean15023 Eddie DriveHumble, Texas 77396281 441 2537

Dear Angus DeLorean,

Thank you for requesting advisement from Paradigm Technologies. I amsubmitting this report as requested by your research and development

department to address the issue of finding a new fuel to replace gasoline in yourfuture vehicle designs. Our company has placed a significant amount of researchin numerous alternative fuel sources for a variety of applications. We haveanalyzed various options and have concluded that hydrogen fuel is the idealreplacement for gasoline.

This report covers several key topics for your research team to considerhydrogen fuel as the new fuel to be used in your vehicles. Key topics such as:

- Characteristics of hydrogen- Production of hydrogen- Hydrogen power plants

- Hydrogen storage

With the information provided in this report, your research team can begindesigning new vehicles that are optimized to utilize hydrogen fuel. We are willingto share all current research and technology in hydrogen fuel to ensure yourcompany produces the best vehicle possible for the future.

Very respectfully,

Jacob. R. Lambuth


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Hydrogen Future iv

Abstract

The purpose of this research proposal is to present Hydrogen gas as a viablereplacement for gasoline in modern day and future vehicle use. Hydrogen is areadily available, abundant, and very efficient fuel source with no polluting byproducts from combustion. With gasoline becoming more expensive andpetroleum reserves rapidly depleting, its replacement with hydrogen is upmostessential as a fuel source for modern vehicles. With application of modern daytechnology in combustion and storage, vehicles can be made ready to usehydrogen and end fossil fuel use forever.


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Table of Contents

Section 1- Summary1.1- Summary paragraph..pg. 1

Section 2- Introduction of Hydrogen Fuel for Vehicle Use2.1- Current Situation.pg. 2

Section 3- Elements of Hydrogen as Fuel3.1- Basics of Hydrogen....pg. 33.2- Available Sources of Hydrogenpg. 33.3- Drawbacks of Hydrogen As Fuel.....pg. 33.4- Benefits of Hydrogen As Fuel..pg. 4

Section 4- Hydrogen Vs. Gasoline4.1- Why Gasoline In The First Place?..................................................pg. 64.2- The fault of Gasoline.....pg. 6

4.3- Hydrogen As The Replacement...pg. 6

Section 5- Producing Hydrogen For Modern Needs5.1- Water Electrolysis......pg. 75.2- Prospective Methods.....pg. 9

Section 6- Hydrogen Fueled Power Plants6.1- Internal Combustion Engines.pg. 116-2- Hydrogen Fuel Cellspg. 12

Section 7- Hydrogen Storage and Transportation7.1- Parameters For Storing Hydrogenpg. 157.2- High Compression Storagepg. 157.3- Metal Hydride Storagepg. 16

Section 8- Conclusion8.1- Conclusion Paragraph.pg. 18

Section 9- References9.1- Works Cited......pg. 19


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List of Figures

Section 3Figure 3.1

Flame of combusting hydrogen...pg. 3

Figure 3.2Hydrogen moleculepg. 4

Section 5Figure 5.1Electrolysis Figure.....pg. 7

Figure 5.2Electrolysis machine......pg. 8

Figure 5.3Solar farm Figure...pg. 9

Figure 5.4Meyer fuel cell figure...pg. 10

Figure 5.5Plasma electrolysis reactor....pg. 10

Section 6Figure 6.1BMW Hydrogen 7.pg. 12

Figure 6.2Hydrogen 7 engine..pg. 12

Figure 6.3PEM fuel cell operation...pg. 13

Figure 6.4Alkaline fuel cell operation.....pg.14

Figure 6.5Phosphoric acid cell operation......pg.14


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Section 7Figure 7.1Type IV hydrogen composite tank.pg.16

Figure 7.2Formation of metal hydrides...pg.16

Figure 7.3Metal hydride storage canisters.pg. 17


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Hydrogen Future 1

Section 1- Summary

1.1

The use of fossil fuels is rapidly coming to a catastrophic end. The continuousand expanding use of fossil fuels as our primary source of energy in vehiclepower plants is soon to become both obsolete and impossible once petroleumresources are depleted. Hydrogen proves to be an efficient and pollution freesource of energy to replace gasoline to power modern and future vehicles.Current technology offers 2 usable power plants to operate vehicles of varioussizes, while research is working to improve their use. The issues of transportationalso have been dramatically reduced with new storage methods have beendeveloped to safely store hydrogen gas. These new methods will offer thevehicle industry a useable replacement to the gasoline-powered engine.


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Section 2- Introduction to Hydrogen Fuel for Vehicle Use

2.1 Current situation

The age of the gasoline powered engine is running out of time. The world use offossil fuels is now an exponentially growing issue. As developing nations growand modern nations consume more gasoline on a daily basis, our global stores ofpetroleum only dwindle at an alarming rate. According to the United StatesGeological Survey(2004), the production of world fossil fuels shall peak in 2037,and rapidly reduce afterwards. At this point, the cost of gasoline per gallon willreach a price of record highs; the cost effectiveness of fueling even the mostefficient of vehicles shall no longer be worthy. By 2100, the era of the gasoline-powered engine shall come to an end, as production shall cease for fossil fuels.The vehicle industry cannot afford to wait for this day to end in order to find anew source of energy to drive vehicles. This act would spell the end of the

business that does so. A new energy source is needed that can provided theenergy demand of both small and large size vehicles, emit little to no pollution,and is renewable so that a production end is never obtained. There existsnumerous possible fuel sources that satisfy these parameters, but only one fuelsource complies with them all: hydrogen.

The future of the vehicle industry fuel source is hydrogen by far. No other energysource can offer the flexibility, energy density, and minimal impact toenvironment that hydrogen offers. It emulates the qualities of gasoline in manyways, and supersedes several by far. With current technology, we can usehydrogen with modern day internal combustion engines. Hydrogen can also beused with fuel cells to produce electricity and power electric vehicles with greaterefficiency and less weight than on board battery arrays. The previous argumentof storage of hydrogen once posed a great hindrance to the conversion ofhydrogen from gasoline. This issue is outdated, as newer and safer means ofstoring hydrogen have been brought. New composite storage tanks and metal-hydride matrices now offer a safe and efficient mean to store fuel onboardvehicles.

This new fuel is the future of the vehicle industry and the energy market. Thevehicle industry stands to only profit from this technology, as it is the obviousreplacement to an aging fuel source. To adopt hydrogen as a fuel source earlyshall ensure dominance in the market now and for the future.


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Section 3 Elements of Hydrogen as Fuel

3.1 Basics of Hydrogen

Di-atomic hydrogen (H2) is the most abundant element in the Universe (McMurry& Fay 2008). Approximately 74% of the universe consists of this simplemolecule. A colorless and odorless gas, it also posses a great deal of energy tobe readily used. It is the lightest element in existence, with a density of .08988grams per liter of gas. Its energy density measures at 0.01079 Mega Joule perLiter, which is low in comparison to modern fossil fuels (Simeons 1980). It ishighly compressible which allows for a large quantity to be stored and used as afuel source in vehicles. Solid hydrogen, stored as a hydride, is incredibly dense inenergy. 1 kilogram of solid hydrogen has the equivalent energy of 1 gallon ofgasoline.

Hydrogen is very combustible in the presence of oxygen. The combustion withoxygen is one of the most efficient processes known as it only produces heat andwater and goes to near 100% reaction completion. No other by-product isproduced with little to no flame visible. It has a ignition temperature of 585degrees centigrade, and produces approximate 40,000 BTU per kilogram.Relatively cool compared to fossil fuels (Cox & Williamson Jr. 1979).

Figure 3.1 Combustion of Hydrogen on NASA shuttle engine


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3.2 Available Sources of Hydrogen

Unfortunately, very little hydrogen gas is available as itself in our atmosphere, asmost if consists of oxygen and nitrogen with some trace gases. Hydrogen gas isreadily found in another very abundant source on our world, water. For everymolecule of water, it offers 2 molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen.

As 70% of the planet is water, there is exists a limitless source of Hydrogen gasto be used as fuel. Especially since the combustion of Hydrogen produces waterin return. Other sources of Hydrogen are found in the catalytic break down ofsimple hydrocarbons. Common gases such as methane, produced from organicbreakdown of matter, can be reduced down to hydrogen gas in an efficientmanner.

Figure 3.2 Molecule of water

3.3 Drawbacks of Hydrogen as Fuel

Since hydrogen is not a readily found energy source, it must be refined fromother sources in order to be used as fuel. Modern sources of hydrogen gasconsist of atmospheric extraction, catalytic reduction of hydrocarbons, and simpleelectrolysis of water. Hydrogen also suffers from a low energy density incomparison to gasoline. One liter of gasoline contains 34.4 mega joules ofenergy while hydrogen only posses .01079 mega joules. A difference of almost3200% in comparison(Simeons 1980). This issue of low energy though onlyexists when stored in its least dense condition, gas. Hydrogen is also incredibly

combustible with atmospheric oxygen, which can lead to explosions from vehiclecollisions if stored in a gas or liquid state. This danger is not as severe aspredicted as hydrogen has an incredibly high volatility rate. Hydrogen gasdiffuses into air at a rate of .63 cm2 per centimeter. This rate is 8 times greaterthan gasoline, which is also incredibly flammable.


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3.4 Benefits of Hydrogen as Fuel

Hydrogen boasts numerous advantages over gasoline, which present it as agreat fuel replacement. Hydrogen has a low cost value production wise, as theenergy demand to produce it is low. The availability of Hydrogen rich sources isalso a non-issue as they are great abundance (water, methane). Modern energycompanies can readily re-tool to produce hydrogen in demands that the worlddesires for vehicle usage. An option they will soon face when petroleum sourcesare depleted. Hydrogen does not suffer from this issue, as it is a renewableenergy source. The combustion of 2 molecules of hydrogen with 1 molecule ofoxygen produces one molecule of water and energy. No polluting by-productsarecreated as in fossil fuel production. Since only water is produced, itreplenishes the water used to extract hydrogen,as it is combusted. This cycle is

never broken, providing a never ending fuel source.

Despite its lower energy during combustion in comparison to gasoline, hydrogencombustion is far more efficient and rapid burning. Gasoline has a flame velocityof about 30 cm per second while hydrogen has a velocity of 270 cm per second(Cox & Williamson 1979).This increased velocity allows less energy to be lostthrough heat generation than gasoline and more energy to be used in locomotion(Solway 2008). Gasoline produces approximately 32,000 BTU per liter whilehydrogen emits only 8000 BTU per liter (Cox & Williamson Jr. 1979). Far lessheat is emitted during combustion. The overall combustion process efficiencymakes up for the lack of combustion energy in comparison to gasoline. Lessenergy loss through heat generation results in more energy for locomotion.

Hydrogen is highly compressible, allowing for a vast quantity to be storage in asmall amount of space. Gasoline cannot improve its energy density, as it is aliquid and cannot be compressed.Super compressing hydrogen gas overcomesthe issue of low energy density by allowing one to carry enough hydrogen tomeet the demand of modern vehicle demands. Hydrogen also has the ability tobe stored in metal hydride matrices, if compression of the gas is a major concern.This method leaves hydrogen in the form of a solid and is completely inert toexternal energy.


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Section 5- Producing Hydrogen For Modern Needs

5.1 Water Electrolysis

Water is the most abundant substance on the planet, with air as a close 2nd

.Approximately 70% of the planet surface is water, and endless sea of fuel to beused. Unlike gasoline, which requires vast industrial complexes to break downcrude oil into its separate hydrocarbons, water can be made into hydrogen viaseveral simple processes. The most common and industrial standard iselectrolysis.

Electrolysis is the process of applying an electrical field to water, when asufficient charge is applied; the molecules of water are forced apart and attractedto their perspective charged poles. This process separates hydrogen and oxygeninto their di-atomic states (McMurry & Fay 2008). By itself, this method isincredibly simple, yet can be drastically inefficient. Much of the energy is lost viaheat as water is a poor conductor of electricity. Addition of an electrolyte canincrease efficiency, as well as super low resistance electrodes. The manner inwhich the electric field is applied also greatly affects the efficiency of the reaction.

Figure 5.1 Electrolysis Diagram


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Figure 5.2 Industrial Electrolysis Machine

The major drawback to the reaction is the demand for power. Energy is neededto extract the hydrogen from water for use as energy in vehicles. Electrolysisrequires a large amount of current at a constant voltage to disassociate thehydrogen molecules from water. Current proposals stand to solve this problem bythe creation of solar and wind farms dedicated to producing hydrogen. Solarenergy is another very renewable source that only is truly efficient in a large andimmobile state. Large solar complexes can be geared to produce hydrogen non-stop to ensure fuel demands are met. Wind power can also do the same wherepermissive. Hydrogen has already been proposed as a means to store energy

from solar cell farms as a large quantity of the energy produced goes to waste.That energy can be turned into hydrogen gas for vehicle use with a very low cost(Rifkin 2002).


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Figure 5.3 Solar Energy Farm in Spain

5.2 Prospective Methods

There is exists other methods currently being developed to disassociate water

into hydrogen and oxygen gas. As electrolysis is energy inefficient which willcause a raise in hydrogen gas price. More efficient methods to produce hydrogengas would prevent overall cost of fuel to be excessive.

In the late 1980s, inventor Stanley Meyer developed a new method ofdisassociating water. The hydrogen reactor worked by using water as a dielectricbetween metal rods. By using far higher voltage and lower amperage typicallyused in electrolysis, the amount of energy lost through resistance is reduced.Hydrogen gas is produced as the voltage across the rods reaches the breakdownvoltage of water, causing the molecules to disassociate (Meyer 1979). Thismethod is far more efficient as almost no heat is generated, as the amperage is

very low. Unfortunately, Stanley Meyer died before completing his work. Majorityof his designs are patented but most of the research was lost after his death.Some private institutions are conducting research on the Meyers cell, but littleeffort is placed.


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Figure 5.4 Meyer fuel cell

Another method of hydrogen production from water currently being used is

plasma electrolysis. This method of is relatively new and very early indevelopment. Current studies do show promise that this could be an effectivemeans of producing hydrogen.

Plasma electrolysis operates by submerging two electrodes into an electrolyticsolution of water. An arc is generated between the electrodes, creating plasmabetween them. This plasma rapidly disassociates the water into hydrogen andoxygen gas. The efficiency of this process and effectiveness is still beingdetermined if it is a viable method in producing hydrogen gas.

Figure 5.5 Plasma electrolysis reactor


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Section 6 Hydrogen Fueled Power Plants

6.1 Internal Combustion Engines

The internal combustion engine is nothing new in the world of vehicle powerplants. The standard 4-cycle engine is the industry standard in vehicles. Theinternal combustion engine is very versatile in fuels sources. Numerous fuelssuch as ethanol, liquid petroleum (propane), and even ammonia have been used.Hydrogen is no exception. The modern internal combustion engine can bemodified to operate on hydrogen gas with minor alterations and modifications.

Current vehicles can be retrofitted to operate on hydrogen gas, but this will comeat a significant cost to the consumers. Modification would require the addition ofa high-pressure carburetor similar used by propane powered vehicles. The majorcost would arrive from addition of hydrogen storage tanks, as the gasoline tankwould be rendered useless. Future vehicles can be readily built from modernvehicle factories with minimal retooling. Since 4 cycle engines designed tooperate on hydrogen differ only slightly from gasoline powered ones, vehiclefactories could readily produce new hydrogen fueled vehicles.

The major fault of hydrogen combustion in 4-cycle engines is the production ofhigh temperature water vapor. As hydrogen is combusted, the only by product iswater and heat. This water vapor can become highly corrosive to steel and ironparts, readily rendering the metal into brittle and weak oxides. Though gasolinealso produces water during combustion, the amount in comparison to hydrogencombustion is far less. Future engines would have to be built with larger amountsof aluminum, stainless steel, or ceramic composites in order to resist oxidation

from the water vapor. This fault will cause an increase in engine costs, as thesematerials are not inexpensive.

Numerous vehicle companies have already begun production and design ofhydrogen-powered vehicles. For example, BMW has begun research inhydrogen-fueled engines. Their research has produced the Hydrogen 7, a 4-doorcoup powered by a 12-cylinder engine operating on a combination of gasolineand hydrogen. Though not a completely hydrogen engine, its operationdemonstrates the effectiveness of hydrogen. Its performance is not lacking as itcan produce up to 260-horsepower and accelerate from 0-60 mph in just 9.4seconds. Other companies such as Ford, Honda, and Chrysler has become

experimenting with Hydrogen-gasoline hybrids as well as true hydrogen onlyvehicles.


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Figure 6.1 The BMW Hydrogen 7 Figure 6.2 Hydrogen 7 engine

6.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cells

The hydrogen fuel cell is a radically different and very efficient method ofproducing power by hydrogen oxidation. Unlike internal combustion engines thatrely on combusting fuel in cylinders to turn explosive energy in to motion, fuelcells produce electricity by electro-chemical reaction (DOE 2010). Thebyproducts of the reaction are heat and water, much like the combustion ofhydrogen. The reaction in a fuel cell is not violent at all, producing no noise ormovement.

The mechanism by which a fuel cell operates is fairly simple. Hydrogen (separate

from oxygen) is fed into a chamber that is separated by a proton-conductingmembrane and in contact with the anode. A catalyst, often platinum, aids inseparating the electrons from the hydrogen leaving a positively charged proton.

At the cathode, the free electrons come in contact with the oxygen to formoxygen ions. The protons traverse the membrane separating the two chambersand react with the oxygen ions to form water and heat. When then reactionoccurs, the free electrons acts as the source of electricity (DOE 2010).

The proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell is the industry standard for fuelcells. Newer designs are now being tested for used in vehicles due to theircheaper costs and higher efficiency rates in producing electricity. The PEM fuel

cell suffers greatly due to its massive cost to produce. According to theDepartment of Energy, a standard platinum PEM fuel cell operating at 80kilowatts for vehicle use would cost $61.00 per kilowatt. A rate of $35.00 perkilowatt is the minimum for PEM fuel cells to be sufficiently cost effective forvehicle use.


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Figure 6.3 PEM fuel cell operation

There exists many other fuel cell designs currently being developed or have beendeveloped and are being improved on. 2 designs present possible options overPEM fuel cells to be use in vehicles. The two other systems are the alkaline fuelcell and the phosphoric acid fuel cell, each with their own numerous advantagesand disadvantages over PEM fuel cell systems.

Alkaline fuel cells (AFC) are one of the original fuel cells to be developed. NASAhas been using the same fuel cell to provide electricity on board the shuttle.Favored over other designs due to their very high efficiency. The AFC canproduce up to 60% efficiency while producing electricity during the shuttleoperations (DOE 2010). The fuel cell operates by using a sodium or potassium

hydroxide solution as an electrolyte between the anode and cathode, instead ofproton exchange membrane found in PEM fuel cells. Older AFC designsoperated at high temperatures of up to 482 degrees Fahrenheit. Newer designshave been developed that can operate at lower temperatures of around 74degrees Fahrenheit (DOE 2010). This reduces wear of the cell and extends itslifespan. The AFC doesnt not require precious metal catalysts such as platinumor vanadium, reducing production costs and over operation price.

The AFC is incredibly susceptible to carbon dioxide poisoning. The slightestamount of CO2 can react with the electrolyte rendering it chemically inert inrelation to the cell. This requires the entire cell to be flushed and can be very

expensive. The durability of the cell is still an issue as no cell has beendeveloped that can operate up to a minimum of 40,000 hours before requiringmajor repair.


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Figure 6.4 Alkaline fuel cell operation

The second possible fuel cell to be used in vehicles is the phosphoric acid fuelcell. The phosphoric acid fuel cell is very similar to the alkaline fuel cell in design,but differs in its use in electrolyte and membrane. Instead of using a basicsolution, the cell uses a phosphoric acid solution as an electrolyte and encasedin a Teflon bonded silicon carbide matrix along with carbon electrodes laced withprecious metals like platinum (DOE 2010). The phosphoric acid fuel cell is veryresistant to impurities such as CO2 or sulfur as the catalyst is far more resistantand the electrolyte doesnt react well to common impurities. The major issue liesin that the phosphoric acid cell is not efficient. It averages around 37%, which isbarely higher than combustion based power plants (DOE 2010).

Figure 6.5 Phosphoric acid fuel cell operation


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Section 7 Hydrogen Storage and Transportation

7.1 Parameters for storing hydrogen

The storage of any high energy fuel source always is dangerous, and hydrogenis no exception. One of the greatest issues hindering wide spread hydrogen usein vehicles is safe and efficient storage of hydrogen. As hydrogen exists as agas, the need to increase its density can only be achieved by either extremelyhigh rate of compression, cryogenic liquid storage, or as a solid. Despite theseoptions, only 2 are viable as cryogenic storage of hydrogen gas is virtuallyimpossible to utilize on any commercial level for vehicles.

An ideal storage system of hydrogen should be low in cost, does not requireextensive amounts of space on board the vehicle, can safely contain hydrogenduring major collisions, and able to store enough fuel for at least 300 miles of

travel (DOE 2010). Currently, only two options exist that can provide most ofthese demands.

7.2 High compression storage

Hydrogen gas has the physical property of being high compressible. Its simplemolecular structure of one electron and proton occupies the least amount ofspace out of all the elements. Because of this, hydrogen gas can obtain muchhigher energy densities through extremely high compression. Hydrogencompressed to 700 bar (approx. 10,000 PSI) has an energy density of 143 mega

joules per kilogram, 3 times greater than liquid gasoline (DOE 2010). Storage ofhydrogen at such high pressures originally required extremely heavy gas tanks.

The amount of weight and size of such tanks would drastically increase theoverall mass of any vehicle and drop fuel efficiency to unacceptable levels.

In the past 10 years, the use of spun composite fiber gas tanks have become thefront runner in storage of gas at pressures in excess of 300 bar (approx. 4,000PSI). These tanks are made of high tensile composite strands of carbon fiber orKevlar and spun into the shape of a tank, then bonded with an extremely strongepoxy laminate. The strongest category of the tanks, type IV, are far lighter,stronger, more durable, and cost effective than metal tanks of equivalentcapability.

Since type IV composite tanks are incredibly strong, the can survive a great dealof abuse and damage, much like in a vehicle collision. Sandia National Labsperformed numerous tests on tank strength with impact tests. Testsdemonstrated that type IV tanks required projectiles of significant size andvelocity in comparison to high caliber weapon force to penetrate the tanks andinduce critical failure. Lincoln composites performed numerous field studies onuse of type IV tanks and discovered majority of tanks survived even catastrophiccollisions.


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Figure 7.1- Type IV composite hydrogen tank

7.3 Metal-hydride storage

Another option to store hydrogen is through metal hydride matrices. A radicallydifferent approach to storing hydrogen as it remains in solid form at lowpressures and room temperature. Hydrides form when hydrogen is introduce to ametal (usually alkali metal). The hydrogen acts much like a halogen element andsteals an electron from the metal electron shell and binds to the metal molecule.The reaction is exothermic in this direction and can be reversed when heat is

applied. The reaction allows a large quantity of hydrogen to be stored in a smallamount of space. Once the hydrogen is bonded to the metal, it is essentially inertand is not able to react. This makes storage of hydrogen incredibly safe ashydrogen is released at a safe rate if exposed to excessive heat.

Figure 7.2- Formation of metal hydrides


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Metal hydrides store hydrogen in the form a solid that is the most energy denseform of hydrogen over gas or liquid phases. Energy Conversion Devices Inc.developed a hydride storage unit that can contain 3 kilograms of solid hydrogenin hydride form into a type IV composite tank. Such tank utilizing compressedhydrogen could only contain .78 kg of hydrogen gas compressed to 5,000 PSI.

This is a vast improvement to compressed gas in fuel density as 1 kilogram ofhydrogen is the equivalent of 1 gallon of gasoline (ESD 2010). Metal hydridesystems are smaller in size which are ideal for smaller cars even motorcycles.

Figure 7.3- Metal hydride storage canisters

The major issues in metal hydride usage are the cost and mass of the units.

Since metal hydride storage systems require super pure alkali metals in order toachieve maximum efficiency, the production process is expensive. Storage tankscan become heavy when large quantities of hydrogen are needed. An issue forlarger vehicles that have heavy fuel demands.


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Section 8- Conclusion

As petroleum reserves rapidly deplete, energy demands increase, and pollutionbecomes and every pending factor, the need for a clean and renewable energysource has never become more important. The need to replace gasoline as ourprimary source of fuel for vehicles is an upmost priority. The concept of usingalternative fuels is no longer a topic of controversy but rather of necessity.

The information presented before you demonstrates the capable technology tonot only replace gasoline, but to exceed its performance in the near future. Thebenefits of hydrogen are undeniable. Its complete absence of pollution means wecan eliminate a massive source of carbon emissions from society forever.Hydrogen is the only fuel source that renews itself without requiring heavyindustrial refineries to produce more. It is my recommendation that future cardesigns beginusing hydrogen fuel as its primary energy source and eliminatesthe use of gasoline before it is no longer available. This is not just to secure afuture market in the growing alternative fuel market, but also to ensure survival ofthe company when gasoline becomes obsolete.


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Section 9- References

Section 9.1- Works cited

Berry, Gene D. (1996). Hydrogen as a transportation fuel: costs and benefits.Lawrence livermore national laboratory. Virginia: National technical

information service.

National Research Council and National Academy of Engineering. (2004). Thehydrogen economy: opportunities, costs, barriers, and r&dneeds.Washington DC: National Academies Press.

Rifkin, Jeremy. (2002). The hydrogen economy. NY: tarcher/putnum.

Simeons, Charles. (1980). Hydro-power: the use of water as an alternativesource of energy. New York: Pergamon Press.

McMurry, John, E. & Fay, Robert C. (2008). Chemistry, fifth edition. New Jersey:

Prentice Hall.

United States Department of Energy. (2009, April). Energy efficiency andrenewable energy. Retrieved April 9, 2011, fromhttp://www.eere.energy.gov/

Energy Conversion Devices (2011) Hydrogen storage. Retrieved April 9, 2011,from http://www.energyconversiondevices.com/hydrogen.php

BMW. (2011). BMW hydrogen 7. Retrieved April 11, 2011, fromhttp://www.bmw.com/com/en/insights/technology/cleanenergy/phase_2/cleanenergy.html

Meyer, Stanley A. (1979). Water fuel cell technical brief: explaining the hydrogenfracturing process on how to use water as a new fuel-source. Meyer, Ohio.

Solway, Andrew. (2008). Hydrogen fuel. New York: Gareth Stevens.

Wood, John H. & Long, Gary R. & Morehouse, David R. (2004). Long-term worldoil supply scenarios. United States Energy Information Administration.Retrieved April 3, 2011, fromhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum/feature_articles/2004/worldoilsupply/oilsupply04.html

Cox, Kenneth E. & Williamson Jr., K.D. (1979). Hydrogen: its technology andimplications. Florida: CRC press.

Hsu, Jeremy. (2010). Peak oil production predicted for 2014. Oil and energy onMSNBC. Retrieved fromhttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/35838273/ns/business-oil_and_energy/

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