Final Report Yr3

8/10/2019 Final Report Yr3

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

In collaboration with

Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering

The University of Western Ontario


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project is a collaboration between The University of Western Ontario,

Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering and The National University of

Singapore, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Prof. S. H. Winoto for

providing guidance, supervision, consultations and support for this project.

We would also like to appreciate Prof. Chew C. M. for his time and effort in

answering our queries.

We would like to thank Chris, Daniel and Malini from The University of

Western Ontario for the patience in communicating and assistance in researching.

Finally, the idea generation and the assembly of the various parts into a hydro

system was a crucial aspect of this project and we would like to thank everyone who

we had interacted with at UWO and NUS for contributing in a way or another.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 BACKGROUND 3

1.2 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE 5

2.0 PROJECT DETAILS 7

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1.1 OVERVIEW OF CURRENT ELECTRICITY MARKETS IN

INDIA

7

2.1.2 RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN INDIA 8

2.1.3 A CASE STUDY OF MICRO-HYDROPOWER SYSTEM

WHICH HAS BEEN IMPLEMENTED

8

2.2 POSSIBLE SITE 9

2.3 PENSTOCK 11

2.3.1 MINIMUM DIAMETER OF PENSTOCK 11

2 3 2 CHOICE OF PENSTOCK 12


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3.0 PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 36

3.1 NUS TEAM 363.2 UWO TEAM 37

4.0 DISCUSSION 38

4.1 CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF GENERATING ELECTRICITY 38

4.2 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY 39

4.3 COST OF IMPLEMENTATION 40

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 42

5.1 CONCLUSION 42

5.2 RECOMMENDATION 42

REFERENCES 44


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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1.1 Fossil Fuel Prices between 2000-2009

Fig 2.1 Map of district of Kinnaur

Fig 2.2 Cost ratio of different materials

Fig 2.3 Pressure distribution in penstock

Fig 2.4 Schematic of a Pelton turbine

Fig 2.5 Reaction turbine

Fig 2.6 Water jet impinging on the rotor of a Turgo turbine

Fig 2.7 Schematic of Turgo runner blades and water jet

Fig 2.8 Stator and rotor of a generator

Fig 2.9 Synchronous generator

Fig 2.10 MAGNAPLUS SERIES of synchronous AC generator

Fig 2.11 A battery based system

Fig 2.12 A AC-based system

Fig 2.13 Schematic drawing of system with blown up of intake, penstock and


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Comparison of expenditure of resources used between year 2006 and

2030 in United States

Table 1.2 China renewable energy deployment targets

Table 1.3 Comparison of carious energy sources

Table 1.4 Load analysis

Table 2.1 Installed electricity generation capacity between 1996-2001

(Thousands OF MW)

Table 2.2 Summary tables of micro-hydropower project in Long Lawen

Table 2.3 Characteristics of mild steel, HDPE and uPVC pipes

Table 2.4 Turbine classifications and their optimal operating requirements

Table 2.5 Micro-hydro system recommendations

Table 2.6 Differences between different drive systems

Table 2.7 Advantages and disadvantages of synchronous generator with coiled

field


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APPENDICES

A Detailed drawings of disk of the proposed Turgo turbine

B Detailed drawings of a spoon of the proposed Turgo turbine

C Detailed drawings of MAGNAPLUS SERIES Model 281MCSL1502 AC

generator


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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

As the world shifts the emphasis from conventional energy sources to alternative

renewable resources, there is a greater focus on the usability of renewable energy

sources [1]. The energy acquired from renewable resources lightens the tension on

the limited supply of fossil fuels (conventional energy sources). Due to the scarcity

of fossil fuels, prices of such raw materials have been raising through the years as

shown in the F ig 1 1 below [2].


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contributor to global warming. This is not just an environmental and human

catastrophe, but could inflict massive economic damage as well. The globalproduction of three of the six largest global crops is found to be experiencing

significant losses due to global warming between 1981 and 2002 in a study and the

study concluded that global wheat growers lost $2.6 billion and global corn growers

lost $1.2 billion in 2002 [4]. Fossil power will become much more expensive if risks

related to its use are included [5].

As a result of the raising cost, as shown in the Tab l e 1 1 above, and the

environmental catastrophe, most countries are beginning to look for other cheaper

and greener alternatives, especially possible sources of renewable energy within

their countries.

Renewable energy sources include sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal. These

renewable sources have been widely used in several countries to replace the

conventional sources. For example, in the United States of America, hydroelectricity


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One of the most consistent and available source of energy to harness is hydroelectric

power. It does not depend on the time of the day and is one of the most predictablesources of renewable energy. It is also one of the cheapest methods of generating

electrical power as shown in the Tab l e 1 3 below.

Table 1.3 Comparison of various energy sources [9]


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Bengal the first Hydro Electric Power Station was installed. It was able to generate

power up to a capacity of 130 kiloWatt. By 17th April, 1899, thermal power was alsoutilized to generate power.

After Indias independence in 1947, there were plans to electrify the whole of India,

including the rural area. Legislative Acts, such as The Indian Electric Supply Act in

1948 were put in place to provide guidelines to provide electricity to the whole of

India [12]. Despite the extensive array of sources, others such as air electricity, solar

electricity and cow-dung gas electricity were explored to further provide sufficient

electricity for the nation.

However, even after more than 60 years of independence, up to 90 percent of all

the villages in India are still not on the grid to receive electricity. Only 25 percent of

the houses in the whole of India have been provided with a consistent flow of

electricity [13].


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1.2 Objectives and Scope

The objective of the project is to design an efficient micro-hydropower system that

can meet the power and energy requirements 20 household living in the rural area.

Since this micro-hydro system is providing electricity for off-grid households in rural

areas, it is assumed that each household only has basic electric appliances. Tab le

1 4 below shows the load analyses we will use for calculating the monthly energy

consumption of one rural household.

Table 1.4 Load Analysis [15]

Appliance Power

Rating

(Watts)

Hours

per Day

Hours per

Month

Monthly

(kWh)

Four fluorescent lamps 200 8 240 48

Colour television 100 4 120 12

Refrigeration 300 10 300 90


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It is not practical to come up with a minimum power requirement that can power all

the appliances in table 1.4 at the same time for use by 20 households, as this willrequire a huge system that generate excessive amount of energy. Hence a minimum

power requirement needed to support only key appliances for use by all the 20

household at the same time is set: lamps

= 20020 = 4

The designed micro-system is set to provide power above the minimum requirement

to support more appliances to be used at the same time while taking into

consideration not to over-exceed the energy requirement. Taking the above factors

into consideration, a micro-hydro system that can generate power at the range of 8-

10KW is most suitable for the design.


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CHAPTER 2: PROJECT DETAILS

2.1 Literature Review

2.1.1 Overview of current electricity market in India

India is the sixth largest consumer of electricity in the world, relying on coal as the

primary source. Having the advantage of being the third largest coal producer in the

world, India relies heavily on thermal power plants to produce more than three

quarters of its electricity as shown in Tab l e 2 1 .

Table 2.1 Installed electricity generation capacity, 1996-2001 (thousands of MW) [16]

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Hydroelectric 20.99 21.10 21.89 22.44 24.50 25.14

Nuclear 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.86

G h l/S l 0 55 0 82 0 93 1 02 1 08 1 27


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subsidy given to the agriculture sectors and the electricity supplied to irrigation is not

metered leading to wastage and theft.Therefore, India, like many developing countries, cannot afford to construct new

plants to increase the electricity capacity to meet the growing demand.

2.1.2 Rural electrification in India

Rural electricity supply in India has been lagging in terms of hours of supply. Only

31% of the rural households have access to electricity and they face the same

problems as industries which are mentioned earlier like frequent blackouts and high

fluctuation of voltage and frequency.

There are several reasons why less than 50% of the rural households are supplied

with electricity. Firstly, some of the rural households are located at very isolated

areas where transmission and distribution to these households are not economical.

Furthermore, the tariffs for households and agriculture are generally well below

actual supply costs about 26% [18]. Assuming that these rural households are


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which the team set at the start of the project. A summary table, Tab l e 2 2 is done

and it serves as a reference for our team when designing the system.

Table 2.2 Summary table of micro-hydropower project in Long Lawen village

Parameters Description

Implementation cost of Project $53,428.00

Households to be served 40 in 1999 (planning stage)70 in 2002 (commissioning of

project)

Head 32m

Flow rate 70liters/s to 500 liters/s

Turbine used Crossflow impulse turbine

Generator Synchronous installed in a

single phase arrangement

Output Power 8.2kW


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nce the minimum potential power is much higher than the required power, this siteis viable for the construction of a micro-hydro system.

2.3 Penstock

2.3.1 Minimum Diameter of Penstock

In this section of the report, the minimum diameter of the penstock which is

constructed by pipes will be determined. The calculations of the diameter will be

based on the requirements of the turbine used.

According to Fox, McDonald and Pritchard [22],

(DjD

)4 = D2fL

,

h D di f j D Di f k


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To operate the turbine selected efficiently, a net head of 32m is required. Gross

head required will therefore be 38m as the frictional loss by the penstock shouldonly be 10-15% of the gross head.

With dimensions above, the minimum diameter of the penstock is 66.6mm. As such,

a 100mm penstock will be used.

2.3.2 Choice of penstock

Tab l e 2 3 below shows the comparison between three of the most common

materials used in penstock piping.

Table 2.3 Characteristics of Mild Steel, HDPE and uPVC pipes [23]

Material Friction Weight Corrosion Jointing Pressure

Mild steel


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mild steel will be more expensive as weight is a major determinant in the

transportation cost. Being heavier implies that more trips will have to be made totransport the same length of pipes required, thus higher cost.


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Pressure

This pressure is dependent on the net head of the penstock. As shown in the F ig

2 3 below, the maximum pressure will occur at the nozzle. For most penstock pipes,

there is a build in safety factor of 1.5 - 2.5 [26]. Hence, for most of the materials, it

is safe to assume that they will have the ability to withstand the pressure so long as

they meet the system head requirement.


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2.4 Turbines

Turbines can be broadly classified into two types, denoted as impulse and reaction

shown in Tab l e 2 4 .

Table 2.4 Turbine Classification and their optimal operating requirements [27]

Turbinerunner

High Head

(>1000m)

Medium head

(20 to 100m)

Low Head

(5 to 20m)

Ultra- lowHead

(


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For reaction turbine, it consists of fixed guide vanes called stay vanes, adjustableguide vanes called wicket gates and rotating blades called runner blades as shown in

F ig 2 5 . Water of high pressure will follow the spiral casing (volute) and flow

towards the runner by the stay vanes and passes through the wicket gates at high

tangential velocity. This briefly explains how the energy of the water is transferred

to the shaft.


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to the turbine to produce power during seasons of low flow rate to ensure steady

generation of energy throughout the year.For impulse turbine, adjustments to variations in stream flow can be done easily by

changing the nozzle sizes or by using adjustable nozzles. It is much more difficult to

make adjustments to variable water flow for small reaction turbines due to the high

cost of variable guide vanes and blades.

Mechanical factors

Maintenance of micro-hydropower systems is necessary throughout its life-cycle. It is

important to have a system that has low maintenance cost for the users in the rural

area. Although excessive slit or sand in the water may cause excessively wear and

tear on the runner of most reaction turbines, the maintenance cost of an impulse

turbine is less than that for a reaction turbine as they are free of cavitations

problems [29]. Impulse turbine like Turgo turbine also facilitates easy inspection and

repairs as only the top half of the Turbine needs to be removed. Such processes are


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However as micro-hydro system design aims to be implemented in different rural

areas of developing countries in Asia, there is a need to specify a range of head andflow rate that most terrain and rivers can satisfy to ensure this design can be

implemented in other areas other than the site mentioned in Section 2.2. If the

design targets turbines that can operate efficiently at low head, a large flow rate

would be needed to generate the power we need which may not be feasible for

many rivers. A high head of above 100m is also not easily available in most terrains.Taking the above factors into consideration, turbines that can operate at an optimal

efficiency at a mid-range head of between 20-100m are preferred. These

considerations help narrow down on the choice of turbines based on Tab l e 2 4

2.4.2 Choice of turbine

From the list of impulse turbines in Tab l e 2 4 , Pelton and Turgo turbines are most

commonly used in micro-hydropower system. After a comparison between the two

types of turbines, Turgo turbine is chosen as the most suitable turbine for the micro-


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Table 2.5 Micro-hydro system recommendations

Turgo runner is effectively a Pelton runner split down the middle. Hence, it can


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Operation of Turgo Turbine

Fig 2.6 Water jet impinging on the rotor of a Turgo turbine [32].


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The Turgo runner is a cast wheel whose profile resembles a fan blade that is closed

on the outer edges. The water jet is directed on one side, slides across the bladesand exits on the other side. Hence, the exiting water jet leaving the blades does not

interfere with other blades and thus gives it the ability to handle a greater water

flow.

Specification of Turgo Turbine

For this design, we are using a Turgo turbine working at 32m head 8kW with 24

plastic spoons. This turbine is offered in the market at an affordable price of US$240

and meets the power requirement of the project. It has a stainless hub and 33%

glass fiber reinforced nylon spoons. [34] It has a relatively small dimension that can

easily fit into our system. Detailed drawings of the turbine are shown in Append i x

A and Append i x B .


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The shaft of the generator can be driven by different systems, which is the linkagebetween the turbine and the generator shaft. The differences are illustrated in

Tab l e 2 6 below.

Table 2.6 Differences between drive systems.

Drive system Pros ConsDirect Drive Low maintenance, high

efficiency, low cost.

Speed of generator shaft

must be compatible to

turbine speed

Wedge Belts Shafts need not be axially

aligned, long service life.

Will slip and creep.

Should not be used with

synchronous speed.

Timing Belts Clean-running and high

efficiency of up to 98%

Costly and require high

accurate alignment of the

pulley [35].

Gearbox Suitable for larger High maintenance cost.


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Fig 2.9 Synchronous generator

Synchronous generator can be further classified into two different types, namely the

permanent magnet synchronous and synchronous with coiled field. Both these

system types have their advantages and disadvantages. Tab l e 2 7 and Tab l e 2 8

below will indicate their respective strengths and weaknesses; this will aid the users


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Table 2.8 Advantages and disadvantages of synchronous generator with permanent magnet

Synchronous with permanent magnet

Advantages Disadvantages

Simple and robust

Reliable

No slipping rings

Low cost and maintenance

Small and lightweight

High power coefficient

Narrow speed range

Replacing large magnets are

costly

Low cost and frequency of maintenance are the primary concerns in deciding the

choice of the generator type. Synchronous generator, as shown above in the table,

has low cost and free from maintenance because it avoided the use of slip rings.

In terms of design, the permanent magnetic generator is lighter in weight and

smaller in size in relative to its coiled counterpart. This will allow users to install and

transport our hydro system easily in rural India, which could present accessibility


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Table 2.9 Advantages and disadvantages of a squirrel caged induction generator

Squirrel caged induction generator


Simple in design and reliable

No slip rings and brushes

Low cost and maintenance

Flat torque

rugged

Low efficiency

Low power coefficient

Narrow speed range

Table 2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of an induction generator with coiled rotor [37]

Induction generator with coiled rotor


Wide range of speed

No slipping rings and brushes

Rugged

complex structure

low power coefficient

unstable torque generator, also

known as wavy torque

high cost


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for smaller capacities. Our system will be required to generate 140KWH of

electricity per day for a total of 20 households, thus it can no longer be

considered a small capacity. A synchronous generator is more suitable in this

case.

2. Excitation: Electrical excitation of synchronous generators requires coils for

exciting field while asynchronous generators do not need any coils forexcitation. This is because the necessary power for excitation of the armature

coils is drawn from the power network or capacitor bank. The synchronous

generators with permanent magnet are also free from exciting coils, which

clearly is a huge advantage.

3. Independent Operation: Synchronous generators can be utilized

independently while the operations of asynchronous ones need to be fed with

an exciting current from the power network or a capacitor bank.


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voltage before connection to the network and this necessitates consideration

of any drop in the network.

7. Power Coefficient: The power coefficient of a synchronous generator

is higher compared to an asynchronous generator. The standard power factor

of the synchronous generator is 90% of the front phase, and for

asynchronous generator, the power factor is determined within 5% to 90% of

the rear phase [39].

8. Cost: Synchronous generators with permanent magnets are cheaper than an

asynchronous generator if the power generated is expected to be less than750 KW. The price of a 600 KW induction generator is USD$ 263,000

compared to USD$ 223,000 for a permanent magnet synchronous generator

with similar power rating.


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Fig 2.10 MAGNAPLUS series of synchronous AC generator

Table 2.11 Specifications of Model 281MCSL1502

Voltage 240V

Phase 3


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no energy loss through turbine

Assumptions

no energy loss through generator

assume constant river flow for the system to operate 24 hours

= 7 20 = 140 24 = 3360 ,

= 8 360024 = 691200 ,


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2.6 DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY TO VILLAGE

The considerations that we had in the type of micro-hydropower system we chose

depended on the capacity, the anticipated power demand and the profile of your site.

Another deciding factor is that our generator is an off grid, remote stand-alone

system.

The reason why we chose off-grid system instead of on-grid system is because we

want our hydro generator to be able to be implemented in any areas with

rivers/streams of constant water flow throughout the year. Also, most of the rural

remote areas in India are not supplied by grid electricity.

There are two types of off-grid micro-hydropower systems, namely battery-based

and AC-direct.

2.6.1 Battery-based


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combined with other energy sources, such as wind generators and solar-electric

arrays, if the stream is seasonal. Also, a battery bank provides a way to store

surplus energy when more is being produced than consumed [40].

Disadvantages

The modeling of battery is a complex task as its parameters varies with the mode ofoperation (charging and discharging mode). The control system is also complex and

requires deep electrical engineering knowledge. There is also a need for more

maintenance on the battery component, such as replacing the batteries after

prolonged charging and discharging.


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generator that produces AC output at 120 or 240 volts, which can be sent directly to

standard household loads. The system is controlled by diverting energy in excess of

load requirements to dump loads, such as water- or air-heating elements. This

technique keeps the total load on the generator constant. AC-direct system can be

illustrated in F ig 2 12 below.


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2.6.3 Choice of micro-hydropower system

Our choice of system will be AC-direct. Our stream is of enough potential and not

seasonal in nature, hence we do not need to worry about non-consistent power

supply and storing the additional power for future use. Therefore, we do not need to

waste extra funding and time to design a battery-based system, when AC-direct is

more than suitable. Lastly, ac-direct system requires much less maintenancecompared to battery based system, where the batteries need to be replaced after

prolonged charging and discharging.


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2.7 OVERALL SYSTEM

F ig 2 13 shows how the system will look like after construction. The different components of the system will be explained in

Tab le 2 12 .

Fig 2.13 Schematic drawing of system with blown up of the intake, penstock and powerhouse

Blown up of intake

Blown up ofpenstock

Blown up of powerhouse which

housed the turbineand generator

1

2 &3

4


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35

Table 2.12 Description of Components

s/n Component Description

1 Intake Metal sheets will be used to guide water into the intake. To prevent debris and sediments to

enter the penstock, a wire mesh and a filter will be used. Wire mesh will be placed at the outer

layer of the intake to trap debris and the filter will be placed before the penstock entrance to

trap fine sediment.

2 Turbine Turbine is used to convert mechanical energy of water to electrical energy which will be

distributed to the village. Water from the penstock will flow through a nozzle and hit the spoons

of the Turgo turbine causing the disk to rotate activating the generator.

3 Generator The mechanical energy harnessed from the turbine system will drive the generator shaft, which

causes the rotor of the generator to cut through the varying magnetic field line created by the

permanent magnet. This change in the magnetic field will induce a current, which is an ACcurrent in our system.

4 Off-Grid AC-Direct system A micro-hydropower off-grid AC-direct system does not have battery storage, so the system is

designed to supply the load directly. This consists of a turbine generator that produces AC

output at 120 60Hz, which can be sent directly to standard household loads.


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36

CHAPTER 3: PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

Progress of our project and UWOs proposal are noted down in Gantt charts shown in Tab le 3 1 and Tab le 3 2 respectively.

3.1 NUS TEAM

NUS/UWO Capstone Proposed Project Schedule

NUS REPORT TARGETS Proposed by the UWO team 10/03/2011

Table 3.1 Gantt chart of NUS Team

List of Activties Planned Actual % Status

Start Dur Start Dur Done 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

NUS Report Due 1 7 1 7 100% Research on location 1 1 1 2 100% Research on Turbine 1 1 2 3 100% Research on Generator 1 3 2 4 100% Costing Issue 3 1 3 4 100% Parameter Calculation of turbine 3 2 3 4 100%

Research on financial feasibilty 3 1 3 4 100%

Week 1 was the week of Monday, September 19th, 2011


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37

3.2 UWO TEAM

NUS/UWO Capstone Proposed Project Schedule

UWO PROPOSAL TARGETS Proposed by the UWO team 10/03/2011

Table 3.2 Gantt chart of UWO Team

List of ActivtiesPlanned Actual % Status

Start Dur Start Dur Done 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

UWO Proposal Due 1 3 1 3 100%

Problem Definition 1 3 1 2 100%

Background and Research 1 3 1 3 100%

Milestone Identification 2 2 2 2 100%

Assign Group Roles 1 1 1 1 100%

Define Resources and Budget 1 3 1 3 100%

Week 1 was the week of Monday, September 19th, 2011


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CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION

4.1 Conventional methods of generating electricity

Table 4.1 Capital Costs per MW of Power Plants in India [41]

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

roxCapitalCostsperMW

inMillionUSD

Capital Costs per MW of Power Plants in India

(Million USD)


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methods of acquiring electricity by using coal. It is not environmentally friendly as

the process of burning coal and fuel produces a lot of carbon dioxide and other

harmful gases that are attributing to the current climate change.

As such, providing electricity through conventional methods is not considered in this

proposed project.

4.2 Alternative sources of energy

From Tab l e 4 1 , it is clearly seen that the capital cost of producing electricity by

water through dam-based hydro plants and small hydro plants making use of rivers

is lower than that of nuclear, solar and wind powered plants.

Next, the variability of constructing a dam-based hydro plant and a micro-hydro

plant in a rural area of India with 20 households is examined.

Firstly, the size of the hydro system is a major factor in determining the cost per unit

of the electricity produced. In most mega-hydro systems, the infrastructure of the


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near the dams. They will need to find other lands to farm when their farmland are

eroded and their diets might also changed due to the reduction in the fishes in their

area.

4.3 Cost of implementation

Table 4.2 Cost of equipment in proposed system

Components Cost

Penstock $1500

Turbine plus coupling shaft $540

Generator $3100

Controller* $400

Transmission line* $500

Powerhouse* $200

Miscellaneous* $1200

Installation* $2000

Total cost $9440


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as commercial users. As such, in actual fact, the cost of electricity generated will

exceed the initial cost even more, thus showing the efficiency of our system.


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CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

After an intensive literature research, a simple micro-hydro power system has been

proposed to be implemented in the rural areas of different countries around the

world. Although the planning was only done on a location in Khad which is in theDistrict of Kinnaur, we are confident that such a system can be implemented in other

rural areas of similar terrain, head and flow rate of the river.

However, due to existing restrictions, we are not able to conduct on site testing to

determine the actual flow rate and more accurate electricity consumption of the

village. If given the opportunities and time, a more accurate and comprehensive

study of the location and system can be done. These details will be further

elaborated in the next section.


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2. Motor to be used as a generator: The possibility of using motor to

generate electricity is not nil as motor and generator work based on the same

theory of Faradays Laws. This can be done if the connections required are

done correctly. However, given the mechanical background of the team, this

task of designing a circuit board which allows motor to act as a generator can

only be done with consultation with an experienced electrical engineer. As

such, if given time, such method can be explored first before a decision onthe type of generator used is made.


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REFERENCES

1. http://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/renewable_resource.asp#axzz1cZ7Fo8

xC

2. http://energy.gov/science-innovation/energy-sources/fossil

3. http://cdn.publicinterestnetwork.org/assets/5AEyj6aT4Fssg0TwPGnr4w/The-

High-Cost-of-Fossil-Fuels.pdf

4. http://cdn.publicinterestnetwork.org/assets/5AEyj6aT4Fssg0TwPGnr4w/The-

High-Cost-of-Fossil-Fuels.pdf

5. http://www.awerbuch.com/shimonpages/shimondocs/VGlobal_0305.pdf

6. http://www.umich.edu/~envst320/fossil.html
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13. http://www.electmen.org/elc_hisind.htm

14. http://www.cercind.gov.in/08022007/Act-with-amendment.pdf

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guide. Retrieved from http://canmetenergy-canmetenergie.nrcan-

rncan.gc.ca/fichier/79276/buyersguidehydroeng.pdf

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investment context. Retrieved from http://iis-

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23. CANMET Energy Technology Centre. (2004). Micro hydro systems : buyers

guide. Retrieved from http://canmetenergy-canmetenergie.nrcan-

rncan.gc.ca/fichier/79276/buyersguidehydroeng.pdf

24. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/piping-materials-cost-ratios-d_864.html

25. http://www.ppfahome.org/pvc/faqpvc.html

26. http://www.eee.nottingham.ac.uk/picohydro/docs/impman(ch11-12).pdf

27. Hydropower Basics :

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34. Suppliers contacted: Hartvigsen Hydro :Components for microhydro systems;

RockyHydro; EcoInnovation Ltd

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37. Ameli, M.T., Moslehpour, S., Mirzaie, A. (2008) Feasibility Study for Replacing

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44. Thandaveswara, B.S. (n.d). Hydraulics. Retrieved

from http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/IIT-MADRAS/Hydraulics/pdfs/Unit4/4_1g.pdf
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1

APPENDIX A

Fig A.1 Detailed drawings of disk of the proposed Turgo turbine


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APPENDIX B


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3

APPENDIX C

Fig C.1 Detailed drawings of MAGNAPLUS SERIES Model 281MCSL1502 AC generator

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